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Electromagnetic Testing

American Society for

Nondestructive Testing
Lessons 8 through 18
Compiled for ASNT by:

Hussein M. Sadek
Technologies Consulting
International, Inc.
 Lesson 6

Coil Impedance
 Test Object

There are three properties of material that affect

the eddy current induced in the test object.
1. Conductivity.
2. Permeability.
3. Dimensions.
 Conductivity
1. Conductivity of a material is defined as the
ability of the material to carry electrical
current.
2. The symbol of conductivity is and the unit is
expressed in %IACS.
 Conductivity, cont.

3. In IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard),

the conductivity of unalloyed (pure) annealed
copper of (100%) was selected as the standard,
and the conductivities of all other materials are
expressed as a percentage of this standard.
4. The following table lists the IACS of several
materials.
Conductivity, cont.
 Conductivity, cont.

5. Resistivity is defined as the ability of material to

resist the flow of current.
6. The symbol for resistivity is  (rho) and the unit
is expressed in micro-ohm centimeters (µΩcm).
7. As resistivity increases, conductivity decreases,
and vice versa.
 Conductivity, cont.

8. The following table lists the electrical

conductivity and resistivity of common metal and
alloys.
9. To convert to either conductivity or resistivity,
the following equation can be used.
Conductivity, cont.
 Alloy Composition

1. Alloys are combinations of other metals and/or

chemical elements with a base metal.
2. Each metal or chemical element has an individual
affect on the conductivity of the base metal.
Thus it is possible to identify basic metals and
their alloys by measuring their conductivity.
 Lesson 6 Review 1

The properties of material that affect the eddy

current induced in the test object are:

Conductivity
? Permeability

Dimensions

All the Above

 Hardness

1. When a metal or alloy is subjected to heat

treatment, the metal will become harder or
softer depending on the material.
2. This change in hardness is brought about by the
internal change in the material that affects the
conductivity and/or permeability of the material.
An improper heat treatment can be detected in
this manner.
 Temperature
and Residual Stress
1. The ambient temperature and internal residual
stresses of a test material also have an affect on
the conductivity of the material.
2. An increase of temperature of the material
normally results in a decrease in the conductivity
of the material.
3. Residual stresses cause unpredictable, but
detectable, change in conductivity.
 Conductive Coatings

1. The presence of a conductive coating on a

conductive material changes the inherent
conductivity of the base metal just as alloy would.
2. If the thickness of the cladding varies, the
conductivity will vary. This change in thickness
can be detected using eddy current testing.
 Edge Effect

1. The coil’s field precedes the coil by some distance

determined by the coil diameter, test frequency
and test object properties.
2. As the coil approaches the edge of a test object,
eddy currents become distorted by the edge
signal. This is known as edge effect.
 Skin Effect

1. Skin effect is the concentration of eddy currents

in the test object nearest the test coil and it is a
result of mutual interactions of eddy currents,
test frequency and material properties such as
conductivity and permeability.
2. Electromagnetic tests are most sensitive to test
objects’ variables nearest the test coil due to skin
effect.
 End Effect

1. End effect is the signal observed when the end of

a product approaches the rest coil.
2. Response to end effect can be reduced by coil
shielding or reducing coil length.
3. This term is most applicable to the inspection of
bar or tubular products.
 Permeability

1. Permeability is defined as the ease with which

material can be magnetized.
2. Soft iron and iron with low carbon content are
very easy to magnetize and are highly permeable.
3. Hardened ferromagnetic steel with high carbon
content is hard to magnetize and has low
permeability.
 Residual Magnetism

1. Although hard, ferromagnetic steel has low

permeability and difficult to magnetize.
2. It will hold some magnetism after the
magnetizing current is shut off. That is how a
permanent magnet is made.
3. The magnetism retained in a magnet is called
residual magnetism.
 Dimensional Factors

