Geometric Design of RHD Roads 24
Horizontal Alignment
5.1 General
The horizontal alignment of single carriageway roads will normally consist of a series of
straights (tangents) or very large radius curves, linked by smaller radius curves. Continuous
curving alignments with few or no straight sections are not recommended, because unless the
curve radii are very large they will not provide sufficient sight distance to allow drivers to
clearly see whether it is safe to overtake. Instead, relatively short curves, at or near the
minimum radius for the design speed should be used in conjunction with straights or very
large radius curves. Maximising safe overtaking conditions is one of the key objectives of
alignment design. This is especially important in Bangladesh where there is a large
proportion of slow-moving vehicles.
Excessive lengths of straight should be avoided as these could encourage dangerously high
speeds. Very large radius curves (>5000m radius) are safer than long straight sections. A
succession of curves and straights makes for a more interesting driving task, and helps the
driver stay in control. Drivers are better able to assess the distances and speeds of other
vehicles, they are more likely to remain alert, and there is less headlight glare at night.
Continuous curving alignments are more acceptable on dual carriageway roads because there
is no need to provide overtaking sight distance.
5.2 Determining the Curve Parameters
The key design parameter for circular curves is the radius, and the main factors that help
determine the appropriate value are the design speed and the required sight distance. A step
by step guide to determining curve radius and related design parameters is given below:
1. Decide what sight distance to use
The Intermediate Sight Distance (ISD) provides a good starting point for curve design. It
avoids the need for superelevation and makes future upgrades much easier. Single lane roads
and dual carriageway roads must always be designed to provide Intermediate Sight Distance.
2. Use Table 5.1 to determine the minimum curve radius
Knowing the road type and the design speed, and having selected a sight distance, read off the
appropriate value for curve radius.
3. Check for feasibility – amend if necessary
If site constraints prevent a curve of this radius being provided, check whether a curve to
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) requirements will be feasible. Do not use curves whose radius
is between the ISD and SSD standards as these could tempt drivers to overtake when there is
not enough visibility – curves must be clearly non-overtaking (SSD standards) or clearly
overtaking (at least ISD standards and preferably Overtaking Sight Distance standards).
4. Use Table 5.2 to determine the minimum superelevation requirements
Knowing the design speed and the curve radius the appropriate value of superelevation is read
off from Table 5.2. In some cases no superelevation will be required. Refer to Section 5.3.
Geometric Design of RHD Roads 25
5. Use Table 5.3 to determine minimum transition lengths
Knowing the design speed and the superelevation the appropriate transition length is read off
from Table 5.3. Refer to Section 5.4. If transition curves are not being used Table 5.3 can be
used to find the superelevation development length (Lp + Lc).
6. Use Table 5.4 to determine whether there are any curve widening requirements
Knowing the road type and the curve radius the appropriate curve widening (if any) is read off
from Table 5.4. Refer to Section 5.5.
Table 5.1 Minimum Curve Radii (metres)
Design Single Lane Two Lane Single Dual Carriageway
Speed Roads (3.7m Carriageway Roads Roads
(km/h) carriageway) (6.2 and 7.3m carriageway) (2 x 7.3)
ISD SSD ISD OSD ISD
30 120 35 120 500 -
40 250 65 250 1000 -
50 500 120 500 2000 500
65 1000 250 1000 4000 1000
80 - 500 2000 8000 2000
100 - 1000 4000 - 4000
Notes:
It is generally assumed that visibility will only be available within the limits of the cross-section (i.e. the top of the embankment).
Source: adapted from Table 7.54, RMSS, Vol. V11A
Table 5.2 Minimum Superelevation Requirements (%)
Design Sight Distance (m)
Speed 25 30 45 60 90 120 180 250 360
(km/h) Curve Radii (m)
20 35 65 120 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Minimum Superelevation Requirements (%)
30 7 5 3 Nil Nil - - - -
40 - 7 5 3 Nil Nil - - -
50 - - 7 5 3 Nil Nil - -
65 - - - 7 5 3 Nil Nil -
80 - - - - 7 5 3 Nil Nil
100 - - - - - 7 3 3 Nil
Source: adapted from Table 7.55, RMSS, Vol. V11A
Table 5.3 Minimum Design Transition Length (m)
Design Superelevation e Straight Notes:
Speed 7% 5% 3% Transition 1. Values in brackets refer to dual
(km/h) Length (m) Lc carriageway roads
Plan Transition Length (m) Lp 2. Figure 5.1 illustrates the two types of
30 25 15 10 10 transition Lp and Lc
40 35 20 13 13 3. To allow scope for future road
upgrades and higher design speeds
50 45 [55] 25 [35] 15 [20] 15 [20] it is desirable to select Lp values for
65 55 [65] 35 [45] 20 [25] 20 [25] one design speed and one ‘e’ value
80 65 [75] 45 [55] 25 [35] 25 [35] larger than the values given by input.
