BRICKS

Introduction, classification, characteristics of good bricks, ingredients of

good brick earth, harmful substances in brick earth, different forms of
bricks, testing of bricks, defects of bricks, fly ash bricks.
 Introduction: History of bricks
• Bricks are one of the oldest types of building blocks.
• They are an ideal building material because they are relatively cheap to make,
very durable, and require little maintenance.
• A brick is a block of ceramic material used in masonry construction, usually laid
using various kinds of mortar.
• Bricks dated 10,000 years old were found in the Middle East.
• Examples of the civilizations who used mud brick are the ancient Egyptians and
the Indus Valley Civilization, where it was used exclusively. In particular, it is
evident from the ruins of Buhen, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa.
• The first sun-dried bricks were made in Mesopotamia (what is now Iraq), in the
ancient city of Ur in about 4000 BC
File:Concrete [Link] File:Historic brick street in Natchitoches, LA IMG [Link] File:[Link]

File:[Link]
File:[Link] File:Panorama of Malbork Castle, part [Link]
Advantages of bricks :

* Brick will not burn, buckle or melt.

* Brick will not rot and allow Termites to invade.
* Brick will not rust and corrode.
* Brick will not dent.
* Brick will not fade from the Sun's UV Rays.
* Brick will not be damaged by high winds, rain or hail.
* Brick will not require constant maintenance.
* Brick will not devalue.
* Brick will not limit your personal expression.
* Brick will not limit your design options.
 General Characteristics of Bricks
• Brick is made of clay or shale formed, dried and fired into a durable ceramic
product.
• There are three ways to form the shape and size of a brick: extruded (stiff mud),
molded (soft mud) and dry-pressed.
• The majority of brick are made by the extrusion method.
• Brick achieves its color through the minerals in the fired clay or through coatings
that are applied before or after the firing process. This provides a durable color
that never fades or diminishes.
• Brick shrink during the manufacturing process as vitrification occurs. Brick will
vary in size due to the manufacturing process. These variations are addressed by
ASTM standards.
• The method used to form a brick has a major impact on its texture.
• Sand-finished surfaces are typical with molded brick.
• A variety of textures can be achieved with extruded brick.
• Brick manufacturers address sustainability by locating
• manufacturing facilities near clay sources to reduce transportation, by recycling
of process waste, by reclaiming land where mining has occurred, and by taking
measures to reduce plant emissions. Most brick are used within 500 miles of a
brick manufacturing facility.
CLAY BRICKS
 Raw material for clay:
• Clay is one of the most abundant natural mineral materials on earth. For brick
manufacturing, clay must possess some specific properties and characteristics.
• Such clays must have plasticity, which permits them to be shaped or molded
when mixed with water; they must have sufficient wet and air-dried strength to
maintain their shape after forming.
• Also, when subjected to appropriate temperatures, the clay particles must fuse
together.
Composition of Clay
➢ Clay → SiO2+Al2O3+Impurities (CaO...)

➢ Clay is cohesive so can be shaped when wet.

(sand is non-cohesive.)

➢ Pure Clay → Kaolin → Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O

 Types of Clay
• Clays occur in three principal forms, all of which have similar chemical
compositions but different physical characteristics.

• Surface Clays. Surface clays may be the up thrusts of older deposits or of more recent
sedimentary formations. As the name implies, they are found near the surface of the earth.
• Shales. Shales are clays that have been subjected to high pressures until they have nearly
hardened into slate.
• Fire Clays. Fire clays are usually mined at deeper levels than other clays and have refractory
qualities.
• Surface and fire clays have a different physical structure from shales but are similar in
chemical composition.
• All three types of clay are composed of silica and alumina with varying amounts of metallic
oxides.
• Metallic oxides act as fluxes promoting fusion of the particles at lower temperatures.
Metallic oxides (particularly those of iron, magnesium and calcium) influence the color of
the fired brick.
• The manufacturer minimizes variations in chemical composition and physical properties by
mixing clays from different sources and different locations in the pit.
• Chemical composition varies within the pit, and the differences are compensated for by
varying manufacturing processes. As a result, brick from the same manufacturer will have
slightly different properties in subsequent production runs. Further, brick from different
manufacturers that have the same appearance may differ in other properties.
Manufacturing Process
1) Preparation of Raw Material (excavated &
ground)
2) Forming or shaping (mixing with water to a plastic
condition to obtain the desired shape)
• Stiff-mud, Soft-mud,Dry press processes
3) Setting and drying
4) Glazing → provides a thin & smooth coat on the
surface. Firing or burning → in kilns above 950°C
6) Cooling → rate of cooling affects brittleness,
color & shape.
 Bricks
• Preparation: material (clay)
washed and grinding
(fineness)

