Module: 3

Module 3: Active components – Units, symbols, testing and uses

Table of Contents
Active components ...................................................................................................................... 3-3
Transistors .................................................................................................................................. 3-13
JFETS and MOSFETS ................................................................................................................. 13-17
Proper care and handling of FET components.......................................................................... 17-17
IGBT ........................................................................................................................................... 18-19
Other active devices (Thyristors (SCR), TRIACS and DIACS) ..................................................... 19-33
Use of data book (ECG / NTE OR ONLINE) ............................................................................... 34-35

Table of figures
Figure 1: Different transistors ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Figure 2: n-p-n transistors symbol ................................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 3: p-n-p transistors symbol ................................................................................................................................. 4
Figure 4: Transistor symbols: a - bipolar, b - FET, c - MOSFET, d - dual gate MOSFET, e - inductive channel MOSFET, f
- single connection transistor ......................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 5: Pinouts of some common packages ............................................................................................................... 7
Figure 6: Working principle of a transistor: potentiometer moves toward its upper position - voltage on the base
increases - current through the base increases - current through the collector increases - the brightness of the globe
increases. ....................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 7: A simple transistor amplifier ........................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8: Measuring the hFE ........................................................................................................................................ 12
Figure 9: Oscillator to test transistors.......................................................................................................................... 12
Figure 10: N-Channel JFET ........................................................................................................................................... 13
Figure 11: P-Channel JFET ............................................................................................................................................ 14
Figure 12: Symbols of MOSFET .................................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 13: MOSFET testing........................................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 14: Physical look of MOSFET ............................................................................................................................. 16
Figure 15: APPLICATION N-channal MOSFET ............................................................................................................... 17
Figure 16: symbol for IGBT (N-channel, D-type) .......................................................................................................... 18
Figure 17: symbols and pin placements for: a-THYRISTOR, b-TRIAC, c-DIAC ............................................................... 19
Figure 18: different types and shapes of THYRISTOR ................................................................................................... 20
Figure 19: internal structure of a thyristor Figure 20: thyristor symbol ...................................................................... 21
Figure 21: Thyristor module ......................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 22: Testing thyristor .......................................................................................................................................... 22
Figure 23: Thyristor principle of work .......................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 24: SCR control of AC power ............................................................................................................................ 24
Figure 25: thyristor to control load current ................................................................................................................. 25
Figure 26: Using variable resistor to control the firing current.................................................................................... 26
Figure 27: Using capacitor to get lower load current from the 2nd quadrant ............................................................ 26
Figure 28: Typical crowbar configuration .................................................................................................................... 27
Figure 29: Typical crowbar configuration (b) ............................................................................................................... 28
Figure 30: TRIACS ......................................................................................................................................................... 28
Figure 31: The TRIAC SCR equivalent and, TRIAC schematic symbol ........................................................................... 29
figure 32: intensity control using TRIAC ....................................................................................................................... 30
figure 33: better control using DIAC ............................................................................................................................ 31
Figure 34: light bulb intensity or motor speed controller ............................................................................................ 31
Figure 35: DIAC symbol ................................................................................................................................................ 32
Figure 36: Typical DIAC / TRIAC circuit configuration .................................................................................................. 33
Figure 37: Simple AC power control circuit using DIAC / TRIAC ................................................................................... 33

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What you will cover

✓ Module 2: active devices
✓ Types of active components
✓ Active components and their uses
✓ Test each of the components
✓ Understand failures of each of the component
✓ Read their values
✓ Carry out a practical test with the components

Learning Outcome
At the end of this module participants will be able to Understand:
• Identify and understand the active electronic components
• Understand the uses of the active components
• Test and troubleshoot the active components
• Construct circuit with the components

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ACTIVE DEVICES

An active device is any type of circuit component with the ability to electrically control electron flow
(electricity controlling electricity). In order for a circuit to be properly called electronic, it must contain at
least one active device.
Active devices include, but are not limited to, vacuum tubes, transistors, silicon-controlled rectifiers
(SCRs), and TRIACs.
Types of active components
• Transistors
• Vacuum tubes
• Silicon-controlled rectifiers: SCRS (THYRISTORS, TRIACS and DIACS)
• IGBT ,

