Atomic structure Atomic number, atomic nucleus, atomic mass, isotopes

and isobars. Electronic structure of the atom – energy levels,

characteristics of s-, p- and d-orbitals. Electronic configuration and
orbital diagram of the elements of I and II period of the periodic table.
Periodic trends – atomic radius, ionization energy, electronegativity,
elements with metallic and nonmetallic character.
1. Atomic Structure
An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element.
It is made up of three main subatomic particles:
 Protons – Positively charged particles found in the nucleus (center of the
atom).
 Neutrons – Neutral (no charge) particles also found in the nucleus.
 Electrons – Negatively charged particles that move around the nucleus in
energy levels (shells/orbitals).
Important Terms:
1. Atomic Number (Z) → The number of protons in an atom. This is unique
for each element.
2. Atomic Mass (A) → The total number of protons + neutrons in an
atom.
3. Isotopes → Atoms of the same element with different numbers of
neutrons.
o Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 (both have 6 protons, but
different neutrons).
4. Isobars → Atoms of different elements that have the same atomic mass
but different atomic numbers.
o Example: Argon-40 (18 protons) and Calcium-40 (20 protons).

2. Electronic Structure of the Atom

Electrons are arranged in energy levels (shells) around the nucleus.
 Each shell can hold a certain number of electrons:
o 1st shell → Holds 2 electrons

o 2nd shell → Holds 8 electrons

o 3rd shell → Holds 18 electrons

o 4th shell → Holds 32 electrons

Orbitals (s, p, d, f)
 Within each shell, electrons are arranged in orbitals:
o s-orbital → Spherical shape (holds 2 electrons)
 o p-orbital → Dumbbell shape (holds 6 electrons)

o d-orbital → Complex shape (holds 10 electrons)

o f-orbital → More complex shape (holds 14 electrons)

3. Electronic Configuration & Orbital Diagram

The electronic configuration shows how electrons are distributed in orbitals.
No need to learn the
Rules for Writing Electronic Configuration: names of the rules
just know the rules
1. Aufbau Principle → Electrons fill the lowest energy levels first.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle → An orbital can hold only two electrons with
opposite spins.
3. Hund’s Rule → In the same energy level, electrons fill empty orbitals one
at a time before pairing.

Example: Electronic Configuration of Period 1 & 2 Elements

Atomic Electron Orbital

Element
Number Configuration Diagram

Hydrogen
1 1s¹ ↑
(H)

Helium (He) 2 1s² ↑↓

Lithium (Li) 3 1s² 2s¹ ↑↓ ↑

Beryllium
4 1s² 2s² ↑↓ ↑↓
(Be)

Boron (B) 5 1s² 2s² 2p¹ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑

Carbon (C) 6 1s² 2s² 2p² ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑

Nitrogen (N) 7 1s² 2s² 2p³ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑
Oxygen (O) 8 1s² 2s² 2p⁴
↑

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Fluorine (F) 9 1s² 2s² 2p⁵
↑↓ ↑

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
Neon (Ne) 10 1s² 2s² 2p⁶
↑↓ ↑↓

4. Periodic Trends
Periodic trends describe how atomic properties change across the periodic table.
a) Atomic Radius (Size of an atom)
  Across a period (left to right) → Atomic size decreases (more protons
pull electrons closer).
 Down a group (top to bottom) → Atomic size increases (more shells
are added).
b) Ionization Energy (IE)
 IE is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom.
 Across a period → IE increases (electrons are held more tightly).
 Down a group → IE decreases (electrons are farther from the nucleus,
easier to remove).
c) Electronegativity (Ability to attract electrons)
 Across a period → Increases (elements on the right attract electrons
more).
 Down a group → Decreases (nucleus is farther from the electrons).
d) Metallic & Nonmetallic Character
 Metals (left side) → Low IE, low electronegativity, lose electrons easily.
 Nonmetals (right side) → High IE, high electronegativity, gain electrons
easily.

Summary:
 Atoms have protons, neutrons, and electrons.
 Atomic number = number of protons; Atomic mass = protons +
neutrons.
 Isotopes have different neutrons; Isobars have the same mass.
 Electrons are arranged in shells & orbitals (s, p, d, f).
 Periodic trends affect atomic size, ionization energy, and
electronegativity.