Sample of grinding machine

for clay

Sample of crushing machine

16
 Stiff-Mud Process (Extrusion)
• The clay is mixed with just enough water to produce
plasticity (~ 12 - 15% water by weight)
• The clay is extruded through a "die" producing a horizontal
column of clay which passes through an automatic cutter
• Cutter-wire spaces and die sizes should be precisely
calculated to compensate for shrinkage during drying and
firing
• As the clay column leaves the die, textures or surface
coatings may be applied
• The green bricks (not solidified yet!) are then stacked with
care to allow sufficient airspace between them to create
even coloring and uniform strength during drying and firing
Extrusion Process

Extrusion Die Brick column left the die Bricks are cut with wires

Individual bricks are separated and stacked Final Product

 Soft-Mud Process (Forming)
• In this process, the clay contains too much water to be
extruded (~ 20 - 30% water by weight)
• Instead of extrusion, individual molds (often wood) are
utilized, and are lubricated with either oil, water or
sand to prevent the clay from sticking to the mold
• If sand is used, grains with a maximum diameter of .5mm
are sprinkled on the mold surfaces after being immersed in
water
• If oil is used, it will be absorbed by the brick and burned
during firing
• The soft-mud process can be carried out by hand or by
machine.
 Dry-Press Process

• This process is adaptable for clays of very low plasticity

(< 10% water by weight)
• Instead of wooden molds, the clay is formed with steel
molds and is put under high pressure to create a very
compact, dense brick
• Hydraulic or compressed air-rams generate pressures
ranging from 3.5-10 MPa
• After bricks in form,
identification or
perforation to the bricks.

Brick was compile

before bring to the
kiln
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Drying
• After molding the brick unit through either extrusion or soft mud
process, bricks go through the setting and drying stage. Before
they enter the kiln to be fired, the green bricks must be correctly
dried. (40-200 °C at 24-48 hrs)
• The moisture must be minimized to prevent certain defects and
shrinkage from happening when fired at extreme heat in the kiln.
Shrinkage can cause the bricks to crack.
Soft-mud process Stiff-mud process
Firing / Burning

• Firing, one of the most specialized steps in the manufacture

of brick, requires from 40 to 150 hr. depending upon kiln
type and other variables.
• The two general types of kilns are tunnel and periodic kilns.
• A periodic kiln is one that is loaded, fired, allowed to cool
and unloaded, after which the same processes are repeated.
• In a tunnel kiln, units are similarly loaded on special cars
which pass through various temperature zones as they travel
through the tunnel. The heat conditions in each zone are
carefully controlled and the kiln operates continuously.
Firing/Burning

The fusibility of clay causes it to become hard, solid and

of relatively low absorption when properly fired. Firing
consists of:
• Water smoking ~200°C → evaporation of free water
• Dehydration ~450°C-750°C → evaporation of chemically
bound water
• Oxidation ~450°C-950°C → oxides are formed
• Vitrification ~950°C-1200°C → low melting components
liquify and fill the pores
Firing/Burning
Fusing takes place in three stages:

1) Incipient fusion, that point when the clay particles become

sufficiently soft that the mass sticks together;
2) Vitrification, when there is extensive fluxing and the mass
becomes tight, solid and non-absorbent; and
3) Viscous fusion, the point at which the clay mass breaks down
and tends to become molten.