4. Transistors
Transistors are active components and are found everywhere in electronic circuits. They are used as
amplifiers and switching devices. As amplifiers, they are used in high and low frequency stages,
oscillators, modulators, detectors and in any circuit needing to perform a function. In digital circuits they
are used as switches. There is a large number of manufacturers around the world who produce
semiconductors (transistors are members of this family of components), so there are literally thousands
of different types. There are low, medium and high power transistors, for working with high and low
frequencies, for working with very high current and/or high voltages. Several different transistors are
shown on 1.
The most common type of transistor is called bipolar and these are divided into NPN and PNP types.
Their construction-material is most commonly silicon (their marking has the letter B) or germanium
(their marking has the letter A). Original transistors were made from germanium, but they were very
temperature-sensitive. Silicon transistors are much more temperature-tolerant and much cheaper to
manufacture.

Figure 1: Different transistors

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SYMBOL TRANSISTORS

• P-N-P
• N-P-N

NPN Transistors
DIODE
collector

base

DIODE
emitter

Figure 2: n-p-n transistors symbol

TESTING NPN

• BASE-EMITTER READING IS HIGHER THAN BASE-COLLECTOR READING

• THE BASE IS THE P WHILE N IS FOR COLLECTOR AND EMITTER
• ALL Cxxx TRANSISTOR
• ALL TIP ENDING IN ODD NUMBERS
• SOME 2Nxxx transistor

PNP Transistors

DIODE
collector

base

DIODE
emitter

Figure 3: p-n-p transistors symbol

TESTING PNP
• BASE-EMITTER READING IS HIGHER THAN BASE-COLLECTOR READING
• THE BASE IS THE N WHILE P IS FOR COLLECTOR AND EMITTER
• ALL Axxx TRANSISTOR

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• ALL TIP ENDING IN EVEN NUMBERS

• SOME 2Nxxx transistor

Figure 4: Transistor symbols: a - bipolar, b - FET, c - MOSFET, d - dual gate MOSFET,

e - inductive channel MOSFET, f - single connection transistor

The second letter in transistor’s marking describes its primary use:

C - low and medium power LF transistor,
D - high power LF transistor,
F - low power HF transistor,
G - other transistors,
L - high power HF transistors,
P - photo transistor,
S - switch transistor,
U - high voltage transistor.

Here are few examples:

AC540 - germanium core, LF, low power,
AF125 - germanium core, HF, low power,
BC107 - silicon, LF, low power (0.3W),
BD675 - silicon, LF, high power (40W),
BF199 - silicon, HF (to 550 MHz),
BU208 - silicon (for voltages up to 700V),
BSY54 - silicon, switching transistor.
There is a possibility of a third letter (R and Q - microwave transistors, or X - switch transistor), but these
letters vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
The number following the letter is of no importance to users.
American transistor manufacturers have different marks, with a 2N prefix followed by a number
(2N3055, for example). This mark is similar to diode marks, which have a 1N prefix (e.g. 1N4004).
Japanese bipolar transistor are prefixed with a: 2SA, 2SB, 2SC or 2SD, and FET-s with 3S:
2SA - PNP, HF transistors,

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2SB - PNP, LF transistors,

2SC - NPN, HF transistors,
2SD - NPN, HF transistors.

Several different transistors are shown in photo 1, and symbols for schematics are on figure 4. Low
power transistors are housed in a small plastic or metallic case of various shapes. Bipolar transistors
have three leads: for base (B), emitter (E), and for collector (C). Sometimes, HF transistors have another
lead which is connected to the metal housing. This lead is connected to the ground of the circuit, to
protect the transistor from possible external electrical interference. Four leads emerge from some other
types, such as two-gate FETs. High power transistors are different from low-to-medium power, both in
size and in shape.

It is important to have the manufacturer’s catalog or a datasheet to know which lead is connected to
what part of the transistor. These documents hold the information about the component's correct use
(maximum current rating, power, amplification, etc.) as well as a diagram of the pinout. Placement of
leads and different housing types for some commonly used transistors are in diagram 5.

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Figure 5: Pinouts of some common packages

It might be useful to remember the pinout for TO-1, TO-5, TO-18 and TO-72 packages and compare them
with the drawing 5(a). These transistors are the ones you will come across frequently in everyday work.

The TO-3 package, which is used to house high-power transistors, has only two pins, one for base, and
one for emitter. The collector is connected to the package, and this is connected to the rest of the circuit
via one of the screws which fasten the transistor to the heat-sink.

