Module 1: The Nature of Mathematics
Topic 1: Mathematics in our World
Mathematics is:
- the study of relationship among shapes, quantity or numbers and arrangement. It is also the study of assumptions, its
properties and applications.
- the science that deals with the logic of reasoning and spatial thinking & enhances our critical thinking skills and
creativity.
- also, helps organize patterns and regularities in the world.
DEFINITION OF PATTERNS
II. PATTERNS AND MATHEMATICS IN NATURE:
-A pattern is a regularity in the world, in human-made design, or in abstract ideas. As such, the elements of a pattern
repeat in a predictable manner. A geometric pattern is a kind of pattern formed of geometric shapes and typically
repeated like a wallpaper design.
-A pattern is defined as a sequence of repeating or recurring objects, shapes or numbers. A pattern has a rule that tells
us which objects belong to the pattern and which objects do not belong to the pattern.
1. Symmetry or Symmetrical patterns are a design or pattern that is the same on both halves when folded.
Symmetrical patterns can have one line of symmetry or more. These lines of symmetry may be vertical,
horizontal or diagonal.
a. Snowflakes - The tiny but miraculous snowflake, as an example of symmetry in nature, exhibits six-fold radial
symmetry, with elaborate, identical patterns on each arm. Snowflakes form because water molecules naturally arrange
when they solidify. It’s complicated but, basically, when they crystallize, water molecules form weak hydrogen bonds
with each other.
b. Peacocks - The peacock takes the earlier principle of using symmetry to attract a mate to the nth degree. Male
peacocks utilize their variety of adaptations to seduce sultry peahens. These include bright colors, a large size, a
symmetrical body shape and repeated patterns in their feathers.
c. Starfish - Starfish or sea stars belong to a phylum of marine creatures called echinoderm. Other notable
echinoderm include sea urchins, brittle stars, sea cucumbers and sand dollars. The larvae of echinoderms have bilateral
symmetry, meaning the organism’s left and ride side form a mirror image. Sea stars or starfish are invertebrates that
typically have five or more ‘arms’. These radiate from an indistinct disk and form something known as pentaradial
symmetry.
d. Sun-Moon Symmetry - The sun has a diameter of 1.4 million kilometres, while his sister, the Moon, has a
meagre diameter of 3,474 kilometres. With these figures, it seems near impossible that the moon can block the sun’s
light and give us around five solar eclipses every two years.
2. Spiral pattern is a circular pattern beginning at a center point and circling around the center point as the pattern
moves outward.
a. Nautilus Shell - A nautilus is a cephalopod mollusk with a spiral shell and numerous short tentacles around
its mouth. Although more common in plants, some animals, like the nautilus, showcase Fibonacci numbers.
A nautilus shell is grown in a Fibonacci spiral. The spiral occurs as the shell grows outwards and tries to
maintain its proportional shape.
b. Pinecones - Pinecones have seed pods that arrange in a spiral pattern. They consist of a pair of spirals, each
one twisting upwards in opposing directions. The number of steps will almost always match a pair of
consecutive Fibonacci numbers. For example, a three–to–five cone meets at the back after three steps along
the left spiral and five steps along the right. This spiraling Fibonacci pattern also occurs in pineapples and
artichokes.
c. Milky Way Galaxy - Symmetry and mathematical patterns seem to exist everywhere on Earth – the Milky
Way Galaxy was discovered, and, by studying this, astronomers now believe the galaxy is a near-perfect
mirror image of itself. Having mirror symmetry, the Milky Way has another amazing design. Like nautilus
shells and sunflowers, each ‘arm’ of the galaxy symbolizes a logarithmic spiral that begins at the galaxy’s
centre and expands outwards.
3. Fractals - type of mathematical shape that are infinitely complex & never-ending patterns. It is a pattern that
repeats forever, and every part of it, regardless of how zoomed in, or zoomed out you are, it looks very similar to
the whole image.
a. Romanesco Brocolli - Romanesco broccoli has an unusual appearance, and many assume it’s another food
that’s fallen victim to genetic modification. However, it’s actually one of many instances of fractal symmetry
in nature. In geometric terms, fractals are complex patterns where each individual component has the same
pattern as the whole object. In the case of Romanesco broccoli, the entire veggie is one big spiral composed
of smaller, cone-like mini-spirals.
b. Orb Web Spiders - Orb web spiders create near-perfect circular webs that have near-equal-distanced radial
supports coming out of the middle and a spiral that is woven to catch prey. Orb webs are built for strength,
with radial symmetry helping to evenly distribute the force of impact when a spider’s prey makes contact
with the web. This would mean there’d be less rips in the thread.