The key to the firing process is to control the temperature

in the kiln so that incipient fusion and partial vitrification
are complete but viscous fusion is avoided.
Cooling

• After the temperature has reached the maximum and is

maintained for a prescribed time, the cooling process
begins. 48 to 72 hr are required for proper cooling in
periodic kilns; but in tunnel kilns, the cooling period
seldom exceeds 48 hr.
• Because the rate of cooling has a direct effect on color
and because excessively rapid cooling will cause
cracking, cooling is an important stage in the firing
process.
 Bricks

Bricks manufacturing process

flow
MATERIAL PREPARATION
Manufacturing
Manufacturing
Setting
Firing Process
Packaging
Properties of Bricks
• All properties of brick are affected by composition of
the raw materials and the manufacturing processes. It
is for this reason that most manufacturers blend clays
to reduce the possibility of impurities from one clay
source affecting the overall quality of the finished
product.
• The properties that most concern the users of brick
are 1) durability, 2) color, 3) texture, 4) size
variation, 5) compressive strength and 6) absorption.
• Durability:
• The durability of brick depends upon achieving incipient fusion and partial vitrification
during firing. Because compressive strength and absorption values are also related to the
firing temperatures, these properties, together with saturation coefficient, are currently
taken as predictors of durability in brick specifications. However, because of differences in
raw materials and manufacturing methods, a single set of values of compressive strength
and absorption will not reliably indicate the degree of firing.

• Texture:
• Coatings and Glazes : Many brick have smooth or sand-finished textures produced by the
dies or molds used in forming.
• A smooth texture, commonly referred to as a die skin results from pressure exerted by the
steel die as the clay passes through it in the extrusion process. Most extruded brick have
the die skin removed and the surface further treated to produce other textures using
devices that cut, scratch, roll, brush or otherwise roughen the surface as the clay column
leaves the die Brick may be tumbled before or after firing to achieve an antique
appearance.
• Color:
• The color of fired clay depends upon its chemical composition, the firing temperatures and
the method of firing control.
• Of all the oxides commonly found in clays, iron probably has the greatest effect on color.
Regardless of its natural color, clay containing iron in practically any form will exhibit a
shade of red when exposed to an oxidizing fire because of the formation of ferrous oxide.
When fired in a reducing atmosphere, the same clay will assume a dark (or black) hue.
Creating a reducing atmosphere in the kiln is known as flashing or reduction firing.
• Given the same raw material and manufacturing method, darker colors are associated with
higher firing temperatures, lower absorption values and higher compressive strength
values. However, for products made from different raw materials, there is no direct
relationship between strength and color or absorption and color.
• Size Variation
• Because clays shrink during both drying and firing, allowances are made in the forming
process to achieve the desired size of the finished brick. Both drying shrinkage and firing
shrinkage vary for different clays, usually falling within the following ranges:
• Drying shrinkage: 2 to 4 percent
• Firing shrinkage: 2.5 to 4 percent
• Firing shrinkage increases with higher temperatures, which produce darker shades. When a
wide range of colors is desired, some variation between the sizes of the dark and light units
is inevitable.
• To obtain products of uniform size, manufacturers control factors contributing to shrinkage.
Because of normal variations in raw materials and temperature variations within kilns,
absolute uniformity is impossible. Consequently, specifications for brick allow size
variations.
• Compressive Strength and Absorption
• Both compressive strength and absorption are affected by properties of the clay,
method of manufacture and degree of firing.
• For a given clay and method of manufacture, higher compressive strength values
and lower absorption values are associated with higher firing temperatures.
Although absorption and compressive strength can be controlled by
manufacturing and firing methods, these properties depend largely upon the
properties of the raw materials.
Properties of Bricks
• Porosity and Absorption is affected by chemical
composition, proper mixing and shaping and the
degree of burning

Weight of water absorbed

% Absorption =
Weight of the dry clay product

Porosity affects the strength and durability of the brick.

Higher porosity (or higher absorption) leads to lower
strength and lower durability.
Properties of Bricks
➢Strength is also affected by the factors affecting
porosity
For strength tests → capping is done with cement
mortar
• Strength of brick → 80-200kgf/cm2
• Strength of wall → further affected by mortar and
workmanship
• Strength of wall < brick strength
Properties of Bricks
• The compressive strength of brick or structural clay tile is an
important material property for structural applications. Typical
Brick Strengths obtained vrom manufacturers in US.
Properties of Bricks
• Unit weight