2. Chemical bonding Ionic bond. Covalent bond – types (polar, nonpolar)

and characteristics (bond energy and length, direction); coordinate
(dative covalent) bonding. Metallic bond, hydrogen bond, Van der Waals
forces.

1. Ionic Bonding
Definition:
An ionic bond is formed when one atom donates electrons to another, resulting in the
formation of oppositely charged ions that attract each other due to electrostatic forces.

How It Works:
 A metal loses electrons to form a positively charged cation.
 A non-metal gains electrons to form a negatively charged anion.
 These oppositely charged ions attract each other to form an ionic compound.

Properties of Ionic Compounds:

✔ High melting and boiling points – Due to strong electrostatic forces between ions.
✔ Soluble in water – Water molecules surround and separate the ions.
✔ Conducts electricity in molten or aqueous state – Free-moving ions allow electrical
conduction.
✔ Brittle – When force is applied, like charges align and repel, causing the crystal to break.

Example:
 Sodium chloride (NaCl)
o Na (metal) loses 1 electron → Na⁺

o Cl (non-metal) gains 1 electron → Cl⁻

o Na⁺ and Cl⁻ attract to form NaCl.

2. Covalent Bonding
Definition:
A covalent bond is formed when two atoms share a pair of electrons to achieve a stable
electron configuration (full outer shell).
Types of Covalent Bonds:
1. Non-Polar Covalent Bond

o Electrons are shared equally between atoms.

o Occurs between atoms with identical or very similar electronegativity.

o No partial charges form.

o Example: O₂ (Oxygen gas), N₂ (Nitrogen gas), CH₄ (Methane).

2. Polar Covalent Bond

 o Electrons are shared unequally due to a difference in electronegativity.

o The more electronegative atom pulls the electrons closer, creating partial
charges (δ⁺, δ⁻).
o Example: H₂O (Water), NH₃ (Ammonia), HCl.

Characteristics of Covalent Bonds:

✔ Bond Energy – The energy required to break the bond. Shorter bonds are stronger (e.g.,
triple bond > double bond > single bond).
✔ Bond Length – The distance between nuclei; shorter bonds are stronger due to greater
electron attraction.
✔ Directional Bonding – Unlike ionic bonds, covalent bonds have specific shapes (e.g.,
linear, tetrahedral, trigonal planar).

3. Coordinate (Dative Covalent) Bonding

Definition:
A coordinate bond (dative covalent bond) is a special type of covalent bond where one
atom donates both electrons in the bond.
How It Works:
 The donor atom has a lone pair of electrons.
 The acceptor atom has an empty orbital to accommodate the electron pair.
Examples:
 Ammonium ion (NH₄⁺) – NH₃ donates a lone pair to H⁺.
 Carbon monoxide (CO) – Oxygen donates a lone pair to carbon.
 Metal-ligand complexes (e.g., [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺ in transition metal chemistry).

4. Metallic Bonding
Definition:
A metallic bond is the force of attraction between positive metal ions (cations) and a sea of
delocalized electrons.
How It Works:
 Metals have low electronegativity, so their valence electrons become delocalized
(free-moving).
  The metal cations are arranged in a lattice, surrounded by the sea of electrons that
holds them together.
Properties of Metals:
✔ High melting and boiling points – Strong forces between cations and delocalized
electrons.
✔ Good electrical and thermal conductivity – Free electrons move and carry charge/heat.
✔ Malleability and ductility – Layers of atoms can slide over each other without breaking
bonds.
✔ Luster (shiny appearance) – Electrons reflect light.

Example:
 Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Gold (Au), Silver (Ag).