100 75 [95] 55 [65] 35 [45] 35 [45] Source: adapted from Table 7.58 and
7.59, RMSS, Vol. V11A
Geometric Design of RHD Roads 26
Table 5.4 Extra Carriageway Width On Curves (m)
Radius (m) Single Lane Two Lane Roads Notes:
1. For transitioned curves half the
Roads widening is applied on each side
3.7m wide 6.2m wide 7.3m wide of the centreline, and it is
15 1.8 2.4 2.1 developed uniformly over the
length of the transition curve.
16 to 20 1.5 2.1 1.8 2. For curves without transitions the
21 to 35 1.2 1.8 1.5 widening is applied on the inside
36 to 65 0.9 1.5 1.2 of the curve, and it is developed
uniformly over a 20m length
66 to 120 0.6 1.2 0.9 leading up to the start of the
121 to 200 Nil 0.9 0.6 circular curve.
201 to 350 Nil 0.6 Nil
Source: adapted from Table 7.56,
351 to 600 Nil 0.6 Nil Vol. V11A, RMSS
601 to 1000 Nil Nil Nil
Worked Example
- Assumptions: Design Class C; 6.2m carriageway; 65km/h design speed
- Table 5.1 indicates that the minimum curve radii needed to provide Intermediate Sight
Distance is 1000m. On the section that is being designed it is not possible to fit in a
curve of more than 850m radius because of site constraints (buildings, deep borrow
pits, etc.). So the Stopping Sight Distance curve is used instead. Table 5.1 indicates that
this is 250m radius.
- Table 5.2 indicates that a 250m radius curve on a 65km/h road will need 5%
superelevation.
- Table 5.3 indicates that a 5% superelevated curve on a 65km/h road will need a plan
transition curve 35m long, but to allow for upgrades the next highest value (for both
speed and superelevation) is taken – which is 65m. The superelevation will start to be
developed 25m before the transition curve starts.
- Table 5.4 indicates that a 250m radius curve on a 6.2m wide road will need to be
widened by 0.6m (0.3m each side).
5.3 Superelevation
The normal crossfall on a road will result in vehicles on the outside lane of a horizontal curve
needing to develop higher than normal levels of frictional force to resist sliding. In many
cases it will be necessary to remove this adverse crossfall, for safety and comfort reasons. For
small radius curves and at higher speeds the removal of adverse crossfall will not be enough
to reduce the frictional needs to an acceptable level and a steeper crossfall (superelevation)
must be provided.
Table 5.2 gives the minimum superelevation requirements for the various design speeds and
curve radii. Values of 3% indicate that only removal of adverse crossfall is required.
Maximum permitted superelevation is 7% but it is desirable to avoid using curves that need
Geometric Design of RHD Roads 27
this amount of superelevation unless site constraints make it really necessary. Use of lower
superelevation levels allows the alignment to be upgraded to a higher design speed in the
future by increasing the superelevation.
Figure 5.1 illustrates the standard way of developing superelevation on curves which have
plan transitions (see Section 5.4). Adverse crossfall is removed over a tangent section (Lc
“Straight Section”) and the full superelevation is developed over the length of the transition
curve (Lp “Plan Transition”). The transition lengths to be used are given in Table 5.3 – see
also section 5.4.
The axis of rotation (the point about which the crossfall is rotated to develop superelevation)
shall be the inner curve carriageway edge – see Figure 5.1. This has been chosen to make
sure that the whole carriageway always has the necessary freeboard above High Flood Level.
It also avoids the drainage problems that sometimes occur at the low point on the inner edge.
Where transition curves are not used the superelevation should be developed uniformly so that
two-thirds is applied prior to the start of the circular curve. The length over which the
superelevation is developed shall be Lc + Lp (Table 5.3).
The treatment of shoulders on superelevated curves needs care. Shoulders having the same
surface quality as the carriageway may be in the same plane, but normally the outer shoulder
will slope outwards. In order to avoid too sharp a change in slope from carriageway to outer
shoulder the shoulder crossfall should be as follows:
2% with carriageway superelevation of 5 - 7%
4% with carriageway superelevation of 3%
The join between carriageway and outer shoulder must be smoothed off so that it is not
hazardous to vehicles such as motorcycles.
