es J30OM 2wONMEA 318ea0 7oucoP 07 MOrTOUGORTH

224t narf vlno

Product Design Practice anda

golo Chapter
ngesi 0
2
Industry
bo& gni siT
duT
fo3ui

2.1 INTRODUCTIONN
vbod
Product development and design is closely linked with industrial activity and production. When a
new product is planned, the designer has to bear in mind the available resources of the plant and the
possible impact of the fim having to acquire, modify,or substitute existing machines and equipment
or buy various components from other suppliers. It is therefore obvious that product development
and design is at the core of the development and growth of the production centre and its departments.
Thus, product design is one of the fundamental elements of management policy. Eilon [1] has
emphasized the close relation between productidevelopment and production planning and control.

elli b [Link]-s ..M .woizh |1i

wo
2 PRODUCT STRATEGIES oel.sa1ol
What is the product strategy of an organization, and how does it affect the'design of the product?
Surveys in industry, by use of questionnaires and interaction with executives of manufacturing firms,
have revealed that, there, is no [Link] [Link] allorganizations. w .aueli 1E}
/

E0e1 gitloilM)
2.2.11 Pricing [Link] Productsyz to ngizs..CI z03 bs d.W .nEudaoD H
Asoan vexámple of pricing 'strategy, one"largenchain"of departmental storés aims ät offering
commodities to the public at a minimum price, whatever be the quality. In fact, one mày be quite
sure that articles bought at this stores cannot be obtained cheaper or even at the same price elsewhere.
The company bases this policy on the assumption that the type of goods it offers need not have a
very long life and that, if sold cheaply enough, the volume of sales is likely to be very large, so that
even a very marginal profit per unit will lead to substantial gains. This strategy is termed pricing
strategy.

2.2.2 Product Quality Strategy

Other manufacturers (eg. the aircraft industry and many precision instrument makers) define their
aim as high quality, whatever be the cost. The Chaiman of Bajaj Auto Ltd. has recently expressed
that for his company. product quality is the secret of success for over the last three decades. The high
quality is manifested in minimal maintenance, high reliability and ergonomic superiority of the Bajaj
scooter for Indian conditions. Similarly, LML Vespa and Kinetic Honda have been able to capture
substantial market share due to their superior product quality.
30
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE)AND INDUSTRY 31

2.2.3 Product Luxuriousness Strateggy TOUGOR aHT 70 [Link] .S

In same cases, luxuryi and .comfort are thei prime considerations that cost,becomes secondáry;e.g
Rolls [Link], in :others, iprecision) and iprestige
playi annimportant part, lfor instance,
Mercedes, BMW and Toyta. The manufacturers of these automobiles produce luxurious models (ot
course, Toyota has several popular models besides the luxury models), but the number produced is
not very large, and in spite of the high price of the finished product, the firm cannot expect to get
high profits from this line of production alone. 292t19lDhil t9ubort
199qe lenoitonui (6)
199qas IeI1oim9qO (d)
2.2.4 Product Utility Strategy
e399es vilidsbuoqb ban ytilideuI ()
Other automobile firms like Maruti motors aim at large volume produtión 'of a low-priced car that
will compete with more expensive models (Esteem) by having some of their successful and popular
features and innovations. Most companies, however, say they aim at striking a satisfactory balance
between very high quality andi a reasonable pricei Others go further ànd try to inmprove this balance
in favour of the customer, by improving quality and leaving the price unchanged or by improving
a
production methods and offering the same quality at reduced price. enoqes noitoubo9
o 1s1qs) ai barobien09 S ei:qlss oimon0EI bras alaoqes noiiosbo11 .3.i bos E 219912A
01s
23 TIME TO MARKET dood rli ni yloviosqes
The importance of product development and design for loing-range planning by mánagement is
fürtheremphasized by the amount of time that elapses from the inception of the idea for the new
design until production starts. Some surveys in industry, reported by Eilon [11 revealed remarkable
figures for this"incubation" period or time to market:

oimooAutomobilebodiesorljori noioubong 9th noil bule 19dnsts1o1 aiesd2 yearsjvoq nuioy

16i nAutomobile engines sb 19uboG 2i botiibom eissti9q br1s bodD9ro4-7 yearsieyls16
baigo Radios and television setssl 21012si io 9buililuti s to 3313br19qst1nini 6-12 monthssilboxs
Specialized welding equipment O months
Telecommunications equipment 4 years
915 boy9
D10-15 years. [Link]
Aircraft
Sttw 1°Household ilrw 1oibog be20qoiq 9r) lerdt staildstes ol2 vears
equipment itli
2i ti 12ti9

[Link] bas siditesb itod sis 19tiO T69 1 233iv192 9rd: brie o boeoqque ai ti
1Oinietai-cutting equipment 4-5yearssqx9
.FiPob 13bOTq iw bsoris og o slhiu 2
bs22922Shipbuilding(depending on size, ot, yessels t1s adt ni tosboq sri612, months,T
over several yars) 1 rose291 19sn yd
9d rtii Special shipbuilding design may bé developed
21udinipashión?itinslto vd 1o 1sssn si! ni qBg s i gaiit d 1oriis.19ubonq 'several weeksbotai
2i bnsT3 love
D projects, where development and 'design take somewhat long time, because of the
In 'defence
Complexity of the problems involved, some design may become "obsolete even before their
production has begun, as new models are being developed at the Computer Aided Design
Workstations and in the testing laboratories by competitors at a
very fast' rate t)3
yisol is toirtw to m0239 213att3
O usttsb 290mitsmo2 s ba 2nO1ID lsöol o1 bosist
srli moii 1919676rt fii tgottib bus storsT ai 19ä1srr zisit 1t ylisiveq29 ,2b9 211 ool"
31 ts2o
 32 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

AANALYSIS OF THE PRODUCT vpsta2 22snauoituxu.l toubo9 e.s.s

Many factors have to be analyzed in relation to development and design factors which vary in
character and complexity, and factors related to different fields in production and industrial
engineering, Some of these may be grouped as follows: i T
Bu 1/8 slssrulA
1. Marketing aspect
2 Product characteristics ls, noiulbsng to snil eint tmont titonq rigi
(a) Functional aspect
(b) Operational aspect
(c) Durability and dependability aspects Yesiet2 ytilitU toubo19 .S.S

Te.13. Economic analysis

.(a)
Ao
Profit consideration
s d unl :isiom sicns/5 STOm
i1 W 31>g10 l11#

ure(b) Effect of standardizatíon, simplification and specialization.

t (C) Break-even analysis
4. Production aspects. bas n iliaig tn d aito ba dls orr stoiiouiog
Aspects 3 and 4, i.e. Production aspects and Economic analysis are considered in Chapters 6 and 10,
respectively in the book. TEHAAM OT EMIT 8.S
All these factors are interrelated and each presents many issues that have to be carefully
considered, as indicated by Fig. 2.1. Market research may guide product designers in their work to
improve existing products or to develop new ones. The design and its characteristics have to undergo
an economic analysis and must be researched in the light of available production facilities and
techniques. A costing analysis is naturally dependent on the sales volume; hence the proposed design
has to be re-evaluated by market research so that a sales projection can be done. This expected sales
volume provides the basis for a further study from the production methods aspect, and the economic
analysis has to be rechecked and perhaps modified. Thus product development and design is an
excellent example of interdependence ofa multitude of factors that have to be unified and integrated
into a final composítíon.

119T1g 2ntt171TOTslsi
24.1 Product and Market
First, it is necessary to establish that the proposed product will fulfill a demand in the market, what
it is supposed to do, and the services it can offer are both desirable and acceptable. If no consumption
is expected, it is futile to go ahead with product design.
The demand for the product in the market may already exist, and its volume can then be assessed
by market research and sales figures for similar products. Demand can also be created with
the
introduction of a new product, either by filling in a gap in the market or by offering new attributes,
such as noveity, form and shape, or some other specific quality. The volume of such a demand is
nore difficult to forecast. Market research is a useful tool in these cases, but experience and sound
udgement are required to evaluate and apply the results of such research, and in some cases a certain
amount of speculation cannot be avoided.
The volume of demand is a function of several factors, such as trends, cyclic effects, seasonal
effects etc., some of which are closely related to local conditions and are sometimes difficult to
define or measure. It is therefore essential for an enterprise to keep in touch with the market and
"feel its trends, especially v/hen this market i5 remote and different in character from the local one.
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 33
basd 1 Y*9t1t 3t| 97}d 2imonqioo to 1231 62i uiesb joubog 9oitot1g
O 9tfti mo
ntesb fushi srit to i991103759jesb oris brs
i ioin Marketingg Economic
aspects analysis
i9l: Ls2231q49 9rti moTt

Durability
vioido
Functional Operational
Research analysis and
Considerations dependability

Product
Production development 01srT103
aspectssr 1 Aesthetic
aspects i snitroubs .o

YPRODUCT
Material and DESIGN
equipment eoiteineio51sri toub019 eriT S.B.S
availability -
wod ai bei ili rood bnsi eri ngiesb ni eqirenoiislo1 2iuorusY 31t

rRO V. .Jaormqolsreb 1u f13 ooTip9t isaoirot

Production Sales Advertising)e soonut sri
foidwizsb moilyubo.m 19 bTE,yilidebnsgab
bne ii2sh to eqes msi1oqmi 7 i ruiob si
n93 10 ilstltesA isfgolsvs
inoupduz sri ,s1siqnoo i irsh 9 Market
Further
cresearch
rfl o touheg urti to guiltse iitE
eb9snotqooi osdbosi stlt J9 development
a1iqrmo ei zizvi1

boofqs nosd svsi siilidizz

arit f19H.}39qen lsn4ei)otr ti)
nnoiui Design
19pbog sii to g04
29113 To bonilsh vlrsqoTq bn bosyini| modifications
21Sr2113 9rit o1 itsl od 19uhoi silt