5. Hydrogen Bonding
Definition:
A hydrogen bond is a weak electrostatic attraction between a hydrogen atom covalently
bonded to a highly electronegative atom (N, O, F) and another electronegative atom.
How It Works:
 The H atom develops a partial positive charge (δ⁺).
 It gets attracted to a nearby electronegative atom (δ⁻) in another molecule.
Effects and Properties:
✔ Higher boiling and melting points – Extra energy is needed to break hydrogen bonds.
✔ Water’s unique properties – High surface tension, cohesion, and boiling point.
✔ Essential for biological molecules – Holds DNA strands together (A-T, G-C base
pairing).
Examples:
 Water (H₂O)
 DNA base pairing (A-T, G-C)
 Ammonia (NH₃)
 Proteins (Hydrogen bonding stabilizes structures like alpha helices and beta
sheets).

6. Van der Waals Forces

Van der Waals forces are weak intermolecular forces between molecules. These include
London dispersion forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and induced dipole forces.
Types:
1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF)

o Temporary dipoles due to electron movement.

o Present in all molecules, but strongest in nonpolar substances.

o Example: CH₄ (methane), noble gases (He, Ar, Ne).

2. Dipole-Dipole Interactions

o Attraction between permanent dipoles in polar molecules.

o Example: HCl, H₂S.

3. Induced Dipole Forces

o A polar molecule induces a dipole in a nonpolar molecule.

o Example: O₂ dissolving in water.

Characteristics:
✔ Weaker than hydrogen bonds and covalent bonds.
✔ Affects boiling points – Molecules with stronger Van der Waals forces have higher
boiling points.
✔ Important in nonpolar molecules – E.g., why iodine (I₂) is a solid but bromine (Br₂) is a
liquid.

Rate of chemical reactions Kinetic equation, rate constant. Energy diagram of a reaction:
activation energy, exothermic and endothermic reactions. Factors affecting rate of
reaction – state of reactants, temperature, concentration, pressure. Rate determining step
of a reaction. Catalysis – properties of catalysts. Mechanism of homogeneous and
heterogeneous catalysis.

The rate of a chemical reaction refers to how fast reactants are converted into products.
Understanding reaction rates is crucial in chemistry because it helps predict how reactions
proceed and how conditions can be optimized to control the speed of reactions.

1. Kinetic Equation and Rate Constant

Rate Equation:
The rate of a reaction is mathematically expressed as:
Rate=k[A]m[B] = k [A]^m [B]^n Rate=k[A]m[B]n
Where:
 Rate = Speed of reaction (change in concentration per unit time).
 k = Rate constant (depends on temperature and nature of reaction).
 [A] and [B] = Concentrations of reactants.
 m and n = Reaction orders (determined experimentally, not necessarily coefficients
from the balanced equation).
Rate Constant (k):
 The rate constant is a proportionality factor that links the rate of reaction to the
concentrations of reactants.
 It increases with temperature (as per the Arrhenius equation).
 Its units depend on the overall order of the reaction.
Example: For a first-order reaction,
Rate=k[A]
Units of k = s⁻¹.
For a second-order reaction,
Rate=k[A][B]
Units of k = mol⁻¹ dm³ s⁻¹.

2. Energy Diagram of a Reaction

Reactions involve breaking and forming bonds, which require or release energy. The energy
diagram shows the energy changes during a reaction.
Key Features of an Energy Diagram:
1. Activation Energy (Eₐ) – The minimum energy required for a reaction to occur.

2. Transition State – The highest energy point in the reaction where bonds are
breaking/forming.
3. ΔH (Enthalpy Change) – The difference in energy between reactants and products.

Types of Reactions:
 Exothermic Reaction (ΔH < 0)
 o Releases energy.

o Products have lower energy than reactants.

o Example: Combustion of methane.

 Endothermic Reaction (ΔH > 0)

o Absorbs energy.

o Products have higher energy than reactants.

o Example: Thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate.