Dimensional factors of the material fall under two

types:
1. The dimension, shape, and thickness of the
test object.
2. The presence of discontinuities in the test
object.
 Lesson 6 Review 2

Distorted eddy currents near the edge

of a test object are known as:

End Effect ? No
Edge Effect ? Yes
Skin Effect ? No
 Test Object Shape
and Thickness
1. Eddy currents do not penetrate throughout thick
material but tend to be concentrated near the
surface. Thus there is a limit to the depth of
penetration.
2. The depth of penetration is defined as the
distance from the surface of the test object to
the point where the current density is about 37%
of the current density at the surface.
 Test Object Shape and Thickness, cont.

3. The depth of penetration of eddy currents in a

nonmagnetic test object depends on the
conductivity of the nonmagnetic material and the
(AC) frequency used to energize the test coil.
4. The higher the conductivity, the less the
penetration.
 Test Object Shape and Thickness, cont.

5. The lower the frequency, the higher the

penetration.
6. When the material is thin enough, as shown in the
following image, so that all the coil’s magnetic
field is not used in creating eddy currents, the
strength of the eddy currents is reduced.
Test Object Shape and Thickness, cont.
 Discontinuities
1. A discontinuity is defined as any interruption in
the normal physical structure or configuration of
an object.
2. The flow of eddy currents within the material is
affected by the presence of discontinuities, such
as cracks, pits, voids, and corrosion.
3. Discontinuities in a test object disturb the normal
eddy current flow and this results in a change in
the coil impedance.
 Discontinuities, cont.

4. Discontinuities open to the surface are more

easily detected than subsurface discontinuities.
5. The depth, width, and length of a discontinuity
determine the change in the eddy current flow,
as illustrated in the following image.
Discontinuities, cont.
 Lesson 6 Review 3

Which factors affect conductivity?

Hardness
? Residual Stress

Alloy Composition

All the Above

 Lesson 7

Eddy Current Test Systems

and Analysis
 Impedance Testing Systems
1. Impedance testing systems are the simplest
to operate.
2. Most of the portable conductivity testers
and discontinuity detectors detect changes
in impedance rather than phase shifts.
 Impedance Testing Systems, cont.

3. The most difficult task is the ability to recognize

whether a change in impedance is due to a
change of lift-off or due to a change in
conductivity.
4. The presence of discontinuities in material will
also cause changes in the impedance.
 Phase Analysis Systems

1. Phase analysis systems are capable of detecting

shift in phase angles resulted form change of coil
impedance. It is possible using these systems to
observe the phase shifts rather than the
impedance change to determine the conditions
that exist in the material.
 Phase Analysis Systems, cont.

2. The impedance of a coil may be represented by a

vector, whose length represents the impedance
value and whose direction represents a phase
angle (the angle by which the current lags behind
the voltage).
3. These vectors may be measured and plotted on a
chart known as the impedance-plane diagram.
The impedance-plane diagram may be plotted
using the impedance value and the phase angle or
the resistive component and the reactive
component.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram
1. The following figure illustrates a typical
impedance-plane representation of several
impedances obtained by eddy current testing
from several different types of nonmagnetic
metals with the same test set and the same
frequency with different conductivity.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

2. The following figure illustrates a curve drawn

connecting the impedance value of each vector.
This curve is the locus of all the impedances that
will result from changes in conductivity.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

3. An increase in conductivity will cause the

impedance to move to the right and down along
the curve, while decrease in conductivity will
cause the impedance to move up and to the left.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
4. The next image illustrates the locus of all
impedances that will result as the coil is lifted off
the 100% IACS material. (All other factors held
constant.) As the coil is lifted of the material, the
impedance moves in the direction indicted by the
dashed line. As the coil is further removed, the
impedance moves further along the dashed line
until the material no longer affects the coil (coil
is in air).
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

5. The next image illustrates a family of lift-off

curves, each one starting at different
conductivity. Note the angles (A & B) formed at
the junctions of the lift-off locus curves and
conductivity locus curve. In the areas of low
conductivity the angle (B) is small. In the areas of
high conductivity, the angle (A) is larger.
 Conductivity on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Lesson 7 Review 1

Portable conductivity testers usually detect a

change in phase angle and not impedance.