Fig. 2.1Variousrelationships in design, production

and marketing, oitw
40 3
This is of particular importance to firms depending on export trade for the distribution of their
F910 el} i199:tttiijilst iil iil 2103t{278 to sznEi
products. i.9/i(11 :customer get what
he wants
3Another relevant question related to product design is: Should the
or should he be served with what he needs? Basically, this is an target economic question. If the
management wants to achieve maximum satisfaction and sets itself as a to supply the customer
an infinite variety of
with what he wants, it may be faced with the possibility of having to produce
were to ignore the customer's
models to suit every taste. On the other hand, if the management
wishes or to maintain that he does not really know what he wants and should therefore be told what
is good for him, the designer's task would become far more simpler, but the sales department would
cases is difficult. 1341EGIT
have to face an unpredictable market. The decision in such
 34 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURINGA

In practice, product design is a result of compromise between, infinite variety on the one hand
and the designer's concept of the ideal design on the other. In order to try to selling this compromise
to potential customers, the management opts for an advertising campaign, the policy of which is
dependent on the characteristics of the "compromise design" and on how far it conforms to, or differs
from, the expressed desires of the market to which such a campaign is directed. Generally, the main
objective of advertising is to expand the market, this being achieved by
f7O1D
1. providing general information about the existence of the product,
firirEnrtoty ions23S
2. providing téchnical information about its functional characteristics or utility,
3. drawing the customer's attention to those attributes of the product which he wants,
4. winning the undecided customer by exhibiting possible attractions (such as colour, design,
novelty and price) that may persuade him to prefer the product to the one offered by
competitors, narmgolsrsh fHoitoubo9
5. creating demand among a,passive population of customers; and
6. educating the customer, or telling him what he should want.
TOUGO
MDIRIG bar isioeM
2.4.2 The Product Characteristics trsmqip9
Thevariousrelationships in design have already been illustrated in Fig. 2.1. Now it cán be seen how
market research starts driving the 'design-production-consumption-cycle. Needs analysis generates
functional requirement which in turn generates specification for product development. Apart from
the functional aspects, other aspects, termed standards of performance, e.g. cost durability,
dependability, and ergonomics, are essential inputs to product development. Production design which
considers incorporation of production into the design is another important aspect of design and
development. Aesthetics or considerations of product appearance usually enter product design at a
later stage rather than at the development stage. After the product design is complete, the subsequent
steps are prototype production and later on, batch or mass production. The next step involyes the
actual selling of the product to the appropriate market. From the,market, the feedback loop too needs
analysis is complete.
(i) Functional aspect. When the marketing possibilities have been explored, the functional
scope of the product has tó be carefully analyzed and properly defined. Sometimes,
functional aspects are multiple, and usage of the product can be left to the customer's
choice. A steam iron is a case in point. The additional function of dampening the cloth when
required, prior to or during ironing, is incorporated in the steam iron, the main functions of
which is to iron the cloth. The customer can decide whether and when to exploit this
characteristic of the apparatus.
Ti3ds to roi There
is a trend to, offer functional versatility, of the product, thereby,increasing the
range of applications and sometimes combining several tools in one. A mixer, for example,
allows for a large number of attachments to be added for a variety of duties, t is labelled
as a "kitchen machine" to enhance its positioning. Basically, the mixer housing contains, a
79121 Power unit and a speed regulator, but it has to be so designed as to serve all, the attachments,
to ain and the customer has to decide and define for himself the functional scope to be compatible
on
Twith his needs, his taste and ThePOcket. Again, household power-tool sets are designed
his
blovery much the same principle: hand drill such as Wolf Cubmaster is the basic unit, and
blsow With attachments it can become a table drill,a lathe, a grinder, etc. Versatility of production
machinery may, quite often result in substantial savings in production, shopfloor space and
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 35
1201f1 t! 'capital expenditure, and this may: become one of the
fundamèntabfactors affecting design
eitob policy. Another example of versatility inidesign is seen in multifunctionalmodular office
izsd sri furniture designediby.-furniture designers.:m9ono vinis ei s39q2s uirsdseos sds

i) Operational, aspect (Ergonomic considerations). After determining the functional

215 aspect, the operational aspect has to,
be considered. Not only must the product function
3oproperly, it must bë easy to handle and easy to operate. Sometimes it has to be adaptable
to various operational conditions, and very often it is subjected to varying degrees
of skill
blvode of potential operators. The designer's problem becomes all the more critical with:the rising
i eilT trend for increased versá[Link] [Link] implies using basic attachments as
ST991 elements for building suitable combinations for specific purposes: This requires certain a
at Auramount of operator intelligence and skill, which increases with the complexity of the
machine. The scarcity of skill is a constraint in this respect on the product designer.-ori
Isnoitomt The start" stage before. the properioperation and the t'cleanupi time (including
i
boiBuine cleaning) should be carefully analyzed with respect to the expected skill of the operator. Too
s 3On broften, one finds highly efficient gadgets ([Link] the field of household equipment) that are
n botsicapable of performing an operatiön iniáfraction of the time normally required but which
1oriio sriinvolve such complicated preparations or such lengthy cleaning and "put away'" subsequent
operations, that the ratio of net machine time to overall machine time becomes too
3318t2ninsignificanti(The beneficial features attributed to the gadget in such cases are rather
tniog Inndebatable.i ont boriup91 gtisoteen s20l o3bebiai. 10 isueu sd oi svsd elcoisan luiosqy nortv
1o zizyiens Versatility of equipment should also be' analyzed in the [Link] multiple chucks which
ylorslquishould be a 'quick change chuck'. Especially, when subsequent operations are to be carried
sPerh to
out with theaid of different attachments, the designer should ülways bear in mind the time
tour [Link] for an operator toiperform the changeover and should ensure that the changeover
time is in reasonable proportion to the operation time.

in Ease of maintenance and durability. There are two factors closely reláted to the
selection of materials and class of workmanship and hence to the design of the product and
2urv the economical analysis of its cost. Quality is not always a simple characteristic to define
2sto but durability and dependability are two factors that often determine quality and have to be
nolia carefully considered by the designer. Durability is defined mainly by the length of the
w

service life or endurance of the product under given, working conditions, but a measure of
i1S also often considered in assessing
2410iltothe. product capability to idle or withstand storage
.320qu durability. Selection of good materials alone does not guarantee the durability of a product.
23nitni The actual service life of a match or a rocket
motor may be rather limited, but that does not
therefore
sp mean that materials for these articles may be of low quality. An additional criterion,
the product to do its job. In the
has, to be considered, that of reliability, or the capability of
ol

Diodte
case of matches, for instance, reliability may be related to the number of sticks in a box, and
while the manufacturer is eager to reduce this number to minimum, he need not choose
a the
29very best' raw materials to ensure that not even one match will fail. Dependability of rocket
GT nmotors, however, may be moreforrigidly defined, and quality materials are chosen in spite of
[Link] short active life envisaged them in some applications. The standard of performance and
tolito
specificatións of different products should be assessed with cautionnt
botiolq srd Another aspect of durability is that of maintenance and repair. The amount of repair
to: quality and
9sie lo and preventive maintenance. required for some products is closely related
design policy. This is of particular importance when the equipmenti is supposed to operate
continuously and when any repair involves a loss of running time.
 36 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING)A

rs3ifteiv)
Aesthetic [Link] what way does the appearance ofa product affect its design? In most
cases where the functional scope, durability and dependability. have already been defined.
the aesthetics aspect is mainly concerned with moulding the final shape around the basic
skeleton. This moulding of shape, may, very often be severely limited in scope, and what
finally emerges is sometimes termed a junctional shape. The view that functional shape is
tnecessarily divorced from aesthetics is well illustrated by bridges, locomotives, or machines
f the late 19th or early 20th century.
g4ti However, a study of the gradual changes in shape of these objects in the past few decades should
convince us that there has been an increasing recognition of the role of aesthetics in' design. This is
perhaps partly due to man's aesthetic taste being reconciled to accepting these objects as an integral
part, of the landscape [Link] life, thereby leading to a modification of the original attitude that
thesefreaks are hopelessly ugly and should be discarded.i lie lo iot st![Link]
nit Functional shape is a concept in its own right among designers. Those who believe in functional
shape argue that compatibility of function with shape is logical and should therefore be accentuated
and exploited, rather than covered up. A standard lamp is first and foremost lamp iand not
butertly, and there isi nothing wrong with its looking like a lamp. This approach is illustrated in
Fig 2.1in this approach, the aesthetic aspects are examined at the design stage after all the other
aspects of the proposed product have been analyzed.t on 1o
19ri In some cases, however, plastic
oit rr isrs 2noilsrsqo
moulding of shape may have financial implications;: for instance,
when special materials have to be used or added to those basically required from the functional point
of view orwhen additional processes are involved. Such cases will require careful cost analysis of
the aesthetic aspects. In some cases, aesthetics is the governing factor in design and completely
dominates it.:This is especially true for many consumer goods or fashion goods. In the case of these
goods; both variety and rate of design change are very high; Arthur D. Little Inc., USA classify such
products as turbulent products.
Whereas styling is a dominant factor in product design, it is often used as a,means,to create
demand. In such products, appearance is the sole reason for purchase of the product. Changes in
fashion and taste. evolution of form., and the introduction of new ideas quickly replace previous
designs. If the market is turbulent and eager to discard outdated designs in favour of new ones,
Styling becomes a race against time, a race that determines the salability of the product. Eilon [1]
recommends the following techniques to enhance aesthetic appeal in product design

gateUse of special materials, eitherfor the parts of the housing or as additional

decorations.
1ubeigNotable is the use of chromium strips, plastics, wood, glass and fabrics for the purpose.
TO1
2Use of colour, either natural colour of the material or colour provided by paints, platings,
praying. or even lighting Composition and contrast of colours is of great importance to
n the industrial designer in creating a design with convenient operational and aesthetic