b
W
γ= Total
V
c volume
V=a.b.c
Defects in Bricks
➢Defects are sometimes formed because of:
• Unsuitable chemical composition
• Improper mixing of clay, sand & water
• Improper shaping
• Improper burning
Defects in Bricks
• Lime Pops: Small lumps of CaO→they may hydrate to
form Ca(OH)2
• Blisters: Tiny holes occuring on the surface due to
incomplete mixing or improper shaping.
• Laminations: Occurs on the extruded sections of
some hollow bricks
• Cracks: - Composition
- Improper drying before burning
- Rapid cooling
- Too much sand→lack of cohesion
• Warping: During drying it may warp.
• Softness & Low Strength: Under burning
Tests on bricks:
• Clay Masonry Units -ASTM C 67, Standard Test Methods for Sampling and Testing
Brick and Structural Clay Tile
• These test methods cover
• Procedures for the sampling and testing of brick and structural clay tile.
• Tests include modulus of rupture, compressive strength, absorption, saturation coefficient,
effect of freezing and thawing, efflorescence, initial rate of absorption and determination
of weight, size, warpage, length change, and void area.
 CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS

1) X-Section
– Solid
– Vertically perforated
– Horizontally perforated
2) Size
– Standard (190x90x50)
– Modular (190x90x85)
– Block (larger)
3) Use
– Facing
– Paving
– Sewer
– Fire
 Brick Work
• Brick shape in
brick work
• To produce the
variety of
arrangmenet or
special purpose
in brick work

48
 Brick Work
• Brick shape in
brick work

Angle
Brick

49
 Brick Work
• Brick shape in
brick work

50
 Brick Work
• Brick arrangement
in brick work

51
 Brick work
• Brick arrangement
in brick work

52
 Brick Work
• Brick arrangement
in brick work

53
 Brick Work
• Brick arrangement
in brick work

54
 Brick work
Brick arrangement in
brickwork
• Some of the popular brick
arrangement is:
• Brick edge Arrangement
• Brick head Arrangement
• American Arrangement
• English Arrangement
• Flemish Arrangement

American
Arrangmen 55
t
 Brick Work
• Brick laying
• Material that was used in
mortar (mix of cement or
lime with sand or both
• Ratio; binder : sand = 1:3
• Thickness or mortar normally
in range 6.5mm - 9mm

56
 Brick Work
• Brick lying finishing: Normally, brick lying will followed by brick
lying finishing. The objective is to get good appearance or good
finishing to brick lying joint.
• It can be make slowly without fully complete or after it complete

Mortar lebihan
dikeruk & di buang
sedalam 15mm

Mortar 57
dikemaskan
 Brick Work
• Plastering
• These have been done after brick lying finishing. The purpose
is to get a smooth surface and uniformity in color. The wall
should scratch to get a rough surface that will easy when
plastering work
• Materials that was used : lime, cement Portland, gypsum
• Plastering work should be in two layers, which one base layer
and finishing layer.
• Base layer ; cement :Lime : sand = 1:2:8-9 @ 1:1: 5-6 @
cement : sand = 1:3 @ gysum : sand = 1:1-3 @ gypsum : lime :
sand = 1:3:7-9
• Finishing layer; lime : gypsum = 1: 0.25 - 0.5

58
Photo advantages of brick

Walk way

Decorative of brick work

59
Photo advantages of brick

60
61
 Fly ash brick
• A power plant waste material called fly ash is utilised in concrete as a partial
replacement for cement. In particular, masonry units that are used to erect
structures are constructed using fly ash bricks as a building material. They serve
as a high-quality, reasonably-priced building material.
• For construction projects, fly ash bricks are utilised as an alternative to burnt clay
bricks. Basic materials like fly ash, sand or stone, and regular Portland cement are
used to make fly ash bricks. Compressive strength, water absorption, and
efflorescence tests are among the tests done on fly ash bricks.
• A fly ash brick may withstand more than 100 freeze-thaw cycles if it is
compressed at a pressure of 28 MPa, cured for 24 hours in a steam bath at 66°C,
and stiffened with an air-entrainment agent.
The brick is considered to be “self-cementing” since class C fly ash contains a
significant amount of calcium oxide. Fly ash brick production uses less energy,
emits less mercury into the atmosphere, and frequently costs 20% less than
traditional clay brick production. Environmentally friendly hydraulic pressure
devices are used to make fly ash brick. They have a compressive strength greater
than 40 Mpa and are 28% lighter than regular clay bricks. They are affordable, do
not require plaster, and can save expensive building expenses and soil erosion.
Fly ash bricks: Primary constituents
• The primary components of fly ash brick are fly ash, stone dust/sand, lime,
gypsum and bonding agent. The mixture is carefully formulated to yield bricks
with improved strength, consistency, and homogeneity.