True !? False ?
 Effect of Frequency on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram
If the frequency of the voltage applied to the coil
is changed, there is a change in the resistive and
reactive factors of the impedance.
 Effect of Material Thickness on
the Impedance-Plane Diagram
1. The following figures show the effect of thickness
changes as applied to brass material.
Effect of Material Thickness on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Effect of Material Thickness on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

2. The thickness loci may be plotted by measuring

the resistance and reactance of a very thin sheet
of brass and repeating the process for steadily
increasing thicknesses.
3. When the resistance and reactance values
reach the conductivity curve, further thickness
increases will have no effect.
 Effect of Frequency on
Thickness Measurements
1. The next image shows the effect that change in
frequency has on thickness measurements of
brass material.
Effect of Frequency on Thickness
Measurements, cont.
 Effect of Frequency on Thickness
Measurements, cont.

2. Since a change in frequency changes the depth of

penetration, a lower frequency will give a greater
depth of penetration when the conductivity curve
is reached. Raising the frequency will have the
opposite effect.
 Effect of Conductivity and
Permeability on the
Impedance-Plane Diagram
1. The following images
illustrate the different
loci curves for magnetic
materials in comparison
to nonmagnetic
material.
Effect of Conductivity and Permeability
on the Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.
 Effect of Conductivity and Permeability
on the Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

2. With phase analysis, an operator can produce

impedance plane plots that can represent the
following material conditions.
a. Lift-off and edge effects.
b. Cracks.
 Effect of Conductivity and Permeability
on the Impedance-Plane Diagram, cont.

c. Material separation and spacing.

d. Permeability.
e. Specimen thinning.
f. Conductivity.
g. Plating thickness.
 Lesson 7 Review 2

Lift-off and permeability loci curves are

superimposed for magnetic materials.

True or False
True!
?
 Cathode Ray Tube Methods:
Vector Point Method
1. When a CRT is provided as a part of the test
equipment, the equipment may be set up to show
on the tube the locus of all points in which the
operator is interested.
2. The operator may construct, point by point, the
impedance-plane diagram directly on the tube
rather than on a separate sheet of graph paper.
 Cathode Ray Tube Methods:
Vector Point Method, cont.

3. During this test method, the impedance of the

coil will cause a dot to appear at some point on
the CRT screen. Its position will provide the
operator with information on what has occurred
within the test object, as illustrated in the
following figure.
Cathode Ray Tube Methods
Vector Point Method, cont.
 Ellipse Display Method

1. A CRT may also be set up to compare a test

object with a reference standard. The ellipse
method uses an inspection coil in conjunction
with a reference coil.
2. The dimension variable and the conductivity
variable are shown on the CRT by the width of
the ellipse and the angle tilt of the axis, as
illustrated in the next figure.
Ellipse Display Method
 Modulation Analysis

1. A modulation analysis system, as illustrated in

the next figure, adds a modulating device
between the test set and the indicating device
(a strip-chart recorder).
Modulation Analysis, cont.
 Modulation Analysis, cont.

2. The modulation device is simply an electronic

filter that will pass only certain frequencies.
3. A differential coil is used so that two adjacent
areas of the article are compared.
4. Using either a low or high frequency filter, the
effect of one variable or the other is eliminated
from the strip-chart readout.
 Lesson 7 Review 3

Which are considered CRT tube methods?