9031exture,supplements,colour, either by appropriate treatment of the given surfaces or

to siige Coatings. Surface finish and requirements of brightness as determined by styling may
1in

bR 2urn affect the production processes in the finishing stages. Matt finish, mirror finish, and
mottled finish are examples of surface finish varieties, which are in vogue,ioq2
116 420Shape denoted by outer contours and similarity to familiar [Link] can be exploiteu
bi iito accentuate particular features, to create asense of spaciousness or illusions of siZe,
sT2g00 richness and dependability i1ortu 39nngni siuoing lo ai aisf T ytloxg ngteap
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 37

[Link] of line to break the form. It is also used for the'purpose of emphasizing [Link] it,
a
tgi to give a sense of continuity, graciousness and attainability
or otsrjir93 o}
»
urioig

[Link] the product, either to a blown-up size or to a small size (modelling). This creates
gtst novelty and a sense of completeness. The success'of styling of some popular small
automobiles in Europe may be partly due to the designer's talent in creating a feeling of
5to s1stillness having the full-size version, with all its features. 9O| 3t5 abyg
.
Packaging, especially for small items, novelty and attractiveness of packaging are offen
transferred in the mind of the customer. In extreme cases packaging may assume an
tappreciable portion of the total production costs and becomethe centre ofthe design projec
Aesthetic moulding, especially when governed by selection of material, colour, texture and
i
achieved at a
sometimes even line, has great economic advantages, since great variety can be
comparatively low cost. The basic product remains the same; and variety is obtained by
finishing
likes, provided
processes alone. Henry Ford's maxim that the customer may choose any colour he
it is black, is no longer valid. Modern production control techniques
allow for ai vast number of
are willing to pay
combination of colours and textures to be offered with little difficulty. Customers
this holds true even
more for design with special aesthetic features as demanded by them. Strangely,
i
for instrumentation and control panel.
design, and no good designer can
Aesthetics has been fully recognized as an integral part of
acsthetics in product design
afford to ignore its implications, its tools and its benefits. The role of
is of great importance and has been covered in Section
2.17.

.isiro1sm lo eitqor hoirsrio bs Inoirylq to noiinoiiosqe

245 THE THREE S's
specialization-three related subjects which
Thethree S's refer to standardization, simplification, and
three S's can be defined as follows:
are the oot
at ofany economic analysis of product design. The
"conditions" necessary to ensure that a
Standardization is the process of defining and applying the
a minimum of variety and in a reproducible
given range of requirements can normally be met with essence, of
and economic manner on the basis of the best
current techniques. Reduction is the
and set-up times is shown in Fig. 2.2.
standardization: The effect of variety reduction on production
system of International Standards has now become
Ithas attained so much importance that ISO 9000

lirdssgnnfotoini tn iitsxibTabane
.gninmcig ni nolto ba id deir
isr
5cW baitioeqe
sbrvo o1 2i 2bibnnte lo 020413
vds191t bas.n9ldorq (a) Production of variety 2 o gatui to
dant odtto rar Set-up eOufo2
oll

Production9d oi

.esti aonstibsbnst
(b) Reduction of variety2l02rio
tng sta isisisr to noilosbaA
reduction on set-up and production cycle times.
Fig. 2.2 Effect of simplification and variety
 38 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING)1

aisynonym for quality and prestige Several industries are àiming at achieving this standard to be able
to compete globally. The reader is advised to study special literature on Quality Management for
detailed information on ISO 9000. y 01
10i (-17/0oii oi 19
Iis Sinplification is the process of reducing the number of types of products within a definite range.
t, is als0 an attempt to reducelisi
variety.,i ot b vlsq od zui qo1U: nitioitr
Specialization is the process whereby particular firms concentrate on the manufacture of a
limited number of products or types of products. Specialization often is a result of one's aim to
monopolize the market. b Y70731}s1 t 7s9i4.21210A'D1
The three processes are usually linked together and develop as a logical sequence. From a wide
range of requirements is first necessary to sort out the essential features, define them, and then
it
Work, out in a scientific manner the minimum variety required to meet these essentials. This is a
process of standardization, and it is mainly an engineering process. Within a given range, whether
covered by standards or not, a process of simplification can be carried out with a view to reducing
the, variety of products or materials that are produced or purchased. This is both an economic and
an engineering process, and specialization is one of, its natural outcomes. i9gnol on
ai Ao,id ei i
B O1 gnilliw oun erotmoie) gilitmib shil diw bonsllo od o) em/ot bns 2uolos to noisnicdno
26 STANDARDIZATION i d bsbnsmsb as 2ouno1 oitaltess isisotq itin nyisb To 91om
Iornsq loiro bnt noine112fni 1o1
Standardization covers a wide field of activity. These activities include:i
nod esd oilsdies/
1. Physical dimension and tolerances of components within 'defined range.101191 o1 brolts
á
2. Rating of machines or equipment (in units of energy, temperature, current,
speed, etc.).
3. Specification of physical and chemical properties of materials.
4. Methods of testing characteristics or performances. e'e 33AHT 3HT a.S
loid 5:1Methods of installation to comply with minimum precautionary measures
and convenience
:2wollot of use1sb d soe s9111 9ilf giob 11fv 1o
ie lurs oitnoos yth 1o Jo01 3i s 9u
The first three categories relate to limitation of the number of SIzes or grades and some
aspects
of quality, one of the important aims being interchangeability, of components or assemblies.
Adherence to standards of raw materials is, one of the fundamentals of product
design since any
deviation from the standards in this respect may cause a substantial increase in the
cost of materials.
Industry is rich with examples in which the designer specifies "special"
materials whereas the
standard grades can do just as well
Standardization and interchangeability impose certain limitations on the designer
and demand
high skill and effort in planning. It is easy enough when designing a new
component to decide that
no standard really meets the special requirements of the case in hand and
that-a part has to be
specified. What designers seem to forget is that one of the purposes of standards
is to provide
solutions to relieve them of the task of having to solve afresh some basic problem, and
thereby allow
them more time to concentrate on the broader aspects of the design.
Another prerequisite of interchangeability is the precision required in the manufacturing
process
in order to obtain production within the specified tolerances. This implies that
production control has
to be tightened so that any deviation from the given standards will be immediately
noticed and
appropriate action can be taken- to avoid the process getting out of control.
Standardization has, however, many advantages, some of which may be briefly listed
'now:
1. Reduction
of material waste and obsolescence lo oiuboA (d)
2 Concentration of effort in manufacturing: hence simplification and specialization,
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 39

3. Reduction in inventories, both of materials, and semifinished ánd finished products orT
4. Reduction in book-keeping and other paper work 01 2slse.3.i 00.01 Nie 1e1i1
5. Lowering the grades of skill required in manufacture and,assembly&.a1 osie broso2
6. Reduction in price: hence expansion of the market 1ooise 3.i .[Link] briiT
9Ntz

7. Reduction in repair and maintenance costs. OF 19sl92 .9.i .8.0E inso'l

9Sie
Eo 1391s2 .3.i ,.to siz ilfti
001 1p3l92 .9.i .00.001 9sie dixi?
2.7 RENARD SERIES (PREFERRED NUMBERS)
ot bogumost od ns ysnog 19rlto st io siz qst [Link]
According to the American Standards Association, preferred numbers are defined as "a series of
numbers selected to be used for standardization purposes in preference to other numbers. Their use
will lead to simplified practice and they should, therefore, be employed whenever possible for
individual standard sizes and ratings, or for a series thereof, "in applications relating to important or
characteristic linear dimensions (such as diameters and lengths) or specificatións as areas, volumes,
weights, and capacities; ratings of machinery and apparatús. eoit92-C
15
The, problem of selecting preferred numbers was first tackled by, the French engineer Col.
Charles Renard in 1870 and, therefore, the series is sometimes, referred to as the Renard series.
Renard was an,officer in the French Army and was, faced with the problem of 425 different, sizes
of cables which were in use in his unit. He recognized that the process of standardization consisted
of two problems: to define the number of terms in the series; and to determine the method by which
these sizes should be preferred to others.
Colonel Renard suggested the use of a combination of geometrical progression as well as
multiples of ten (decimal series) as a guide for selection, and this system has indeed been adopted
in standardization to cover the given ranges satisfactorily.
2 Suppose a manufacturer wants to produce containers having between 10, and 100 gallons
capacity. In selecting the type of series he can choose any, of the following four series:

TtA 5-Series, i.e. covering the range of 10 to 100 in 5 steps

A 10-series, i.e. covering the range of 10 to 100 in 10 steps
0

eA 20-series, i.e. covering the range of 10 to 100 in 20 steps

A 40-series, i.e. covering the range of 10 to 100 in 40 steps.