3. Factors Affecting the Rate of Reaction

Several factors influence how fast a reaction occurs. These include:
1. State of Reactants (Physical Nature)
 Gases react faster than liquids and solids because particles move freely and collide
more frequently.
 Powders react faster than solids because they have a higher surface area, leading to
more collisions.
 Example: Finely divided magnesium reacts faster with acid than a magnesium
strip.
2. Temperature
 Increasing temperature increases particle kinetic energy, making collisions more
frequent and energetic.
 A 10°C increase roughly doubles the reaction rate.
 More particles have energy ≥ Activation Energy (Eₐ), leading to more successful
collisions.
3. Concentration of Reactants
 Higher concentration = More particles per unit volume = More frequent collisions.
 Example: A higher concentration of HCl speeds up the reaction with Mg.
4. Pressure (For Gases Only)
 Increasing pressure forces gas molecules closer together, increasing collision
frequency.
  Example: Haber process (N₂ + 3H₂ → 2NH₃) uses high pressure to increase
yield.
5. Presence of a Catalyst
 A catalyst lowers the activation energy (Eₐ) and provides an alternative reaction
pathway.
 Catalysts are not consumed in the reaction.

4. Rate-Determining Step of a Reaction

In multi-step reactions, the slowest step controls the overall reaction rate. This step is called
the rate-determining step (RDS).
Key Points:
 The slowest step has the highest activation energy.
 The reactants involved in the rate-determining step appear in the rate equation.
 Example: In the reaction A + B → C, if A + B forms an intermediate slowly, it is the
rate-determining step.

5. Catalysis
A catalyst speeds up a reaction without being consumed. It works by providing an
alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy (Eₐ).
Properties of Catalysts:
✔ Lowers activation energy (Eₐ).
✔ Increases reaction rate.
✔ Not consumed in the reaction.
✔ Does not alter equilibrium position, only the speed of reaching equilibrium.

Types of Catalysis:
1. Homogeneous Catalysis (Same Phase as Reactants)
 The catalyst is in the same phase as the reactants (e.g., both in solution).
  Forms an intermediate complex, which breaks down to form products and
regenerates the catalyst.
 Example:
o Enzyme catalysis (amylase in starch breakdown).

o H⁺ ions in ester hydrolysis (H₂SO₄ catalyzing esterification).

2. Heterogeneous Catalysis (Different Phase from Reactants)

 The catalyst is in a different phase (often solid, while reactants are gases or liquids).
 Reactants adsorb (stick) onto the catalyst surface, react, and then desorb (leave).
 Example:
o Haber process (Fe catalyst for NH₃ production).

o Catalytic converters in cars (Pt, Pd convert CO to CO₂).

Chemical equilibrium Reversible reactions, state of equilibrium.

Equilibrium constant. Factors affecting chemical reactions in
equilibrium. Effect of concentration and pressure change, effect of
temperature and catalysts. Le Chatelier’s principle.

1. Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium

Reversible vs. Irreversible Reactions
 Irreversible Reactions – These proceed in one direction only, converting
reactants into products completely (e.g., combustion of fuels).
 Reversible Reactions – These can proceed in both directions, meaning
the products can convert back into reactants.
State of Equilibrium
In a closed system, a reversible reaction reaches a point where the rate of the
forward reaction equals the rate of the backward reaction. This is called
dynamic equilibrium.
Key Features of Dynamic Equilibrium: ✔ The concentrations of reactants
and products remain constant (but not necessarily equal).
✔ The forward and backward reactions occur at the same rate.
✔ The system must be closed (no substances can enter or leave).
Example:

N2(g)+3H2(g)⇌2NH3
In the Haber process, nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia, but
ammonia also decomposes back into nitrogen and hydrogen.

3. Factors Affecting Equilibrium

Several factors can shift the equilibrium position, changing the relative
amounts of reactants and products.
1. Effect of Concentration Changes
 Increasing reactant concentration shifts equilibrium to the right
(more products form).
 Increasing product concentration shifts equilibrium to the left (more
reactants form).
 Removing a product shifts equilibrium to the right (reaction keeps
producing more).
🔹 Example:

Fe3++SCN−⇌Fe(SCN)2

Adding Fe³⁺ or SCN⁻ shifts equilibrium right, forming more Fe(SCN)²⁺.