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Transistors used with very high frequencies (like BFR14) have pins shaped differently.
One of the breakthroughs in the field of electronic components was the invention of SMD (surface
mount devices) circuits. This technology allowed manufacturers to achieve tiny components with the
same properties as their larger counterparts, and therefore reduce the size and cost of the design. One
of the SMD housings is the SOT23 package. There is, however, a trade-off to this, SMD components are
difficult to solder to the PC board and they usually need special soldering equipment.

As we said, there are literally thousands of different transistors; many of them have similar
characteristics, which makes it possible to replace a faulty transistor with a different one. The
characteristics and similarities can be found in comparison charts. If you do not have one these charts,
you can try some of the transistors you already have. If the circuit continues to operate correctly,
everything is ok. You can only replace an NPN transistor with an NPN transistor. The same goes if the
transistor is PNP or a FET. It is also necessary to make sure the pinout is correct, before you solder it in
place and power up the project.

As a helpful guide, there is a chart in this chapter which shows a list of replacements for some frequently
used transistors.

The working principle of a transistor

Transistors are used in analog circuits to amplify a signal. They are also used in power supplies as a
regulator and you will also find them used as a switch in digital circuits.
The best way to explore the basics of transistors is by experimenting. A simple circuit is shown below. It
uses a power transistor to illuminate a globe. You will also need a battery, a small light bulb (taken from
a flashlight) with properties near 4.5V/0.3A, a linear potentiometer (5k) and a 470 ohm resistor. These
components should be connected as shown in figure 6a.

Figure 6: Working principle of a transistor: potentiometer moves toward its upper position - voltage
on the base increases - current through the base increases - current through the collector increases -
the brightness of the globe increases.

Resistor (R) isn't really necessary, but if you don't use it, you mustn't turn the potentiometer (pot) to its
high position, because that would destroy the transistor - this is because the DC voltage UBE (voltage
between the base and the emitter), should not be higher than 0.6V, for silicon transistors.

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Turn the potentiometer to its lowest position. This brings the voltage on the base (or more correctly
between the base and ground) to zero volts (UBE = 0). The bulb doesn't light, which means there is no
current passing through the transistor.

As we already mentioned, the potentiometers lowest position means that UBE is equal to zero. When
we turn the knob from its lowest position UBE gradually increases. When UBE reaches 0.6v, current
starts to enter the transistor and the globe starts to glow. As the pot is turned further, the voltage on the
base remains at 0.6v but the current increases and this increases the current through the collector-
emitter circuit. If the pot is turned fully, the base voltage will increase slightly to about 0.75v but the
current will increase significantly and the globe will glow brightly.

If we connected an ammeter between the collector and the bulb (to measure IC), another ammeter
between the pot and the base (for measuring IB), and a voltmeter between the ground and the base and
repeat the whole experiment, we will find some interesting data. When the pot is in its low position UBE
is equal to 0V, as well as currents IC and IB. When the pot is turned, these values start to rise until the
bulb starts to glow when they are: UBE = 0.6V, IB = 0.8mA and IB = 36 mA (if your values differ from
these values, it is because the 2N3055 the writer used doesn't have the same specifications as the one
you use, which is common when working with transistors).
The end result we get from this experiment is that when the current on the base is changed, current on
the collector is changed as well.

Let's look at another experiment which will broaden our knowledge of the transistor. It requires a BC107
transistor (or any similar low power transistor), supply source (same as in previous experiment), 1M
resistor, headphones and an electrolytic capacitor whose value may range between 10u to 100µF with
any operating voltage.

A simple low frequency amplifier can be built from these components as shown in diagram 7.

Figure 7: A simple transistor amplifier

It should be noted that the schematic 7a is similar to the one on 7b. The main difference is that the
collector is connected to headphones. The "turn-on" resistor - the resistor on the base, is 1M. When
there is no resistor, there is no current flow IB, and no Ic current. When the resistor is connected to the
circuit, base voltage is equal to 0.6V, and the base current IB = 4µA. The transistor has a gain of 250 and
this means the collector current will be 1 mA. Since both of these currents enter the transistor, it is

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obvious that the emitter current is equal to IE = IC + IB. And since the base current is in most cases
insignificant compared to the collector current, it is considered that:

The relationship between the current flowing through the collector and the current flowing through the
base is called the transistor's current amplification coefficient, and is marked as hFE. In our example, this
coefficient is equal to:

Put the headphones on and place a fingertip on point 1. You will hear a noise. Your body picks up the
50Hz AC "mains" voltage. The noise heard from the headphones is that voltage, only amplified by the
transistor. Let's explain this circuit a bit more. Ac voltage with frequency 50Hz is connected to
transistor's base via the capacitor C. Voltage on the base is now equal to the sum of a DC voltage (0.6
approx.) via resistor R, and AC voltage "from" the finger. This means that this base voltage is higher than
0.6V, fifty times per second, and fifty times slightly lower than that. Because of this, current on the
collector is higher than 1mA fifty times per second, and fifty times lower. This variable current is used to
shift the membrane of the speakerphones forward fifty times per second and fifty times backwards,
meaning that we can hear the 50Hz tone on the output.
Listening to a 50Hz noise is not very interesting, so you could connect to points 1 and 2 some low
frequency signal source (CD player or a microphone).

There are literally thousands of different circuits using a transistor as an active, amplifying device. And all
these transistors operate in a manner shown in our experiments, which means that by building this
example, you're actually building a basic building block of electronics.

Basic characteristics of transistors

Selecting the correct transistor for a circuit is based on the following characteristics: maximum voltage
rating between the collector and the emitter UCEmax, maximum collector current ICmax and the
maximum power rating PCmax.

If you need to change a faulty transistor, or you feel comfortable enough to build a new circuit, pay
attention to these three values. Your circuit must not exceed the maximum rating values of the
transistor. If this is disregarded there are possibilities of permanent circuit damage. Beside the values we
mentioned, it is sometimes important to know the current amplification, and maximum frequency of
operation.

When there is a DC voltage UCE between the collector (C) and emitter (E) with a collector current, the
transistor acts as a small electrical heater whose power is given with this equation:

Because of that, the transistor is heating itself and everything in its proximity. When UCE or ICE rise (or
both of them), the transistor may overheat and become damaged. Maximum power rating for a
transistor, is PCmax (found in a datasheet). What this means is that the product of UCE and IC should not
be higher than PCmax:

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So, if the voltage across the transistor is increased, the current must be dropped.
For example, maximum ratings for a BC107 transistor are:
ICmax=100mA,
UCEmax = 45V and
PCmax = 300mW
If we need a Ic=60mA , the maximum voltage is:

For UCE = 30V, the maximum current is:

Among its other characteristics, this transistor has current amplification coefficient in range between
hFE= 100 to 450, and it can be used for frequencies under 300MHz. According to the recommended
values given by the manufacturer, optimum results (stability, low distortion and noise, high gain, etc.)
are with UCE=5V and IC=2mA. There are occasions when the heat generated by a transistor cannot be
overcome by adjusting voltages and current. In this case the transistors have a metal plate with hole,
which is used to attach it to a heat-sink to allow the heat to be passed to a larger surface.

Current amplification is of importance when used in some circuits, where there is a need for equal
amplification of two transistors. For example, 2N3055H transistors have hFE within range between 20
and 70, which means that there is a possibility that one of them has 20 and other 70. This means that in
cases when two identical coefficients are needed, they should be measured. Some multimeters have the
option for measuring this, but most don't. Because of this we have provided a simple circuit (8) for
testing transistors. All you need is an option on your multimeter for measuring DC current up to 5mA.
Both diodes (1N4001, or similar general purpose silicon diodes) and 1k resistors are used to protect the
instrument if the transistor is "damaged". As we said, current gain is equal to hFE = IC / IB. In the circuit,
when the switch S is pressed, current flows through the base and is approximately equal to IB=10uA, so
if the collector current is displayed in milliamps. The gain is equal to:

For example, if the multimeter shows 2.4mA, hFE = 2.4*100 = 240.

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Figure 8: Measuring the hFE

While measuring NPN transistors, the supply should be connected as shown in the diagram. For PNP
transistors the battery is reversed. In that case, probes should be reversed as well if you're using analog
instrument (one with a needle). If you are using a digital meter (highly recommended) it doesn't matter
which probe goes where, but if you do it the same way as you did with NPN there would be a minus in
front of the read value, which means that current flows in the opposite direction.

The safest way to test transistors

Another way to test transistor is to put it into a circuit and detect the operation. The following circuit is a
multivibrator. The "test transistor" is T2. The supply voltage can be up to 12v. The LED will blink when a
good transistor is fitted to the circuit.