The need for more terms in a series (having fewer steps than those obtained in the 40-series)
is very rare in practice, but when such a need arises, it is, possible .to use the 80-series. If a
manufacturer decides to adopt the 5-series, his capacity. ratings according. to. the geometric
progression series will be:
1.,a.81mto--(2qat2 Po) 23i132 O
First size 10 (given)
Second size 10 x q
Third size 10 x f 5 steps (given) MOITAOIJ9MI2 8.S
th Fourth size,10,x giu a nsswtd nm91gaib to ruoe instenossi noiteoiliqmi?
tu Fifth size 10,X 'uu 111 1si1s siuil zrstsq 7341979 oitubotq A Isnnoeroq roitsubog
9 Sixth
Hence, stesiue
=
size 10 x 1001 03 1mtsersb roirouborq sdt zoltdsee roiteoitilquni2
vo
g
1o
252)
vo
01 17121 94is
nid
stlT uba
gpirsto
ionntvo ilqrnie
lg= axdi 10:iq(10)=
bs noinsitin suitiazn bn. noiauboq

re1s1/51p iudat gni wellest ui

1.585
eie vnie
nrig 15 rtoits:oiilqrtie to enoo bns
ol basi stdto
e03 s:T 2naw od tetlw
 MANUFACTURING
40 PRODUCT DESIGN AND

beifinilir bas eis191 10 filoi 3ti9inavnt ni rtoitnls

The calculated sizes would
First size 10.00, i.e. select 10
Second size 15.85, i.e. select 16 unen n bstiip9i iiie 10 3iung ri unims moi

Third size 25.12, i.e. select 25 5 steps

Fourth size 39.82, i.e. select 40
Fifth size 63.11, i.e. select 63
Sixth size 100.00, i.e. select 100
(2A38MU aRAITaA) 21R52 OAAMaA TS
Similarly, the step size of the other series can be determined for
13 rioiromh rii o ibo33
Ab112
Se 5-series: q = 10 = 1.5849 or a step. increase by about 60% o1 bau l o} bolssl92 19itu
101 10-series: q = 10= 1.2589 or a step increase by about 25%iiq boiilettie o i:i i
20-series: q=2/10=11220 or a step increase by' about 12%6
5-series:q = 4/10 = 1.0593 or a step increase by abolut
101/T941ib
btbrpi taubiibi
senil oileioi2u16t
e
o0gaihT:0iisq b 1tuio
The basic preferred numbers for all these series, as suggested by the International System, are
shown in Table 2.1, where the given rounded numbers do not depart from the theoretical calculations
by more than 1.3 per cent. The 5-series is given in column A. To obtain the 10
series, column E
should be added; hence the series would read: 10, 12.5, 16, 20, 25, etc. Similarly,
for the 20-series
read 10, 11.2, 12.5, 14, 16 and so on.3/19 9il etits) to 19imn srii gnetob 0120119ldo o to

lsw ei noiee91201q Table 2.1 Basic preferred numbers (10 to 100)

Columns A B
Cltotti,D 79uE, zig ihF
oliigR Dt10 193 10.6 2117i.1 11.2 H,1Ft9 11.8
1 12.5 113.2:118I 14 15
P9rt/161 2n17lt rti 1g'ne s9091 2 1 q
25 26.5
20 212 1:o22.4 23.6
28 (10) 30 (L 1o 31.5
40 42.5 q 45 ni
33.5 .i 35.5- A37.5
47.5
63
501
sl 53 5612-01 60
67 tqo1-71nit01 75 01 o 80
850.i 9092-0 A95
100

9Ii5 series (60% steps)column A

series (25% steps)-column A,32t1R
D93ft &iou:
oiteo910 19t 1 9i?o1q1 11 19 1

20 series (12% steps)-column A, C,

Eifi 1 01194-9ri ttub osbi sob 191ut9sii1
E, G
40 series (6% steps)-column A, B,
C, D, E, F, G, H.
(nevis) 0 i 12t
26 SIMPLIFICATIOON
Simplification is a constant source 189Vi2t1912
of disagreement between
production personnel. A production the marketing department ánd tne
engineer prefers little variety,
(see Fig. 2.2). Simplification enables minimum set-up, and long runs
the production department
rates of production and machine utilization, to improve planning, achieve
and simplify nigic
other hand, strives to satisty the customer control procedures. The salesman, on uc
by giving
what he wants. The pros and cons of simplification him a choice or by offering him the nearest
are given in the following
tabular representaud
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 41

aft03i 7Oi Pro-Simplification e91 29h 91orn tPro-Variery } 9ioft 511 gnitIIOT

Reduce inventories of materials andoifinishedroir Satisfy a wide range of demand. 20te ES

products. Enable better contact with the market to study its
Reduce investment on plant and equipment. tastesand requirements.
)1230 2HT

C.S
Save storage space. Avoid losing orders for more salable products
Simplify planning and production methods." Tgibecause the customer directs all his orders to other
Simplify inspection and control. 119,se seli vnd vendors. oei instqg 2slh2 2si 1o1
eo igin ith i Create demand. I1161109ni vlisapg i

15 Vilsup

Reduce required technical personnel. d 191thng ioo119q 6-1D1hoq 9t19q 9li e3ds bobrold
Reduce sales price.
Shorten or eliminate order queues. iR? THI2ie9t) oil 61 1981t0 sil) 15 [Link] 9d blode ii
ws l9!51f1199 5 iIate5iif 11euDi 99 (192111t 10 ,921u0 [Link]} D16 1970r9 21
sHe/1979 d boonishnu vfsisiqrmo io has iatog
Perhaps the last point in fayour of variety deseryes further clarification. Some sales people claim
that variety encourages consumption and that, especially where consumer goods are concerned, the
psychological effect of plenty creates demand. Further, market research by. some firms seemsto
suggest that in some ecases similar products tend to capture roughly the same portion of a, given
market. The prospects of increasing total demand on the one hand, and the firm's portion of the
market on the other, may have been the main causes for boosting variety to the extent found
nowadays in industry. From the customer's point of view, this is a very unsatisfactory state of affairs.
A flood of variety pleases the customer, who ceases in many cases to appreciate the fine distinction
between similar products and has either to make a haphazard choice or to invest effort, time and
study (and quite often money) to enable him to make an intelligent choice, tot otiits 2sw m9dT
62This is undesirable for the firm as well. Apart from missing all the advantages listed above, when
simplification is applied, an analysis of the market sometimes shows that variety has long exceeded
the saturation point and that an increase in variety
100
will not even be noticed in the market. e)nt Before ile21
between a Simplification
bollAlso, the division of the market 19 O15O1
large number of products (in fact, too large)iboen qi 6i)9171 2
makes each portion so small that prices have to be 75 sino sf
kept at high levels to avoid losses. beioono1q bus
analysis
eu
Afterihen
simplification q
When a great variety exists, a sales b9t 9T1H

can be made to establish the salability; of the 2

products. When the accumulated sales, income is tit 9-1191 19tto sdi alooil|
plotted against die number of products offered for (Da)
sale, it is often revealed, that a, comparatively)
b ubt!do
small numbero of productsjcontributeson in oT ;hAoiooribe u22|
substantially to the total sales (Fig. 2.3). This is
Sometimes referred to in industry as the "25% to g171 toitnuboi sios9297 1gieb
75%" relationship because in many cases it was o029 9 tguon)21pini9t noinubog
found that 25% of the products brought in, 75% of
the income, although in some,extreme cases, na-yL623 o
b0iesb msbr9qs
studies revealed as Small, as 10 to 90% iult nt? PT9gi Per cent of products oihni ts!on
relationships. This leads to unnecessary drain of Fig. 2.3 Effect of simplification on Pareto
the firm's efforts, which should be directed to diagram (ABC diagram).
 42 PRODUCT DESIGN' AND MANUFACTURING A9

for income
promoting the more profitable products. A more desirable situation is when responsibility
is more evenly distributed between products, i.e., when the curve is "flat as the
lower curve in
9oubo
Fig.2.3 shows, which is achieved through reduction ofvariety. alsirotos to 23i10nvi
219usbong
ti vbue os 1osm orh dti 1eto 9196 sldsni
2.9 THE DESIGNER AND HIS ROLE
etubo aldslsz 91o 101 1hi fiiel iov
An industrial designer should realize that the appearance of a product is, one, o, the, major easons
for its sales appeal. Hence it is more realistic to know that sales, engineering manufacturing and
quality are all equally important factors, and that the right combination of these elements properly
blended makes the perfect greatest
product-a "perfect product" being that which"enjoys the
9911 25ls 93utsA
percentage of industry sales and brings a fair profit to the manufacturer.
It should be emphasized at the outset that the designer's main objective is to [Link] for
his employer (and in turn, of course, for himself). Since industrial design is a comparatively new
profession and not completely understood by everyone, we will try to answer four basic questions
What is industrial design? Who' are industrial designers? How do they work? What do they
accomplish?
oOf these questions, the first is certainly the simplest. Industrial design has been briefly and well
defined by the Ilinois Institute of Technology as "The art and science of increasing the beauty and
value of mass-produced [Link] answer the other questions, we have to discuss in littlemore

nistts 1o 16ste yrolonieilinu (o7 Ei iri ,voi 1omio3onoy ois [Link]

ni zysbeuon
[Link]
2.10THE DESIGNER: MYTH AND REALITY:
noitonitei 29
ol ,19t0072119srli esebsiq vjsiuvlo boofl A
0