? ?
?
Ellipse Display Method
? Method Modulation Analysis

?? Vector Point Method

?
? ?
 Lesson 10

Selection of Test Frequency

 Test Frequency

1. The frequency of an alternating current is defined

as the number of cycles that occur in one second.
The unit is the hertz (Hz). One hertz is equal to
one cycle per second.
2. The depth of eddy current penetration within test
materials is strongly affected by test frequency,
permeability, and conductivity.
 Test Frequency, cont.

3. Higher frequencies normally limit the eddy

current test inspection of the excited metal
surface nearest the primary coil winding. Lower
frequencies will allow eddy currents to penetrate
deeper in lower conductivity alloys than in higher
conductivity alloys.
 Depth of Penetration

1. Eddy currents are not uniformly distributed

throughout a test object. They are mostly dense
at the surface closest to the coil, and become
less dense with increasing distance below the
surface of the material.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

2. At some distance below the surface of a thick

material there will be essentially no currents
flowing. The depth of penetration is affected by:
a. Frequency.
b. Conductivity of the material.
c. Permeability of the material.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

3. The standard depth of penetration is defined as

the depth at which the current strength has
dropped 37% of the current density that exists at
the surface. The following image shows the
distribution of currents in a material.
Depth of Penetration, cont.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

4. As frequency increases, depth of penetration

decreases.
5. As frequency decreases, depth of penetration
increases.
6. The higher the conductivity and permeability, the
less the penetration.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

7. A depth of penetration formula using resistivity,

frequency, and permeability can be expressed as:

where δ is depth of penetration, K is constant

(1.98),  is resistivity, f is frequency and µrel is 1
for nonmagnetic materials.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

The limit frequency can be expressed as:

where fg is the limit frequency, 5066 is constant,

µrel is the relative permeability, is conductivity
and d is diameter of test object.
 Depth of Penetration, cont.

8. The next image shows the standard depth of

penetration for several materials with different
conductivities at various operating frequencies.
Depth of Penetration, cont.
 Lesson 8 Review

Penetration depth within test materials

is affected by:

Permeability
?
?
Conductivity
?
Frequency

All the Above

 Single Frequency Systems

These systems are capable of energizing the test

coil with a single frequency.
 Multi-Frequency Systems
1. These systems are capable of energizing test
coils by more than one frequency.
2. Although several frequencies may be applied
simultaneously or sequentially to a test, each of
the individual frequencies follow rules established
by single frequency methods.
3. Modern multi-frequency eddy current systems
allow the operator to perform discontinuity
detection using the differential mode and
absolute mode simultaneously.
Lesson 9

Coupling
 Lift-Off and Fill Factor

Lift-off and fill factor are terms used to describe

any space that occurs between the test object and
the inspection coil.
 Lift-Off

1. When a surface coil is energized and held in the

air above a conductor, the impedance of the coil
has a certain value.
2. As the coil is moved closer to the conductor, the
initial value will change when the field of the coil
begins to intercept the conductor.
 Lift-Off, cont.

3. Because the field of the coil is strongest close to

the coil, the impedance value will continue to
change until the coil is directly on the conductor.
4. The coupling between the test coil and the
test object varies with spacing between the
test coil and the test object. This spacing is
called lift-off.
5. Lift-off pertains to tests that use surface probes.
 Fill Factor

1. Fill factor is a term used to describe how well a

test object will be electromagnetically coupled to
a test coil that surrounds or is inserted into the
test object.
2. Fill factor pertains to tests that use bobbin or
encircling coils.
 Fill Factor, cont.

3. Fill factor can be described as the ratio of test

object diameter squared to coil diameter squared
for an encircling coil, or vice versa for a bobbin
coil where the inside diameter is used.
 Fill Factor, cont.

4. Fill factor = d2 / D2
where d = coil winding outside diameter
and D = test object internal diameter
or D2 / d2 (encircling coil)
where D = coil winding inner diameter and
d = test object outside diameter
 Fill Factor, cont.