Raw materials Specification

Fly ash 50-70%
Sand 15-20%
Lime and gypsum 15-20%
Cement 05-08%
Fly ash bricks: Properties
• Fly ash bricks have the following characteristics:
• Appearance: The bricks are smooth and have a suitable cement colour, so they
don’t require plastering for building projects.
• Thermal conductivity: They provide intense light reflection without absorbing
heat.
• Sound insulation: The level of sound insulation is sufficient.
• Resistance to fire and vermin: They have a good fire resistance and they are
unaffected by vermin assaults.
• Durability and moisture absorption: These blocks have a moisture absorption
rate of 6-12%, which lowers the humidity of the walls while maintaining a high
level of durability.
• Toxicity and stability: Fly ash has the potential to be a useful construction
material since it becomes a non-toxic product when combined with lime.
Fly ash bricks: Advantages
• The benefits of using fly ash bricks in construction include the following:
• Fly ash bricks are a lighter material than clay bricks, making them ideal for multi-story
structures since less weight implies less stress on the structure, which ensures safety.
• Fly ash bricks are more suited to Indian weather since they absorb less heat than
regular bricks, keeping your structure cool even in the summer.
• Less mortar is used during construction as a result of its even and consistent shape.
Plastering can also be avoided if utilised for the godowns or the compound wall.
• There is no need for a background coat of plaster before applying plaster of Paris.
• Fly ash bricks have a higher compressive strength than regular bricks, resulting in less
transportation waste.
• Fly ash bricks are less porous than burnt clay bricks, which means they absorb less
water during building. Fly ash bricks help you save money on water during construction
and even maintain the structural integrity of your structure during wet seasons.
Fly ash bricks: Drawbacks
• The drawbacks of fly ash bricks include the following:
• Not all fly ash bricks are suitable for building. Some, which are often produced in
power plants similarly to concrete, may require beneficiation. To minimise
damaging effects on the building, it is vital to exclusively utilise high-quality fly
ash.
• If bricks are not properly prepared, they lack strength and are unfit for use in
construction. Concrete suffers when built with low-quality bricks. It can make a
structure more permeable, leading to structural damage.
• The brick’s flat surface prevents a strong bond from forming with the concrete.
• Bricks only in modular sizes are able to be produced. More breaks will occur with
larger block sizes.
• Fly ash bricks are only appropriate for subtropical regions or places with warm
climates since they do not absorb heat. However, it is useless in the cold.
Fly ash bricks: Uses
• Fly ash bricks are typically utilised in load-bearing external walls of small to
medium-sized buildings.
• Burnt clay bricks, one of the most essential building materials acquired for the
construction of homes and structures, are often substituted by fly ash bricks. The
traditional burnt clay bricks can be replaced with fly ash construction bricks in
practically all situations where burnt clay bricks are ineffective for brick masonry
operations.
• Bricks made from fly ash are used to create high-rise buildings, industries,
warehouses, and structures with several stories.
Fly ash bricks vs red bricks
Red bricks Fly ash bricks
Not the same colour since the
The colour of fly ash brick is
kind of soil and quality control
comparable to bricks made
used during manufacture
under controlled settings using
determine the colour of the
the equipment.
brick.
Due to the use of equipment in
Since they are typically built by
manufacture, the product is
hand, clay bricks are not all
uniform in shape and has a
created equally.
smooth surface.
Plastering is required because Plastering is not usually
the surface finish is not smooth necessary because of the flat
or straight. surface and thin seams.
Fly ash is the main component
The weight of clay bricks is
of fly ash brick; hence it is
heavier.
lighter.
These bricks are less permeable Almost no pores exist in fly ash
than clay bricks. bricks.
Clay brick is more expensive These bricks cost about 30% less
than fly ash brick. than clay bricks.
This was created utilising the
Continued usage of clay bricks
leftovers from a thermal power
in the building sector will result
plant which protects the
in a significant loss of rich
ecosystem from contamination
topsoil.
that already exists.
FAQs
• What size is a fly ash brick?
• The shape of fly ash bricks is cuboidal. A cuboid has three dimensions: length,
width, and height. Therefore, the fly ash brick measures 4 inches by 4 inches by 8
inches.
• How much does a fly ash brick weigh?
• Fly ash bricks weigh between 2-3 kg each.
• How much does a fly ash brick cost?
• A fly ash brick costs around Rs 8-10 per piece.
1. Describe the functions of various ingredients of good brick earth or what are the
requirements of good brick earth?
2. Describe the effects of harmful ingredients in brick earth
3. Mention the properties of first class brick and second class brick