7sdtis urd bns 2101borq slimie ns91sd

There was a time, not too long ago, when the industriäl designër was portrayed as a iemperamental
artist, complete with fowing smock, beret, long cigarette holder, and foreign-make sports car
(Customized, of courše, by himself). He was supposed to be highly sensitive to colour and form, but
unable to tell a die casting from a metal stamping and was proud of it. He arrived, according to the
popülar image, with his portfolio of impressive airbrush renderings showing the' transformation of
the particular product from a study of engineered form into a teardrop, stréamlined, jet-propelled
gadget. All of this immediately impressed the President of the company-who by the' way, was his
sole contact. In the next scene, his designs were turned over to
the company's engineers, who
immediately cursed them in chorus, filed them, and proceeded as before. This was once
the general
impression. The picture has changed now.
In contrast, the typical designer of today is
one who has graduated from oné of the many good
schools that offer a four-year course in industrial design: the NID,
Ahmedabad; Industrial Design
entre (1DC) Bombay; Industrial Design and Development Centre (IDDC),
Delhi: JJ. School,
Bombay, at National level and Pratt Institute; Georgia Tech.:
Syracuse University; The Philadelphia
Museum School of Art; The University of Cincinnati;
or the Rhode Island School of Art, all in the
United States of America. In all these schools, they
teach drafting and detailing, model making.
design research, production planning, market analysis, basic
science and engineering, and mass-
production techniques. Through the cooperation of industry,
they make numerous plant visits and
work on actual design problems. Some of the graduates after
finishing their studies, join an
independent design firm or company-operated design departiment.
The Indian scenario today
indicates that more than 50% designers start their own studiós and
consultancies instead of joining
a company, noitcoitiriie to 199i11 Egi
( 1C1gtib 9AA) msTgsib o1 botosnib sd luorde doilw 2notts 'mit sdi
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 43

2.11THEINDUSTRIAL DESIGN ORGANIZATION sldieort 2mis. zi l

Before we can consider how the designer works, we should have some notion of the design group's
DOsition in the structure of company. At XYZ Corporation, USA for example, the designer reports
directly to the Vice President and the General Manager of the division.
251 Some firms have a five-year planning committee in each division. This committee consists of
the General Manager and representatives of the product planning, engineering product design,
manufacturing cost and accounting and purchasing functions. It evaluates and defines the program
for the items which are to be produced in the five-year period. All the departments represented feed
ideas and recommendations to the group for evaluation. This is a continuous process, and the
program is kept flexible to meet changing technical knowledge and market conditions. When the
program has been agreed upon, it is time for the operating people to put the ideas into concrete form.
99i A team of design, engineering and manufacturing personnel is now formed to carry the program
up to the stage of production. Gone are the days when the engineering department closed its doors
until it had the product completely ready for tooling, then called in the designers tò select the colour
and apply some trim and nameplate. It is the "We Design-You Produce Approach" in which design
and production activities are insulated by a barrier of indifference.
1, rIOUSISDiO9
In some firms, the Product Design Department is divided into two groups one responsible for
the design of the product for one or two years, and the other responsible for three years and beyond.
This is also true of the Engineering Department. If engineering and design activity are not divided
in this way. there will never be any constructive effort on advanced products. As long as the same
group is responsible for both production design and product planning, it will be continually "putting
out fires and will never have time to study new-product ideas. Under such conditions, the company
may
catch up with its competitors soon erough, but when it does it will almost certainly find that
the competitors are already far ahead of it because they have been working on new products. No
matter what the size of the company, it is most important to designate someone to plan for the future.

212 BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS19W

KoRI
yri 1s.11-79gnin odi m3lo s
us
10N
9it dngnit n9v3,210EI DiTT991:
Let assume that a five-year product plan has been established. There are still major factors which
thedesigner must consider before he puts pencil to,Sketch,pad:itmtil ni noil1sbizno
afrf1. Convenience of use trilyatrbhrtu t 3t97E90g0 92t7R9ER7 (Y)

2tt 2. Maintenance gite19mo lo sbi7 139l fs7 blirort 1 Juio7q ri lo "1stos1si

0
oi, Costs 14 136 l to mGg91 fti bs .irts y bns tiinup oibeig
4. Sales
5. Appearance. 19lfewel 637)
These factors have already been considered earlier in this chapter in product analysis. Some of
these are discussed once again in briel.,nsiqq:
il srnmti
i) Convenience of use. No matter what the product is, convenience is of primary
importance. Whether the customer or user is a housewife with a hair-dryer or an engineer
driving a limousine, it is the designer's primary objective to make the product desirable
through its utility. In determining the proper approach, he has several sources from which
he may seek assistance. These sources are' now described.

2919 .2in:

93im6qqs To 92nitingie .-gi

 44 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING I

1.
It is always possible for marketing research
people to find out what the customer
dislikes about the company's previous models. Returned
warranty cards and field
reports from dealers and sates representatives are
good sources of information.
2. Customer surveys may be
conducted by , making working models and pre-testing
tin
To 232izm03 POtential users. This is, of course, a costly method, whose value is sometimes
anipsb 1thti 9uestionable. Both the automobile industry, through its experimental car
TESTROT appliance
models, and
manufacturers, through, their "kitchens of the future", use this, approach
elicit public reaction. to
3 The least costly and the most commonly
used approach
Senst:t,sbi1s commOn,
9ri! (ii)
Maintenance. Ease of maintenance and life of parts
are important factors. Ituis the
I1Ot 15customer who ultimately benefits from proper consideration in this area, and the designer
roT must be careful to resist ithe temptation of designing primarily to please the service
21005 i personnel. It cannot be repeated too often
that the customer must always come first in
1io designer's thinking. ri n bllso [Link] o vbron the
l1olqanoo 121tbo ft brd ii fitou
B(ii) Cost. Although cost certainly cannot be
ignored, it should not be the overriding
consideration in all cases. The lowest-priced
priced, as the automobile industry offers item does not necessarily out-sell the highest-
ample evidence.
bobivib lon the only consideration was cost, we
areceriinstead of the automatic starter, and the manualwould still be using the hand crank handle
shift instead of the. automatic transmission.
naitsre Here again, it is the customer who must ultimately
decide how much the product is, worth.
(iv) Sales.n We must know the volume
JRd bnii encountered, what the competitors of sales anticipated, the competition
are offering, and what we plan
that will be
o
21osales, it will be better to remember to offer. With regard to
that maximum efficiency and good
911ii
necessarily help in selling the productini iPii 21 1i performance do not
1Cf i1 to Nie 5dl iw 1o11t
Again, as an example, the first automatic
washing machines did not wash
clean as the wringer-type, yet they were clothes as
sold in great quantity. A good
electric razors, even though these razors number of men use
cannot give as good a shave as
oirweLike all the rest, people prefer convenience; the safety razors.
and this seems 'to be
consideration in the motivation of most sales
today.
the ovefriding
9701ari 19tbieioo eurn, T9giesb
31
si
(v) Appearance. Appearanee should
not be underestimated,
"character" of the product. It should for it detetmines the whole
reflect pride of ownership,
product quality and value, and the reputation the function served, high
appearance for various products. of the maker. Figure 2.4 shows
role of
2oln
Great Jewellery 30f1EeqqA .c
to o zizvlsaS 191orq i 1iqufio ei Cloths
Furniture D9isbieno3 99d ybssils svsd 2i01D51 9esrT
Domestic appliances91d ii TBYG 3Oto bazzuszib sus s23rd
Radio, Ty, Tape
recordersg215
199/Ti219 i1 to 19h-tisd rdivr stizs2
Office machines 9V 0 931sit19YEo )
Machine tools ftley'a
sidsiizsi auborq
dotlw TOTI 391J02
r ien
ttyr92
oi 9vilaid Contractors planti i
3rdi 15119ilV/ 33t1810grni
i i9nieuonil s 2nivib
2sl orfrlon Electrical equipment intes1si nf
Lortir Engines 29011i02 s2artT iliu 2si
tiguorit
Valves s9TEi22s ss2 yEii 1
Nil Nails, screws
Fig. 2.4 Significance of appearance.
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 45

2.13 PROBLEMS FACED BY_INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERG e1300M 0 239YT 8.S

The industrial designer is faced with three basic types of design problems: alabort to
271oT
Minor tooling with minor furnctional contributions. This is a "face lift" type of design
1.
tot a
t1e problem. It is. low-cost approach to a new look' and a difficult job not relished by
0073e [Link] imol lo tbute i i sldiaslay su vi13/13bau eii
2. Major tooling with minor functional contributions. Here, the exterior form takes on a new
appearance although the function of the product remains basically the same
Dierii'peils
[Link] tooling with major functional contributions The combination of washer dryer,
acolour television and Philco's lonitron air conditioner are all examples of this type of design
prodlem..irietity ni botainG d o1 sGti qu-door 231121:1 1o fiOf les.