5. The fill factor will always be a number less

than 1. The following image illustrates the
concepts of both lift-off and fill factor.
Fill Factor, cont.
 Lesson 9 Review

The term lift-off would apply to:

?
? ?
Encircling Coils Surface Coils

?
? ?
Bobbin Coils
?
?
All the Above
?
 Lesson 12

Electromagnetic Testing
Applications
 Eddy Current Applications

Eddy current testing can detect discontinuities

such as cracks, seams, pits and corrosion.
 Aerospace Applications
Measurement of Metal and
Coating Thickness
1. In the aerospace industry, numerous metal parts
are coated or plated to obtain special surface
properties such as corrosion resistance, wear
resistance, or improved appearance.
 Aerospace Applications
Measurement of Metal and
Coating Thickness, cont.

2. The coatings are prepared by various means

such as:
a. Electron-deposition.
b. Cladding.
c. Spraying.
 Aerospace Applications
Measurement of Metal and
Coating Thickness, cont.
3. Four general types of coating and base materials
lend themselves to eddy current testing:
a. Metal foil and sheet or metal coating on a
nonconductive base material, such as metallic
film on glass, ceramic, or plastics.
b. Metal cladding with higher conductivity than
the base metal, such as copper, zinc on steel,
or pure aluminum on aluminum alloy.
 Aerospace Applications
Measurement of Metal and
Coating Thickness, cont.
c. Metal cladding with lower conductivity than
the base metal, such as nickel on aluminum.
d. Nonconductive coating on metallic base
material, such as anodic film or paint on
aluminum, or other organic coatings on metals.
 Reference Standards for
Thickness Testing
1. At least three objects with known metal thickness
are needed as reference standards to calibrate
equipment.
2. One reference standards represents the minimum
acceptable thickness, the second represents the
maximum acceptable thickness, and the third is
from the middle of the range.
3. All calibration standards must have the same
conductivity, permeability, substrate thickness,
and basic geometry of the test objects.
 Metal Thickness

Tests for measuring metal thickness are generally

used on chemically milled sheet stock, thin wall
tubing, metal foil bonded to nonmetallic materials,
and thin objects that may experience thinning
from corrosion.
 Metal Spacing

1. When a gap separates two metal sheets, the gap

may be filled with a nonmetallic shim or may be
purposely produced as a fixed dimension.
2. If it is desired to measure the gap or spacing, an
operating frequency must be chosen so that eddy
currents will be generated in the second
(subsurface) layer, as shown in the following
image.
Metal Spacing, cont.
 Tests of Metal Conductivity

Eddy current conductivity meters usually

differ with respect to operating frequency,
lift-off, temperature, sensitivity, and probe
size compensation or means of presenting
test results.
 Testing of Bolt Holes
1. Small cracks in material located next to fastener
holes may go undetected until the cracks grow to
a size that allows detection at the surface not
covered by the head of the fastener or nut.
2. A crack of this magnitude and under high stresses
may continue to grow to failure at a rapid rate.
 Testing of Bolt Holes, cont.

3. Eddy current tests are well known for detecting

small fatigue cracks, particularly in aluminum
fastener holes.
4. The following figure illustrates a typical eddy
current hole probe.
Testing of Bolt Holes, cont.
 Testing of Aircraft Structures

1. Eddy current tests can be used to detect fatigue

cracks resulting from cyclic loading during flight,
take-off, or landing.
2. Organizations have used automated eddy current
testing to ensure that critical engine components
are free of rejectable surface discontinuities.
 Chemical and Petroleum
Applications
1. Heat exchanger tube testing is an important
part of maintenance for the refining and
petroleum industry.
2. Heat exchangers and condensers are designed to
keep products in the tubes separate from
products in the vessel. A leaking tube could cause
a significant impact on production, catastrophic
failure, and perhaps loss of life.
 Chemical and Petroleum Applications,
cont.