The crossfall on the inner shoulder will either be 5% or the same as the carriageway
superelevation, whichever is the greater .
5.4 Transition Curves
A transition curve (also called a plan transition curve) is one which has a constantly changing
radius, as in a spiral. It is common practice to insert transition curves between tangents and
circular curves to make it easier for drivers to steer smoothly into the curve. The transition is
a convenient section over which superelevation and pavement widening can be applied. And
by smoothing out the edge of the carriageway the transition can make the road look better.
Although some national road authorities are unconvinced about the benefits of transitions, and
do not use them, there is evidence of safety benefits, especially for high-sided articulated
trucks. The general advice is to continue with the practice of using transitions on the higher-
speed roads. Very large radius curves do not need plan transitions.
The usual geometric form adopted for transitions is the clothoid, where curvature changes at a
uniform rate along the curve. The length of the transition curve is dependent on the
superelevation requirements. The transition curve is used to develop the superelevation from
where the outer lane is level to full superelevation at the start of the circular curve – see
Figure 5.1. Table 5.3 gives the minimum lengths to be used. It is desirable to use a transition
curve length that is one design speed and one superelevation value higher than indicated by
the input values in order to allow for future road upgrades.
Geometric Design of RHD Roads 28
Figure 5.1 Development of Superelevation on Transitioned Curves
A. Perspective
[Link] = Start of
superelevation development
TS = Tangent to spiral point
SC = Spiral to curve point
B. Elevation
way
carriage
u ter e dge of
O
Centreline
Inner edge of carriageway
Datum
[Link] TS SC
Varies e%
0%
3% 3% 5% 3% e%
Cross-Section Datum
5% 5% e%
5%
C. Plan
Plan T
ransit
ion
TS
Nom
inal
Cen
trelin
SC
True e
Cen
tr eline
Sh
ift
Geometric Design of RHD Roads 29
The amount by which either end of the circular curve is shifted inwards from the tangent is
called the shift – see part C of Figure 5.1 For the clothoid the value of the shift can be taken
as L2/24R where L is the length of the transition curve, and R is the radius of the circular arc.
Where the shift is less than 250mm it serves no purpose and the transition curve can be
omitted.
Long transition curves can sometimes hide the true sharpness of the curve ahead, and this is
dangerous. Shorten the transition length and, if possible, improve the view of the curve. Do
not make transitions longer than necessary for superelevation development, and always ensure
that the nature of the circular curve is fully evident to the approaching driver.
5.5 Curve Widening
It is necessary to widen the carriageway on small radius curves in order to enable vehicles to
pass each other safely. The lateral positioning of vehicles varies more on a curve than on a
straight. Moreover long vehicles occupy a greater width of pavement on a curve. The
amount of widening needed is dependent on the curve radius, the width of the carriageway,
and the type of the vehicle. Table 5.4 sets out the extra carriageway widths that are required.
These are appropriate for rigid two-axle vehicles similar to the buses and trucks widely used
in Bangladesh. Where there is a transition curve the widening should be introduced gradually
along the transition; half the widening is applied on each side of the centreline. On plain
circular curves with no transitions the widening is added to the inside of the curve, in which
case the same effect as a transition is achieved. The widening should be introduced gradually
over a 20m length leading up to the start of the circular curve.
Where Type 5 and 6 roads have stretches with a lot of curvature that requires local widening it
may be better to increase the carriageway width over the whole section. This will make the
road easier to drive, and could have benefits for construction and maintenance.
5.6 Other Considerations
Other points to consider when designing horizontal alignments include:
• When the road is to change direction by only a very small amount it is desirable to use a
large radius curve rather than omit the curve entirely;
• A straight section should be inserted between two curves that go in opposite directions
(reverse curves) – this will help drivers to adjust to the changed direction and make it
easier to alter the superelevation;
• Compound curves (two or more curves of differing radii going in the same direction)
should be avoided unless the curves are of large radius – it is best to separate the
successive curves by a straight section, for the same reasons as above
• Sharp bends at the end of long straights are highly dangerous and must be avoided –
always check the consistency of adjacent design elements (see Section 3.6) – where there
is no option but to include a very sub-standard curve bring the approach speeds down
gradually by introducing curves of decreasing radii until the critical point is reached;
• Always check that the design produces a pavement which has no flat spots where water
will collect.