2.14 PROCEDURE ADOPTED BY INDUSTRIAL DESIGNERS 9 10t gninuiests

Knowing the type of design problem being considered, the designer can now proceed. Quite briefly,
the various stages of design are:
iITIt Lns bairTe1 C1A oril no
Jrnoli 1. Rough sketches and colour renderingsb lie v bas Jil snidot br: asT o
9V12. Detail drawings (full size) 1921 n 19115d itud gisi zibtlis st10990
3. Three-dimensional models in
20
clay, plaster, wood, metal or plastic (all actual materials to be
finally specified). These models are evaluated, improved and revised. New models are made
ei tiein and then presented to management for evaluation and approval. aisbo f3 (ii)
o1sThrough all these design stages, the design group work very closely with the engineering staff.
Several versions of the final product will be carried along in the early stages, but
these will bee
three widely diverse
narrowed down as the programme progresses. In many cases, two and possibly
designs may be presented for management's approval. Management should not
be asked whether or
not it personally prefers the red or the maroon nameplate, the round
or the elongated handle; it is,
confidence in the design
after all, the customer who is to be pleased. Management should have
specialists it has employed to make such decisions. Designers should be
satisfying not the
management but the market. wu
through publications,
Good designers are in constant touch with all aspects of art and industry,
VISIts, technical meetings, seminars, panel discussions and the like. In this way, they keep
abreast of
new techniques, materials, finishes, and processes as they appear in the market. They watch closely
the trends in the allied fields of architecture, fine arts, and craft. And speaking of
trends, they are
by
Tesponsible for establishing many by themselves. Every new trend, after all, had to be started
Someone who was not satisfied with the established way. The industrial designers probably the most
dissatisfied person in industry today, because he does not consider the existing product is ultimate
in quality on designs. We should be thankful that this is so, for as soon as we say, "This is the
we have stopped progressing. Once a new product actually appears, no matter how well
ate
nay impress others, it is not unusual to find its designer lacking in enthusiasm, simply because
nas thought of half a dozen new and better ways to make it. Dissatisfaction is probably the only
tning that brings changes in the design business.
 46 PRODUCTI DESIGN AND MANUFACTURINGFIA

2.15 TYPES OF MODELS DESIGNED BY.1NDUSTRIAL'DESIGNERSMIJ8OR9 tr.s

The types of models usually met with in the development of the product or a line of products are
Clay studies, moçk-ups, scale models, and prototypes. These are now briefly described
d b) Clay studies.1These are made full size or to a smaller scale by theidesigner himself, not
his understudy. These are valuable in the study of form relationships, e.g. ls, thé base too
small for the superstructure of subtitles, of curvature and camber, of size, of radii and fillets,
and so on? Though primarily intended for form analysis, these can be of great help läter in
discussions with tool and die engineers in the final stages of the project.
.19 Mock-ups. This is a proven and old technique in model-making, It involves making a
false model to simulate the real product or prototypes. It is made in wood or plaster instead
of, say, cast iron or plastics. The mock-up has to be painted in suitable metallic or other
paint to ereate an impression of the actual future product. There is a trend now-a-days of
designing for ease ofoperation, ie., ergonomic designi The person who is to use the produc
afis looked upon as an object needing space, user of physical effort, sensor or observer and
finally, controller of ihe product. The latest trends in mock-ups simulate human mannequins
on the CAD terminal and determine "Space requirement envelope" of the dummy, check up
how man and machine fit, and carry out a stress analysis on the dummy, should an accident
occur. These methods help build better and user friendly. designs, through interactive
od ot el: Computer,
graphics, and animation., The latest trend in "mock-up" is to use CAD instead of
obem 91Plaster,ot paris, or w0O mockUPs (Seenapter3),ot1 3df .tboilrm vilsni
(ii) Scale models. These are favoured when a material, which can take a very good finish is
un,aVailable, this is not possible in clay modelling. Plaster is the commonest material for scale
hcte
9d liw d 20s ls l ni gnols boiT d lli ulonq lenil odi to znoi197 1vse
921(iv) Prototypes. It is a full size model ofthe real product, but is seldom made by the designer!
70
1913o Before going into large scale production of any major product, an operating or 'working

i i9lmodel has to be built, exact in every minute detail, inside and outside. Prototypes are costly
ngiesb in terms'of labour but are essential before going for mass production. Nowadays, computer
l 1011 simulation is widely' used for testing a final design. A prototype is still the
best technique
to improve the level of confidence of the designer for new products. iucd im192snt
191gi3b bond
1o Rapid
Prototyping Since the middle of the last decade, a silent revolution has been taking
place in the field of manufacturing. As a result, a host of new manufacturing techniques have,been
developed using which. it is possible to produce a solid object with the required shape, size, and
accuracy, directly. from its computer model. Though at present such techniques of direct shape
generation are being applied primarily for rapid prototype development, it is firmly believed by many
that the age-old concepts and methods will gradually be replaced by these techniques in the actual
manufacture of shaped articles and components as also spare part production. Most of the generative
manufacturing machines, commonly known as rapid prototyping machines, are still in the developing
stage.A few, such as stereolithography,. Selective laser sintering, solid ground curing, fused
deposition modelling, and laminated objct manufacturing are now commercially available and are
being used by many industries lor rapid prototyping
id gi2sb sir ni 22unerfs 2gnr ti gnt
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 47

2:16 WHAT THE DESIGNER CONTRIBUTES 11

The industrial designer helps increase sales by increasing the product's appeal to the consumer,
Designers like Lee lacocca have brought the Chrysler
Corporation out of the woods through pure eye
appeal, and the Ford Motor Company has declared that it will allow the designer to retool completely
every year to the tune of some 200
million dollars. Every major manufacturer employs the services
of the industrial designer. He has become a vital part of the team.
As the industrial designer is constantly dissatisfied with the "approved solution", he constantldy
motivates every one in the organisation to explore another approach to find a better way. Who profits
by this? Everyone: the consumer, the company, and the entire workforce.
ili
27 ROLE OF AESTHETICS IN PRODUCT DESIGN
Considering the importance of aesthetics, which is sometimes used interchangeably with industrial
design, this section is devoted to further analytical treatment of aesthetics. g
2.17.1 Analysis of Product Aesthetics
The appearance of a product is the total visual effect produced by structure, form, material,
dimension and surface finish (including colour). Form refers to the profile of the product. In
composite products, structure implies combined effect produced by positioning of adjacent forms in
deriving the final product. Appearance can only be judged subjectively and there is no yardstick for
expressing it objectively.
Referring to Fig. 2.4, from the stand point of product design, the visual appeal of objects like
jewellery is very important. On the other hand, items such as screws, nails, and ferrules have sheer
functional value and negligible aesthetic value. A clear-cut definition of beauty is very difficult.
Some individuals admire strict geometric forms. Others prefer bright and gaudy colours. While it is
very difficult to define beauty, it is possible to assign the cause of ugliness in a product. For exanmple,
a discordant, shoddy,
incomplete product can be immediately labelled as 'ugly'. As far as the
parameters which decide whether a product is beautiful or ugly, it is possible to list them. Unity and
Order are most essential for a product to be classed as aesthetic (Fig. 2.5).

sfedzr

Fig. 2.5 Aesthetic product characterized by unity and order.

48 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

() Unity. A product must appear as a finished, complete unit, and its separate elements and
details harmonized in a logical way. There must be no elements that appear as if they are
superfluous and cause surprise. It will also 'offend' tne eye if the product has some part
missing.
ii) Order. Order refers to repetition of patterns with a suitable break of monotony.. s

2.17.2 Basic Form Elements

The majority of industrial products are composed of a number of elements of simple geometrical
form.
Every well-designed product is characterized by a number of form elements, which together
make up the final outer form. These form elements help give the product its final appearance.
The form elements encountered most frequently are the cube, the cylinder, the sphere, the
pyramid, the cone and the ellipsoid or parts of these (see Fig. 2.6). The box and the cylinder are the
most frequently used shapes. The majority of products consist of lines and planes at right angles to
each other. Several reasons for the orthogonal shape of objects may be stated.
ievien [Link]
Istotam

OO|
Basic shapes

Ctoitr

99 Cross-sections of basic shapes

Fig. 2.6 Basic form elements.

(a) Psychology. The eye is used to perceive vertical and horizontal

as the main visual
directions, and it is natural to think in terms of these directions. Any two lines other than
those at right angles offend the eye.
(b) Model-making. The most widely used type of model is a drawing in orthographic
projections. In this system of projection, the easiest objects to sketch are those which consist
of planes parallel to the projection planes.
(c) Ease of production. From the point of view of ease of production
for casting, forging,
machining, etc., faces at right angles are the easiest to produce.
If a number of products are studied on the basis of the form elements we see that they consist
of the basic shapes. Figure 2.7 shows this for a number of small components.
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 49

6339/ut

ietruih,ah

Fig. 2.7 Incorporation of basic shapes in products.

It may be pointed out that it is not enough to simply emphasize the importance of the idea of
basic form elements considered in isolation. The designer must realize that the correct integration and
merging of the form elements is essential to the appearance of the composite product. In the
following section, we discuss as to what happens when several form elements are put together, and
what can be done to achieve a harmonious result,

2.17.3 Integrating Basic Form Elements

) Balance. Let us examine two isolated form elements and attempt at combining them. If
the form elements are moved towards each other, it is noticed that, at a certain distance, they
seem to belong together to form a group (see Fig. 2.8).

T1 fo siuns 1oniaib to miIue byn

toiri
oilogort ()

l ei s Fig. 2.8 Symmetry, balance and group effect in aesthetics.

a
The idea of group formation is fundamental to our visual perception. If we study
number of elements in a group, we see that they interact with each other apart from just
appearing to be together. It will be felt that the elements are visually in balance.
50 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

A visual balance may be achieved by symmetry, or it may be asymmetrical. In the

latter case, the component elements have to be arranged in relation to each other in such a
way that unity seems to exist.
If a group of form elements are not in balance, they may offend the eye. A designer
must guard against cases where the total form is very nearly but not exactly, symmetrical
A good guideline is that the form must be either symmetrical or sufficiently asymmetrical
deliberately and not simply lopsided.
Figures 2.9 and 2.10 provide examples of visual balance on the front of two meters.
Figure 2.11 shows a vacuum pump in visual imbalance. Figure 2.12 illustrates visually
balanced vertical drill.

Fig. 2.9 Visual appeal through symmetry.

uo boim d n

O lampstn!.7.S
731s )

7,t

Fig. 2.10 Visual appeal through deliberate imbalance.