3. Eddy current bobbin probes are used in this

application. They test for discontinuities in the
tubes such as cracks, corrosion, and mechanical
abnormalities that may affect the integrity of the
tube.
 Lesson 10 Review 1

Fatigue cracks in aluminum fastener holes can

be detected with eddy current testing.

True !? False ?
 Power Generation Applications
1. The most common use of electromagnetic testing
in the power industry is tube testing in heat
exchangers such as:
a. Steam generators (nuclear plants).
b. Balance of plant (BOP), nuclear and fossil.
c. Oil coolers.
 Power Generation Applications

2. The following table shows a list of heat exchangers

and damage mechanisms in power generation
applications.
Power Generation Applications, cont.
 Industrial Air Conditioning
Chillers Applications
1. Cooling for large buildings and manufacturing
facilities is most commonly provided by industrial
chillers (comfort cooling).
2. A typical chiller has two heat exchanger bundles
(condenser and evaporator).
 Industrial Air Conditioning Chillers
Applications, cont.

3. These heat exchanger tubes have fins on their

outside and inside diameters to increase heat
transfer surface and improve cooling water flow.
4. The following figure shows a typical centrifugal
chiller with the condenser and evaporator heat
exchanger sections.
Industrial Air Conditioning Chillers
Applications, cont.
 Primary Metals Industries
Testing of Hot Rolled Bars
There are several requirements for an effective
electromagnetic bar testing:
1. High discontinuity sensitivity.
2. Ability to classify bar quantity.
3. Full automatic operation.
 Primary Metals Industries
Testing of Hot Rolled Bars, cont.

4. Rugged construction for use in mills.

5. Ability to test bars as received without
special preparation.

A rotating surface probe eddy current technique

has been used for the testing of hot rolled bars.
 Testing of Square Billets

1. Eddy current testing can automatically inspect

100% of the surface of steel billets without the
need of an operator’s judgment for interpreting
test results.
2. A typical system can detect seams, evaluate their
severity, and mark the location of those that
exceed an acceptable depth.
 Testing of Square Billets, cont.

3. The key component in this system is a scanning

head assembly that keeps an eddy current probe
in contact with, and tangent to, the billet surface
at all locations around the periphery, including
the corners.
 Testing of Hot Steel Rods
and Wires
1. Surface discontinuity testing is essential in the
quality assurance of iron and steel products.
2. In many mills, eddy current and flux leakage
testing are carried out after the rolling, shearing,
and cooling process.
 Testing of Hot Steel Rods
and Wires, cont.

3. Eddy current testing using an encircling coil has

been applied for the testing of hot rolling of bars
and hot wires. Generally the encircling coils are
in the differential mode coil arrangement.
4. This system can detect short discontinuities, such
as scabs and roll marks.
 Lesson 10 Review 2

Which discontinuities are found

in heat exchanger tubes?

Mechanical Damage Cracks

Pitting Tube Wall Loss

?
All the Above
 Lesson 11

Electromagnetic Testing Standards

& Procedures
 Calibration Standards

1. Calibration is used to adjust equipment sensitivity

to various test object parameters such as: cracks,
surface roughness, conductivity/permeability
variations, and other material conditions.
 Calibration Standards, cont.

2. The development and use of electromagnetic

reference standards requires understanding and
considerations of the test to be performed. This
should include:
a. The material of the test object.
b. Size and shape.
c. Discontinuities of interest.
d. Means of producing artificial discontinuities.
 Calibration Standards, cont.

e. Non-relevant indications that might

be encountered.
f. Instrument capabilities and limitations.
g. Criteria for relevant indications.
 Reference Standards
Conductivity Standards
1. In eddy current testing, frequent use is made of
measurements of conductivity based on the
International Annealed Copper Standard (IACS).
2. Two standards metal blocks are supplied with
conductivity measuring instruments. One block
represents a high level of conductivity, while the
other represents a low level of conductivity.
3. The percentage value in IACS is stamped on the
blocks, as illustrated in the next figure.
 Reference Standards
Conductivity Standards, cont.
 Coating Thickness Standards
Coating thickness standards of uniform thickness
are available in two types:
1. Foils of known thicknesses laid on an
appropriate substrate.
2. Actual coatings affixed to prepared substrates
as supplied or recommended by the
instrument manufacturer or the
standardization organization, as listed in the
following table.
Coating Thickness Standards, cont.
 Discontinuity Standards