4. Tessellations are special type of tiling (a pattern of geometric shapes that fill a two-dimensional space with no
gaps and no overlaps) that repeats forever in all directions. They can be composed of one or more shapes...
anything goes as long as the pattern radiates in all directions with no gaps or overlaps. Specific examples include
honeycombs, pineapple, Islamic architecture, etc.
a. Honeycombs - Honeycombs are an example of wallpaper symmetry. This is where a pattern is repeated until
it covers a plane. Other examples include mosaics and tiled floors. Mathematicians believe bees build these
hexagonal constructions because it is the shape most efficient for storing the largest possible amount of
honey while using the least amount of wax. Shapes like circles would leave gaps between the cells because
they don’t fit perfectly together.
b. Pineapple - This tessellation consists of multiple wood cells that interlock together. Some of these cells are
intercepted by traversals, creating corresponding, consecutive interior, and other types of angles. We don't
know that the traversals or the lines of the quadrilaterals are parallel so we cannot assume that these type of
angles are congruent/supplementary. A pineapple consists of many hexagons around the pineapple, but they
are not regular. We only know that the hexagons have total angle measures of 720 degrees.
c. Islamic architecture - The design is framed within a niche topped by muqarnas, the characteristic stalactite-
like forms that often articulate the transition from a wall to a dome, a vault or, as in this beautiful example,
the upper span of an interior niche. Although woven strapwork and vegetal motifs embellish the star
pattern, in this installment in this series we focus only on the underlying geometric scheme: a classic
arrangement of 12-pointed stars with equilateral triangles between them.
III. SEQUENCE AND NUMBERS IN NATURE:
A. Fibonacci Sequence
- An Italian mathematician nicknamed “Fibonacci” which means “Son of Bonacci” who discovered the
sequence.
- The sequence was formed starting with zero and one with the following number in the sequence which is the
sum of the two numbers preceding it.
- The sequence is: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233,…
✔ Tree Branches - The Fibonacci sequence is so widespread in nature that it can also be seen in the way tree
branches form and split. The main trunk of a tree will grow until it produces a branch, which creates two growth points.
One of the new stems will then branch into two, while the other lies dormant. This branching pattern repeats for each of
the new stems. A good example is the sneezewort, a Eurasian plant of the daisy family whose dry leaves induce sneezing.
✔ Sunflowers - Bright, bold and beloved by bees, sunflowers boast radial symmetry and a type of numerical
symmetry known as the Fibonacci sequence, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, and so forth. Scientists and flower
enthusiasts
who have taken the time to count the seed spirals in a sunflower have determined that the amount of spirals adds up to
a Fibonacci number.
✔ Crop Circles - Crop circles are a sight to behold because they’re so geometrically impressive. A study
conducted by physicist Richard Taylor revealed that, somewhere in the world, a new crop circle is created every night,
and that most designs demonstrate a wide variety of symmetry and mathematical patterns, including Fibonacci spirals
and fractals.
✔ Faces - Humans possess bilateral symmetry. Faces, both human and otherwise, are rife with examples of the
Golden Ratio. Mouths and noses are positioned at golden sections of the distance between the eyes and the bottom of
the chin. Comparable proportions can be seen from the side, and even the eye and ear itself, which follows along a
spiral.
For example, the most beautiful smiles are those in which central incisors are 1.618 wider than the lateral incisors, which
are 1.618 wider than canines, and so on.
✔ Uteruses - According to a gynecologist, doctors can tell whether a uterus looks normal and healthy based on
its relative dimensions – dimensions that approximate the golden ratio. When women are at their most fertile, the ratio
of uterus length to its width is 1.6. This is a very good approximation of the golden ratio.
Module 2 - Math Language and Symbols
Topic 1: Real Numbers
A. Characteristics of mathematical language and symbols: REAL NUMBERS
REAL NUMBER - may be either natural, integer or whole number; which can be positive, negative or zero; either
rational or irrational; which represents fraction or decimal and measure continuous quantities.