(11)
Elegance and rhythm. Rhythm based on varying the direction of distinct angle of the
elements can also be a powerful tool in providing a dynamic effect on the product. In the
cars shown in Fig. 2.13, the shape of windows and doors
gives rise to the system of lines
which they form. The arrangement, shape and angle of the lines
together form a pleasing
and aesthetic rhythm which varies for different cars.
(ii) Proportion. One of the most important parameters that conveys the overall impression is
the proportion of the object. From the times of Euclid, man
has always been interested in
discovering the connection between proportion and beauty. There are examples of ideal
measurements for physically attractive human body dimensions. The Golden Section, which
b is a mathematically determined ratio between two lines A
and B is defined by.
B
BA-B
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 51

Fig. 2.11 Compressor with visual appeal through Fig. 2.12 Vertical drill with visual appeal through
deliberate imbalance. balance.
Siil to nm
0gte opli i nit iesb buti

Fig. 2.13
o
Automobile body designs illustrating rhythm and lack of rhythm.
52 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING9

This gives
=1.618
+5)
A rectangle with this ratio between its sides is characterized by being divisible into a
square and another rectangle with the same ratio between its sides.
Ratios such as 2:3, 3:5, and 6:8, are close approximations to the Giolden Section. These
proportions are applied in a many areas. For instance, textbooks on photography advice
placing the most important part of the picture in such a way that it divides the sides in the
ratio 2:3 or 3:5. These proportions may be recognized in many products. Architects
frequently utilize the Golden Section in building design.
Using modules to divide an area into sections, e.g. on control panels, is a convenient
way of fitting elements of different sizes as a whole, aesthetically.
(iv) Inclined planes and lines. Occasionally, when form elements are put together, totally
unexpected visual effects will arise. The visual impression obtained when looking at a unit
is not just the sum of the impressions from the elements. Synergistic effect is very common
in combining form elements. Visual effect produced by lines and planes at a certain angle
produce an aesthetically desirable effect.
The qualities of unity and order depend on the run of the lines and planes. One
therefore usually tries to give the prominent lines in the product the same character, e.g.
straight lines, curves and lines at a certain angle (see Fig. 2.14). Continuity in the run of the
individual lines is also significant.

Fig. 2.14 Use of inclined lines and planes for aesthetic appeal.
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 53

(v) Joints. Joints between form elements can give rise to both production and visual
problems. If two planes or edges meet tightly with an uncovered dividing line, it will often
demand un-reasonable accuracy and parallelism,. From a visual point of view, a designer
adopts two strategies for joints.
(a) The elements are so designed that the joint on the whole is unnoticed.
(b) The joint is emphasized and deliberately used as part of the form characteristic of the
product.

2.17.4 Product Message

Every product is like a live object and conveys a message to the onlooker.
(i) Lightness. One quality that can be emphasized through the form is lightness. Figure 2.15
shows two situations where an object seems to have been made lighter.

TtTTT77

Fig. 2.15 Strategies in form design to convey message of light weight.

i) Stability and weight. The means that can be used to express stability and weight through
the form ainm at placing the centre of gravity in the lowest feasible position. Heavy curves
are useful to convey such an effect.
Slopping lines. A single slopping line expresses instability, white two lines leaning
towards each other convey a message of high degree of stability, as shown in Fig. 2.16(a).
Figure 2.16(b) demonsrates how bodies with slightly concave sides appear heavier as
compared to bodies with convex sides. Figure 2.16(a) give examples of various ways in
which these two effects can be employed to stress the stability of a box-shaped body. In
some of the examples, the form is divided into two form elements which give greater
freedom in choosing proportion.
Products which are heavy and solid can be shaped such that this message is conveyed
in their fom. Figure 2.16(b) shows some machines that convey stability and strength.
i) Speed. A message of speed can be conveyed by a product design made up otf slopping
mes that meet at a point; this has associations with an arrow. It is therefore possible to
Convey the message of movement by using slopping lines at a relatively slight angle to the
arection of movement (see Fig. 2.17). The movement may be further emphasized by
pointing lines in the direction of movement, as we know from 'speed stripes whicn are
painted on some cars and railway carriages, etc.
 54 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

99rdtil

19/9
771777777TTrTTTTTTTTT 777r 2 777777T7
TTnrNi7

777TT TTTrTT7777777777777 7777777 T7rm7777 7TT

92622911 [Link].S

(a)

dorr 1dor9w bo T
(ii)
ina iidst ii
(b)
Fig. 2.16 Strategies to convey the message of stability in
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28 FUNCTIONAL DESIGN PRACTICE 302791 dhoi.s7Um

Apart from aesthetics which play a key role in enhancing the
appearance of consumer products,
functional design is very important in designing engineering
products. Certain strategies used by
product designers for engineering products are now discussed.

2.18.1 Biasing
Biasing comprises prestressing members of machine parts at no load in such a way
that when actual
external loads are imposed during working, the resultant stress in the member
becomes zero. The
spokes of a bicycle wheel are put in tension and the air pressure introduces hoop tension in the walls
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 55

R
yorsbnubeh pribiovA .81.S
uts: LiiTL

bsbrsor 9
L.
oole begg
ban is 101
289 091 3
DI EtIO:TFE 2t12 Fig. 2.17 Products conveying message of speed.

stresses in the
of tube andtyre. Under actual loading, which is compressive in nature, the resultant
Spokes and tube walls tend to zero or very small in magnitude.
oiiohlerno? giitoint hrs yitiioqino .8r.S
2.18.2 Cascading or Stage Formation
compressors are examples, where use
Use of multipleblades in fans, multiple stages in pumps and
O multiple elements results in greater output from the machine.

2.18.3 Regeneration
Examples of
egeneration (Fig. 2.16) is based on the principle, "Never waste anything of value".
waste
Crective regeneration are: use of exhaust gases for preheating of incoming fuel, application of
n heat exchangers
for preheating incoming fluid, etc. An interesting
example of effective
be seenn
Zation of heat energy is in the tunnel kiln for the manufacture of ceramic parts. As can
rom Fig. 2.18, the cold air blown in form the exit end of the trolley containing fired ceramic ware,
temperature
Cneated and passes through the mid-section of the tunnel where it acquires a high
troliey
w to heat of oil firing. The hot air from mid-section leaves at the point where the
ware at enrance.
aning green' ceramic ware enters the kiln. This facilitates drying of ceramic
temperature prole
Strategy of opposing direction of air and trolley results in a very favourable
Tor the
production of ceramic products.
 56 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

Hot air out Cool air in

L

Furnance section

Temperature|
1200°C

Kiln length
Fig. 2.18 Principle of regeneration applied in kiln design.

2.18.4 Avoiding Redundancy

Designers employ the Kinematic design principle of avoiding
redundancy. This is particularly useful
in designing structures and mechanisms. In a
structure, the number of members should be exactly
the same as the number of members essential for fulfilling the
functional requirement. An example
is that of a stool. A three-legged stool is very
stable because three points of support are provided,
which completely define a unique plane surface. Such a stool is
stable even on a rough plane. A four-
legged stool can be stable only on a perfectly flat surface. Wireform
garden chairs should attempt
to provide three points of contact. However, furniture designers
insist upon four legs for chairs and
tables for reasons of aesthetics and load bearing considerations.
Mechanisms and machines should
contain the minimum number of parts or links to be accurate and precise.
Redundant members reduce
the reliability and functional efficiency apart from being clumsy in
appearance.

2.18.5 Compatibility and Matching Considerations in Product

Design
Many design systems include a power developing device-a motor,
an engine or a human being. At
the load end, are seen a power absorbing device, a pump, a
propeller, etc. It is essential to determine
an operating point for a design system for which both the
power developing device and the power
absorbing device will work. If a unique point is not obtained,
the system will fail to function and
is deemed to be incompatible. A designer's
role is to determine the correct operating point.
purpose, characteristic curves of power developing For this
and power absorbing devices should be known
or modelled.
Example.
(a) Bicycle rider and bicycle. The graphs in
Fig. 2.19 show the force that can be comfortably
produced by the rider at the rear wheel. At
low speed, a high torque/force at the rear wheel
can be produced. This value of torque reduces
as the speed increases. Graph 2 shows the
road resistance vs. speed which is mainly a
function of road material, road condition, and
tyre material. On gradient, the road resistance is
greater. Intersection of graphs 1 and z
explains how a rider will have to apply greater
torque/force to go up a gradient. Points A
and B are the operating points.
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 57

Road resistance on gradient

Rider
output
Road resistance
on planee

2V V2 itooni
Speed
Fig. 2.19 Load and effort graphs as a function of speed for bicycle rider.

(b) In a ship driven by gas turbines, efficient speeds of the propeller may be one-hundredth of
the turbine. Propellers displace a large mass of sea water at a low speed. Turbines are driven
by high velocity gases of products of combustion of fuel. Thus, between turbine shaft and
propeller shaft, a suitable gearing will have to be provided to reduce the speed of the
propeller. The gearing will help achieve compatibility between the turbine and the propeller.
These two examples are due to French [2].
ilgii
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. List the various product design strategies.
2. How is product design related with the customer and the market in general.
3. Explain various relationships between design, production and marketing through
a
flow chart.
4. Explain the following terms: (i) Functional design, ii) Production design, (ii) Design for
transportation, (iv) Maintainability based design, (v) Ergonomic design.
[Ans: Functional design
Design of a product for performing its function effectively depends upon application of
appropriate branches of engineering. For examples, a good design of a centrifugal pump-
upon a
the impeller, the spiral casing and the suction and delivery ends, depend heavily
sound knowledge of fluid mechanics. Functional design of pump is in effect a
hydraulic
thermal
design. Likewise, an engine cylinder and piston are designed based on the laws of
engineering-gas dynamics, combustion, heat transfer, etc.
from the
Machine elements such as gears, screws, levers, bearings, etc. are designed
stand point of strength wear, fatigue, etc. A sound stress and strength analysis,
preferably
With modern techniques of 'Finite Element Method' should help arriving at the pertinent
dimensions.