• As clay is stiff, sticky earth is used for making bricks. Nature has an abundant quantity of
clay, which is formed by disintegration and decomposition of igneous rocks. Clay
suitable for making bricks contains the following constituents.
• Silica: It exists in the free or combined form. Sand is a free form of silica, while it exists
in combined form with alumina. The presence of silica in bricks prevents cracking and
warping. However, excess of silica makes the brick brittle. About 50-60 per cent of silica
is desirable in good clay.
• Alumina: Alumina is a compound of aluminum oxide occurring naturally with earth. It
gives plasticity to the earth so that moulding is possible. About 20-30 percent of
alumina is desirable in good earth. Excess of alumina makes raw bricks shrink and wrap
during drying and burning.
• Lime: In the presence of lime, sand fuses slightly and works as a hard cementing
material. The quantity of lime should not exceed 5 percent as excess lime makes the
brick melt and lose shape.
• Oxide of iron: Like lime, oxide of iron also helps in the fusion of sand. It also imparts a
red colour to it. Oxide should be only 5 to 6 per cent of the brick. Excess quantity makes
the bricks darker, while less quantity makes them yellowish.
• Magnesia: A small quantity of magnesia should be added, as it decreases shrinkage.
• Harmful Ingredients:
• The following ingredients in brick are undesirable, as they have an adverse effect on the
quality of brick:
• Pebble: The presence of pebbles or grits prevent the uniform and thorough mixing of
clay. It produces weak and porous bricks.
• Vegetation and organic matter: If these are present in brick-earth, gas is released
during the burning of bricks. It results in porous and weak bricks.
• Alkalis: Sulphates of calcium, sodium and potassium are harmful alkalis. They lead to
twisting and warping of bricks. They absorb moisture from the atmosphere and create
dampness. When evaporated, grey or white patches appear on the brick walls.
• Lime: If lime is present in the form of slumps, it slakes afterwards and breaks the bricks.
• Properties of good building bricks
• Good building bricks have the following main features:
• Colour: The brick should be uniform and bright in colour
• Shape: Bricks should have plane faces. They should possess sharp and truly right-
angled corners.
• Texture: Bricks should be fine, dense and uniform in texture. A fractured surface
should not show fissures, cavities, loose grit and unburnt lime.
• Size: Bricks should be of standard size prescribed by the codes.
• Sound: Bricks should give out a metallic sound when struck with a hammer or
with another brick.
• Hardness: Scratching with finger should not leave any impression on the brick.
• Strength: Crushing strength should be as high as possible. IS code does not
permit any brick of strength 3.5 N/mm 2 to be used in building construction. A
field test for strength is to drop the brick from a height of 0.9-1.0 m on a hard
ground---the brick should not break into pieces.
• Water absorption: After immersing the bricks in cold water for 24 hours, water
absorption should not be more than 20 per cent. For class-I works, this limit is 15
percent.
• Efflorescence: Bricks should not show white patches when soaked in water for 24
hours. White patches indicate the presence of sulphates of calcium, magnesium,
sodium and potassium. They keep the masonry permanently damp.
• Thermal conductivity: Bricks should have low thermal conductivity so that
buildings built with them are cool in summer and warm in winter.
• Sound Insulation: Light-weight bricks and hollow bricks provide good sound
insulation. The strength and sound insulation properties of bricks are inversely
proportional to each other. Hence, bricks with unnecessary high strength (heavy
bricks) need to be used.
• Fire resistance: Good bricks are fire-resistant.