2. Effect of Pressure Changes (for Gases Only)

 Increasing pressure shifts equilibrium toward the side with fewer
gas molecules.
 Decreasing pressure shifts equilibrium toward the side with more
gas molecules.
🔹 Example: Haber Process

N2(g)+3H2(g)⇌2NH3
 4 gas molecules on the left, 2 on the right.
 Increasing pressure shifts equilibrium right, favoring ammonia production

3. Effect of Temperature Changes

 Increasing temperature favors the endothermic direction (absorbs
heat).
 Decreasing temperature favors the exothermic direction (releases
heat).
🔹 Example:

N2O4(g)⇌2NO2(g) ΔH=+57kJ/mol
 Forward reaction is endothermic (absorbs heat).
 Increasing temperature shifts equilibrium right (more NO₂ forms).
 Decreasing temperature shifts equilibrium left (more N₂O₄ forms).

4. Effect of Catalysts
 A catalyst does not shift equilibrium.
 It only lowers activation energy, allowing equilibrium to be reached
faster.
🔹 Example:
Iron (Fe) catalyst speeds up the Haber process, but it does not change the
position of equilibrium.

4. Le Chatelier’s Principle
Le Chatelier’s principle states that if an external condition is changed,
equilibrium shifts to oppose the change.
Applying Le Chatelier’s Principle:

Change Applied Equilibrium Shift Effect

Increase reactant
Right More products form
concentration

Increase product
Left More reactants form
concentration

Toward fewer gas

Increase pressure (gases) Reduces pressure
molecules

Toward endothermic
Increase temperature Absorbs heat
reaction

Toward exothermic
Decrease temperature Releases heat
reaction

Equilibrium reached
Add catalyst No shift
faster

🔹 Example: Haber Process

N2(g)+3H2(g)⇌2NH3(g) ΔH=−92kJ/mol
 Increasing temperature shifts equilibrium left (less ammonia).
 Increasing pressure shifts equilibrium right (more ammonia).

Solutions Types of solutions (saturated, supersaturated, unsaturated).

Concentrations of solutions (mass and volume concentration, molar
concentration, molality). Factors affecting the solubility of solid, liquid
and gas compounds in liquids (nature of the solvent and solute,
temperature, pressure). Properties of solutions that depend upon the
concentration of solute (vapor pressure lowering, boiling point
elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure).

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances, where one substance

(solute) dissolves in another (solvent). Solutions can exist in all three states—solid, liquid,
and gas.

1. Types of Solutions
(i) Unsaturated Solution:
A solution that contains less solute than the maximum amount that can be dissolved at a
given temperature. More solute can still dissolve.
 Example: Adding a small amount of salt to water, where the salt completely
dissolves.

(ii) Saturated Solution:

A solution that contains the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve at a given
temperature. No more solute can dissolve. Any additional solute will remain undissolved at
the bottom.
 Example: Adding more salt to water until it stops dissolving.

(iii) Supersaturated Solution:

A solution that contains more solute than normally possible at a given temperature. This is
achieved by heating the solution, dissolving extra solute, and then slowly cooling it. It is
unstable, and excess solute can crystallize out if disturbed.
 Example: A supersaturated sugar solution used for making rock candy.

2. Concentration of Solutions
The concentration of a solution refers to the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity
of solvent. It can be expressed in different ways:

(i) Mass Concentration:

Mass concentration=Mass of solute /(g)Volume of solution (l)
 in 1 liter of water.

(ii) Volume Concentration (% v/v):

% volume=Volume of solute /Total volume of solution×100%
 Example: 70% ethanol solution contains 70 mL of ethanol in 100 mL of solution.

(iii) Molar Concentration (Molarity, M):

M=Moles of solute/ Volume of solution (L)

Example: A 1 M NaCl solution has 1 mole (58.44 g) of NaCl in 1 liter of water.

(iv) Molality (m):
m=Moles of solute/Mass of solvent
 dissolved in 1 kg of water.
 Molality is temperature-independent, unlike molarity, because it is based on mass,
not volume.

3. Factors Affecting Solubility

Solubility depends on the nature of solute and solvent, temperature, and pressure.

(i) Nature of Solute and Solvent (Polarity)

 "Like dissolves like":
o Polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents (e.g., salt dissolves in water).

o Nonpolar solutes dissolve in nonpolar solvents (e.g., oil dissolves in

benzene).
 Example: Sugar (polar) dissolves in water (polar), but does not dissolve in oil
(nonpolar).