Production design or design for manufacturability

the production
A product design should be such that it should be easily producible by
process. Design for production or manufacturability is a topic of importance in product
design.
58 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

Every part of a product which is designed for functional requirement has also to be
designed for ease of production. For example, a part to be produced by casting should be
such that during solidification of the molten metal in the mould no such stresses should
be induced as to cause cracks or distortion of the part. A pulley with curved arms is
prefered to a pulley with straight arms. This is because during solidification of the rim,
which is of heavier section and occurs in the end, stresses are induced in the arms. Curved
arms take up the stresses and straighten up a little. They do not undergo tearing during
solidification.
Production development and design should consider whether geometrically a design
has a good compatibility with material and production process for making a producible
design. A typical example given earlier is that of a pulley in which curved arms are
provided so that during production there are no casting problems and high tensile stresses
being set up in the arms during casting solidification are prevented. Therefore, it is always
r suggested to take care of production process involved in manufacturing the required
product in designing the product.

Designing for transportation

Special features should be provided in design for ease of transportation. A design which
is of everyday observation is the welded ring fitted on top of a cooking
gas cylinder to
enable its being lifted and moved from one place to other. Modular designs and compact
design help simplifying transportation (Fig. 2.20).

LPG

Fig. 2.20 Design for transportation.

i Design for maintenance or maintainability-based design

A product should be so designed that, it should be assembled and disassembled with ease.
There should be increased use of fasteners like quick action hand nuts, levers, etc. The
Japanese make minimum use of full turn screw and nut assembly. Instead, quick action
clamps are provided on Japanese designs. Easy access to cleaning and maintenance should
start right at the preliminary design stage. Diagnostic key points should be provided on
machines where a light should indicate occurrence of fault at any critical spot. Machines
with intricate electronic circuitry like modem machine tools have such diagnostic points.
Large castings are made with a horizontal parting line or horizontal split casting. This
enables cleaning up. the machine after removing the upper half of the split casing without
disturbing the horizontal gear shaft from it bearings (Fig. 2.21).
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 59

ry Vertically split casting fangib rivsb a21 Horizontally split casting

ehol orl (Not good for maintenance) 21 ieiz (Good for maintenance)
910bsiq br
19 bob9
S
*
.
to

ZZAAFounditin
Fig. 2.21 Design for maintainability (gear box assembly).

SE 2ai Ergonomic design or product design for human use

feasibility and
3 Ergonomic designs: Until recently, products were designed with technical
aircrafts and other
cost as main criteria. The difficulty in operation and control of cars,
Limited visibility,
gtoo devices of previous generations was at the root of many accidents.
9it difficult to read for unsafe operation and at times loss of life.
characteristics is the
Designing products and machines to adapt them to human
growth since
domain of ergonomics. Ergonomics has experiences impressive
World War I1.]
is Renard series and how does it help
5. Explain the term 'industrial standardization'. What
etc, of products?22
a designer in fixing the sizes, capacities, horsepower,
6. What is meant by 'simplification' in design? Explain with
an example.
are advantages of variety in
7. What are the points which favour simplification? What
tproducts owing to line extension'?
8. Design combines 'art' with technology'. Explain.
9. Explain the basic form elements: balance, elegance and rhythm,
proportion and golden
section. Use of inclined planes and lines.
in automobile body design?
10. How the concept of 'single point perspective is exploited
in products?
11. What is a product message? How are lightness, speed, stability conveyed
Illustrate through examples. ipul,m2itnab
12. Explain the following terms
design
) Adaptive design, (ii) Variant design, (ii) Creative design, (iv) Configuration
and (v) Modular design.
Ans: Type of design work risd gidertoutnlsr

In terms of level of intellectual effort and creativity, there are mainly following three types
of design work:
in size
Adaptive design. This design requires only minor modification usually
of existing
alone. The level of creativity needed is negligible because only adaptation
are more
design is essential. Some authors call it adaptive design even if the changes
but original design concept is same.
60 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURINGa

2. Variant design. This is a design approach followed by companies who wish to

serve product variety to satisfy varying customer tastes. For examples, Hero Honda:
CD 100, CD Delux, Passion and Splendor are variant designs.
3. Creative design. The most demanding design effort and creativity is
needed when
a totally new product is to be designed.

Some other nomenclatures in design are as below:

Configuration design. Configuration design helps in synthesis, analysis and choice of
best combination of parts. In the detailed design phase (Section 1.8.3) Step 5 is to verify
that the different components and subassemblies fit very well to form the final product.
Configuration design is represented in the form of special assembly drawings to 'prove'
the success (or failure) of the assembly. Configuration design differs from detail design in
the sense that layout drawing are made in configuration drawings. They cannot be used
for the preparation of process planning. Detailed drawings in orthographic projections are
essential for fixing operations essential to produce final product. Concept of obtaining
various configuration for computers is often cited as example of configuration design.

i Modular design. The use of 'modules' or building blocks for assembling and producing
a variety of products is termed modular design. It will be recalled how furniture companies
enable the production of a wide range of racks, ete. as end products by assembly of
different modules. The advantage of modular design over integral design is lower
inventory, better flexibility, lower cost, etc.]
qior 13. Explain design organization. Explain organization chart for design department.
[Ans: Organization of design group
Therole of design engineer in a design
8department can be seen from the chart. In a small
department, all the personnel may be busy in all Technical director and/or chief engineer
aspects of design work. In a larger department,
senior personnel will spend more time in Department manager (project)
E management tasks. Likewise, staff could be
specialized in specific design areas. The term
Engineering manager
rgteoiy'design engineer is reserved for persons capable
Or Working independently and creatively. Less
ttbutr qualified staff may be designated as assistants, Section leader
draftsman, technicians, etc. For small projects,
the entire task of design, Production and sales
Specialist design engineers
may be performed by the design engineer. For
larger projects, a designer plays the role of team
member. The relationship between design Assistant design engineers
department with customer on one side and
marketing, production, finance within the Draftsman
organization is important for the success of a
product. Technicians
Organization of staff in design engineering
department (Fig. 2.22).] Fig. 2.22 Organization for design.
 PRODUCT DESIGN PRACTICE AND INDUSTRY 61

14 Explain how a design is communicated by the designer to head of the design

group?
01[Ans: Communicating the design
1. Nature of communication. Once the design is complete and the designer has come
up with some novel concepts and a cost estimate which promises a good profit, it
becomes essential that colleagues, subordinates and superiors are made aware of the
success story.
2. Technical report. The quality of a technical report enables the reader to perceive
about the quality of design work done. Written report is more useful than a spoken
lhtnWord. Technical persons are known to be better writers than orators. Referring to the
communication model (Fig. 2.23) the sources is the 'mind' of the writer. The process
e of encoding consists of translating the idea from mind to words on a paper. The
channel is the pile of papers. Decoding depends upon the readers ability to understand
to 10/o the message. Final receiver is the 'mind' of the reader. It is essential to know the
sa baudience before a written report is submitted.
SOURCE ENCODING MESSAGE J
CHANNEL
RECEIVER MESSAGE DECODING
Fig. 2.23 Transmission of message in design communication.

Memorandum report. A memorandum report is written to a specific group

on a
specific subject. It contains: data (to, from), subject, introduction (why the study was
carried out), discussion (includes data and its analysis), conclusions (including
recommendation), memo, reports are short (one to three pages).
3. Formal technical reports. The details of a formal technical report
are:

Covering letter (letter of transmittal)

Summary (with conclusions)
Introduction
Experimental procedure
Discussion of results
. Conclusion
References
Appendix
Tables and figures
How to write a good report
the report, W-write,
The word, POWER indicating P-Plan the writing, O-outline
E-Edit, R-Rewrite, in writing a good report.
4. Oral presentations. Oral communication has several
special features: personal
impact, impact of visual aids, importance of tone,
gesture and emphasis. A quick
sequence of matter
feedback is characteristic of oral presentations. The logic and
reports. Noise is a
presented is more important in oral presentation than in written
drawback of oral communication.
. VIsual aids. are important part of any talk of technical nature. Good visual aids
increase idea retention by 50%.
62 PRODUCT DESIGN AND MANUFACTURING

Forsmall informal talks up to 10-12 people, hardouts of data, charts and outline are
useful. For larger group, up to 200, transparencies with an overhead projector (OHP)
or computer projectors are useful aids. Computer LCD projector is preferred by large
audiences.
Certain other factors concening visual aids are:
Limit slides to less than one per minut.
Each slide should contain one idea.
Slides with maximnum of three curves and 30 words are acceptable.
The slide sequence should be properly planned with title in the beginning, matter
in the intermediate slides and summary in the last slides.
Avoid leaving on the screen, a slide which is explained and replace with a blank
slide. This enables the audience to focus attention upon the talk.
6. Design presentations through models and perspective drawings. The sponsor of a
project is always presented with a cut-away perspective drawing of the product so that
he may get a proper idea of the aesthetic aspect of the product. Industrial designers
makes use of air brush (like spray painting) renderings to highlight the colours and
shading of the product. In modern context, the computer with colour graphics is a
great help in making such presentations (Fig. 2.24).

Fig. 2.24 Design for stability-scale model.

15. Explain the followingg strategies used by product designers in functional design practice'
) Biasing, (ii) Cascading. (ii) Regeneration, (iv) Avoidance of redundancy,
(v) Compatibility.
Give suitable examples.
h
T

REFERENCES
Eilon, S., Elements of Production, Planning and Control (Macmillan, London, 1962).
3rd ed. reprinted by Universal Publishing Corporation, Bombay. 1991.
21 French, M., Innovation in Design, MeGraw-Hill, New York, 1992