A discontinuity standard should:

1. Duplicate the test situation for material type and
geometry.
2. Include discontinuities that establish the
maximum discontinuity that is acceptable.
3. Establish the sensitivity of the test system.
 Natural Discontinuity Standard

1. This consists of duplicates of the test piece

configuration that contain natural discontinuities
of a known size and shape.
2. At least one of the discontinuities should be at
the limit of acceptability.
3. Natural discontinuities can be developed or
accumulated.
 Artificial Discontinuity Standard
1. Artificial discontinuities may be machined into
duplicate of the test object configuration.
2. Types of discontinuities that can be used to
simulate test object discontinuities include:
a. Longitudinal notches.
b. Circumferential notches.
c. Drilled holes.
d. Flat bottom holes.
e. Diameter steps.
f. Geometry variations.
 Lesson 11 Review

Test object discontinuities can be simulated by:

?
Flat Bottom Holes Drilled Holes
?
? Diameter Steps

?
Longitudinal/Circumferential notches

? ? All the Above

? ??
 Lift-Off Standards
1. Lift-off standards are easily constructed by the
application of known thicknesses of a
nonconductive material to a sample of the test
object. Paper, polyethylene, and cellophane are
examples of nonconductive material often used.
2. When it is required to measure the thickness of
nonconductive coating, the standard does not
have to be coated with the same nonconductive
coating material since to eddy current testing,
one nonconductive coating is exactly like any
other.
 Lift-Off Standards, cont.

3. If measuring thickness of a nonconductive coating

over a conductive test object, lift-off standards
need to be constructed that represent both the
maximum and the minimum acceptable standard.
 Sorting Standards

1. When sorting with the absolute encircling coil

technique, a known acceptable calibration
standard and a known unacceptable standard are
required.
2. When using the comparative encircling coil
technique, usually two known acceptable
specimens of the test object and one unknown
unacceptable specimen are required.
 Sorting Standards, cont.

3. It is best to have three calibration standards,

including either two for the high and low limits of
acceptability for one group or one each for two
unacceptable groups. The third standard
represents the acceptable lot of material.
4. Although electromagnetic sorters can be useful
for limited applications, sorting steels is better
done via spectroscopic equipment.
 Specifications

1. In nondestructive testing, a specification is

often written by a commercial organization,
usually one of the primary parties in the
purchasing agreement.
2. A specification is product specific and may
require more stringent limits than a related
standard’s limit.
 Specifications, cont.

3. A specification provided clearly organized list of

testing parameters that describes the technique
for locating and categorizing discontinuities in a
specific test object.
4. A typical specification includes acceptance
criteria and is required by the designer, buyer,
manufacturer, and users of the test object it
covers.
 Procedure

In electromagnetic testing, the term procedure

refers to a set of brief generalized guidelines that
show the inspector how to perform an accurate
test in accordance with project/industry’s
specifications and requirements.
 Standards and Industry
Specifications
1. Procedures, specifications, and standards are
produced to provide a means of controlling
product or services quality.
2. Written instructions, which guide a company
or individual to desired end results and are
acceptable to the industry, are the basis of
procedures, specifications, and standards.
 Standards and Industry Specifications,
cont.
3. The following are technical organizations that
publish those procedures, specifications, and
standards related to electromagnetic testing:
a. The American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT).
b. The American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM).
 Standards and Industry Specifications,
cont.
c. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME).
d. Military Standards (MIL-STD).
e. American Welding Society (AWS).
Thank You Thank You Thank You