(ii) Temperature
 Solubility of solids in liquids increases with temperature because higher
temperatures provide more energy to break intermolecular forces.
o Example: More sugar dissolves in hot tea than in cold tea.

 Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with temperature because gases escape

more easily.
o Example: Cold soda retains more CO₂ (bubbles) than warm soda, which loses
its fizz.
(iii) Pressure (For Gases Only)
 Higher pressure increases gas solubility in a liquid because the gas molecules are
forced into the solvent.
o Example: Carbonated drinks are bottled under high pressure to dissolve more
CO₂ gas.

4. Colligative Properties of Solutions

Colligative properties depend only on the number of solute particles, not their identity.

(i) Vapor Pressure Lowering

 Adding a non-volatile solute (e.g., salt, sugar) to a solvent lowers its vapor
pressure.
 This happens because solute particles block solvent molecules from evaporating.
 Example: Adding salt to water reduces its tendency to evaporate.

(ii) Boiling Point Elevation

 A solution boils at a higher temperature than the pure solvent because solute
particles make it harder for solvent molecules to escape as gas.

(iii) Freezing Point Depression

 A solution freezes at a lower temperature than the pure solvent because solute
particles disrupt the formation of the solid structure.
 Example: Salt is spread on icy roads in winter to lower the freezing point and prevent
ice formation.

(iv) Osmotic Pressure

 Osmosis is the movement of solvent molecules from a low-concentration solution to
a high-concentration solution through a semi-permeable membrane.
 The pressure required to stop osmosis is called osmotic pressure.
 Example:
o Red blood cells in pure water swell and burst (hemolysis) because water
moves in.
o In a salt solution, cells shrink (crenation) as water moves out.

Final Summary Table

Concept Explanation Example
Unsaturated, Saturated, Sugar in tea (dissolves more in
Types of Solutions
Supersaturated hot tea)
Concentration Molarity (M), Molality (m), Mass 1M NaCl solution, 70% ethanol
 Concept Explanation Example
%, Volume %
Factors Affecting
Polarity, Temperature, Pressure Soda losing fizz when warm
Solubility
Vapor Pressure Sugar water evaporates slower
Adding solute reduces evaporation
Lowering than pure water
Boiling Point Solution boils at a higher
Saltwater boils above 100°C
Elevation temperature
Freezing Point Solution freezes at a lower
Salt lowers freezing point of ice
Depression temperature
Osmotic Pressure Pressure needed to stop osmosis Cells in saltwater shrink

Electrolytes Weak and strong electrolytes, degree of dissociation.

Theories of acids and bases (Arrhenius theory, Brønsted-Lowry theory,
Lewis theory). Ionization of water – pH scale. Hydrolysis of salts.

1. Electrolytes
An electrolyte is a substance that dissolves in water to produce ions, allowing
the solution to conduct electricity.
(i) Strong vs. Weak Electrolytes
Electrolytes can be strong or weak, depending on how completely they
dissociate (break apart into ions) in solution.

Electrolyte Conductivi
Definition Examples
Type ty

Strong Completely dissociate into

HCl, NaCl, H₂SO₄, KOH High
Electrolytes ions in water.

Weak Partially dissociate into ions, CH₃COOH (acetic acid),

Low
Electrolytes forming an equilibrium. NH₃ (ammonia), HF

 Example:

o Strong Electrolyte: HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻ (100% ionized)

o Weak Electrolyte: CH₃COOH ⇌ CH₃COO⁻ + H⁺ (partially ionized)

2. Degree of Dissociation (α)

The degree of dissociation (α) tells us what fraction of molecules have
dissociated into ions.
α=Number of dissociated molecules/Total number of molecules
 For strong electrolytes, α ≈ 1 (almost fully dissociated).
 For weak electrolytes, α < 1 (only a small fraction dissociates).
Factors affecting α:
1. Concentration: Higher dilution increases α for weak electrolytes.
2. Temperature: Higher temperatures increase α.

3. Theories of Acids and Bases

Different scientists have proposed theories to define acids and bases.
(i) Arrhenius Theory (Oldest)

 Acid: Increases H⁺ (proton) concentration in aqueous solution.

o Example: HCl → H⁺ + Cl⁻

 Base: Increases OH⁻ (hydroxide) concentration in aqueous solution.

o Example: NaOH → Na⁺ + OH⁻

✅ Simple but limited – only applies to aqueous solutions.