NATURAL NUMBER - set of counting numbers beginning with 1, with each successive number greater than its
predecessor by 1. If the set of natural numbers is denoted by N, then N = { 1, 2, 3, ......}
WHOLE NUMBER - set of natural numbers plus the number zero. If the set of whole numbers is denoted by W, then
W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, ......}
INTEGERS - set of whole numbers plus negatives. If the set of integers is denoted by I,
then, I = {......, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ......}
RATIONAL NUMBERS – are all numbers of the form a/b, where a and b are integers (but b cannot be zero). Rational
numbers include what we usually call fractions.
IRRATIONAL NUMBERS - are numbers that cannot be expressed as a ratio of integers and as decimals, they never repeat
or terminate.
`B. Mathematical/ Algebraic Expressions
1. ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSION - is an expression which is formed by the combination of symbols (variables) and constants
(numbers) with a sign of operation and sometimes grouping symbols.
2. VARIABLES - are symbols that are used to represent unspecified numbers.
3. CONSTANT - is a quantity with a definite value.
4. NUMERAL COEFFICIENT – is the constant factor of a given term. 3xy + 2x
5. LITERAL COEFFICIENT -consists of the variable/s and its/their exponent/s in a given term.
6. TERM/S - is a part algebraic expression separated by a plus or minus sign consisting of constants and variables with
the operations of multiplication and division. 2x + 3ax + 4x2 - xyz
7. MONOMIAL – is an algebraic expression consisting of one term. It can only be a product of a real number and a
variable with positive integral exponents. 3x, xyz, 4x2
8. BINOMIAL – is an algebraic expression consisting of exactly two terms. 3x + 4y, 2 - 2z
9. POLYNOMIAL – is any algebraic expression that can be written as one which contains only terms that are monomials.
Module 3 - Problem Solving
POLYA’s STRATEGY:
- Dr. George Polya, a prominent figure in the world of mathematics and a retired Stanford professor, was known to
the public for his book “How to Solve It”, and for his efforts to teach math teachers how to teach math.
- He was also regarded as the father of the modern emphasis in math education on problem solving.
LESSON 3 - Problem Solving
POLYA’s STRATEGY:
Polya created his famous 4-step process for problem solving:
Step 1) Understand the problem.
Step 2) Devise a plan (translate)
Step 3) Carry out the plan (solve)
Step 4) Look back (check & interpret)
R1 - required (1 pt.)
R2 - response (2 pts) conditions (given & formula)
R3 - results (2 pts)
Word Problem Solving
MODULE 3 - Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
Topic 2. Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning is reaching a conclusion based on:
a. a number of specific examples or a series of observations; and
b. patterns.
- a conclusion that is reached by inductive reasoning may or may not be valid.
Conjecture is a conclusion based on inductive reasoning.
Example based on observations:
1) For all observed A, B was true.
2) C is A, therefore: For C, B must be true.
Example: The cost of goods was Php10K. The cost of labor to manufacture the item was Php5K. The
sales price of the item was PhP30K. So, the item always provides a good profit for the stores selling it.
Topic 3. Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
- Inductive reasoning typically leads to deductive reasoning, the process of reaching conclusions
based on previously known facts. The conclusions reached by this type of reasoning are valid
and can be relied on.
- Deductive reasoning usually follows steps. First, there is a premise, then a second premise, and
finally an inference. A common form of deductive reasoning is the syllogism, in which two
statements — a major premise and a minor premise — reach a logical conclusion.
EXAMPLE:
In geometry, all statements are deductions, otherwise they are not rigorous:
Example 1: For any right triangle, the Pythagorean Theorem holds. ABC is a right triangle, therefore
for ABC the Pythagorean Theorem holds.
Review Examples:
Fibonacci Sequence:
Fibonacci sequence, the sequence of numbers
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …, each of which, after the
second, is the sum of the two previous numbers;
that is, the nth Fibonacci number Fn = Fn − 1 + Fn − 2.
Pythagorean Theorem:
a theorem attributed to Pythagoras that the
square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is
equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides.
The formula for Pythagoras' theorem is a² + b² = c².
The sides of this triangle have been named
Perpendicular, Base and Hypotenuse. Here, the
hypotenuse is the longest side, as it is opposite
to the angle 90°.