(ii) Brønsted-Lowry Theory (More General)

 Acid: Proton (H⁺) donor

 Base: Proton (H⁺) acceptor

✅ Works in non-aqueous solutions too.
Example:

NH₃ + H₂O ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH⁻

Water donates H⁺, so it acts as an acid.

 Ammonia accepts H⁺, so it acts as a base.

(iii) Lewis Theory (Most General)

 Acid: Electron pair acceptor
 Base: Electron pair donor
✅ Explains acid-base behavior in organic and inorganic chemistry.
Example:
BF₃ + NH₃ → BF₃NH₃
 BF₃ accepts a pair of electrons → Lewis acid.
 NH₃ donates a pair of electrons → Lewis base.
Comparison of Theories:
 Definition of Definition of
Theory Example
Acid Base

Arrhenius Produces H⁺ Produces OH⁻ HCl, NaOH

Brønsted- NH₃ + H₂O ⇌ NH₄⁺ +

H⁺ donor H⁺ acceptor
Lowry OH⁻

Electron pair Electron pair

Lewis BF₃ + NH₃ → BF₃NH₃
acceptor donor

4. Ionization of Water and the pH Scale

Water can self-ionize:

H₂O ⇌ H⁺ + OH⁻

At 25°C, the concentration of H⁺ and OH⁻ in pure water is 1.0 × 10⁻⁷ M. The
ionic product of water is:
Kw=[H+][OH−]=1.0×10−14 at 25°C
pH Scale (Measures Acidity & Basicity)

pH=−log⁡[H+]

 Acidic solution: pH < 7 (more H⁺)

 Neutral solution: pH = 7 (pure water)

 Basic solution: pH > 7 (more OH⁻)

Example:
 Stomach acid (HCl): pH 1-2
 Blood: pH 7.4
 Baking soda (NaHCO₃): pH 9
✅ pH is logarithmic: A decrease of 1 pH unit = 10× more acidic.

5. Hydrolysis of Salts
Hydrolysis is the reaction of a salt with water to produce an acidic or basic
solution.
Types of Salts & Their Hydrolysis:

Type of Salt Example Hydrolysis Effect Resulting pH

Strong acid + Neutral (pH =

NaCl (HCl + NaOH) No hydrolysis
Strong base 7)

Strong acid + NH₄⁺ hydrolyzes → acidic

NH₄Cl (HCl + NH₃) pH < 7
Weak base solution

Weak acid + CH₃COONa (CH₃COOH CH₃COO⁻ hydrolyzes → pH > 7

Type of Salt Example Hydrolysis Effect Resulting pH

Strong base + NaOH) basic solution

Weak acid + NH₄CH₃COO (NH₃ + Depends on

Both ions hydrolyze
Weak base CH₃COOH) strength

✅ Example:

NH₄Cl + H₂O ⇌ NH₄⁺ + Cl

NH₄⁺ reacts with water:

NH₄⁺ + H₂O ⇌ NH₃ + H₃O⁺

Produces H₃O⁺, making the solution acidic.

Final Summary Table

Concept Explanation Example

Strong
Fully dissociates in water NaCl, HCl
Electrolyte

Partially dissociates, forms

Weak Electrolyte CH₃COOH, NH₃
equilibrium

Arrhenius Acid: H⁺ producer, Base: OH⁻

HCl, NaOH
Acid/Base producer

Brønsted-Lowry NH₃ + H₂O ⇌ NH₄⁺ +

Acid: H⁺ donor, Base: H⁺ acceptor
Acid/Base OH⁻

Acid: Electron pair acceptor, Base:

Lewis Acid/Base BF₃ + NH₃
Electron pair donor

Stomach acid (pH 1-2),

pH Scale Measures H⁺ concentration
Blood (pH 7.4)

Reaction of salts with water to form NH₄Cl → Acidic,

Salt Hydrolysis
acidic/basic solutions CH₃COONa → Basic