Figure 9: Oscillator to test transistors

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To test PNP transistors, same would go, only the transistor which would need to be replaced is the T1,
and the battery, LED, C1 and C2 should be reversed.

JFETs AND MOSFETs

Unlike bipolar transistors, JFETs are exclusively voltage-controlled in that they do not need a
biasing current. Electric charge flows through a semiconducting channel between source and
drain terminals. By applying a reverse bias voltage to a gate terminal, the channel is "pinched",
so that the electric current is impeded or switched off completely. A JFET is usually on when
there is no potential difference between its gate and source terminals. If a potential difference
of the proper polarity is applied between its gate and source terminals, the JFET will be more
resistive to current flow, which means less current would flow in the channel between the
source and drain terminals. Thus, JFETs are sometimes referred to as depletion-mode devices.

JFETs can have an n-type or p-type channel. In the n-type, if the voltage applied to the gate is
less than that applied to the source, the current will be reduced (similarly in the p-type, if the
voltage applied to the gate is greater than that applied to the source). A JFET has a large input
impedance (sometimes on the order of 1010 ohms), which means that it has a negligible effect
on external components or circuits connected to its gate.

Figure 10: N-Channel JFET

In a junction field-effect transistor, or JFET, the controlled current passes from source to drain,
or from drain to source as the case may be. The controlling voltage is applied between the gate
and source. Note how the current does not have to cross through a PN junction on its way
between source and drain: the path (called a channel) is an uninterrupted block of
semiconductor material. In the image just shown, this channel is an N-type semiconductor. P-
type channel JFETs are also manufactured:

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Figure 11: P-Channel JFET

Generally, N-channel JFETs are more commonly used than P-channel. The reasons for this have
to do with obscure details of semiconductor theory, which I’d rather not discuss in this chapter.
As with bipolar transistors, I believe the best way to introduce field-effect transistor usage is to
avoid theory whenever possible and concentrate instead on operational characteristics. The
only practical difference between N- and P-channel JFETs you need to concern yourself with
now is biasing of the PN junction formed between the gate material and the channel.

With no voltage applied between gate and source, the channel is a wide-open path for
electrons to flow. However, if a voltage is applied between gate and source of such polarity that
it reverse-biases the PN junction, the flow between source and drain connections becomes
limited, or regulated, just as it was for bipolar transistors with a set amount of base current.
Maximum gate-source voltage “pinches off” all current through source and drain, thus forcing
the JFET into cutoff mode. This behavior is due to the depletion region of the PN junction
expanding under the influence of a reverse-bias voltage, eventually occupying the entire width
of the channel if the voltage is great enough. This action may be likened to reducing the flow of
a liquid through a flexible hose by squeezing it: with enough force, the hose will be constricted
enough to completely block the flow.

❖ Junction field effect transistors have been replaced by MOSFETs as the most commonly
used field effect transistors. If you are working for an examination, check the subject
specification to find out whether or not JFETs are included in it. Like MOSFETs, JFETS are
unipolar transistors, made in n-channel and p-channel versions

Applications for JFETs:

JFETs can be used for several applications including:

• High Input Impedance Amplifier

• Low-Noise Amplifier
• Differential Amplifier
• Constant Current Source
• Analog Switch or Gate
• Voltage Controlled Resistor

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MOSFET

The IGFET or MOSFET is a voltage controlled field effect transistor that differs from a JFET in
that it has a “Metal Oxide” Gate electrode which is electrically insulated from the main
semiconductor n-channel or p-channel by a very thin layer of insulating material usually silicon
dioxide, commonly known as glass.

On like the JFET, MOSFETs are three terminal devices with a Gate, Drain and Source and both P-
channel (PMOS) and N-channel (NMOS) MOSFETs are available. The main difference this time is
that MOSFETs are available in two basic forms:

• Depletion Type – the transistor requires the Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the
device “OFF”. The depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “Normally Closed” switch.
• Enhancement Type – the transistor requires a Gate-Source voltage, ( VGS ) to switch
the device “ON”. The enhancement mode MOSFET is equivalent to a “Normally Open”
switch.

The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of MOSFETs are shown below.

Figure 12: Symbols of MOSFET

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TESTING OF MOSFET

drain

gate DIODE

source
Figure 13: MOSFET testing

You will need a Digital or Analogue Multimeter set to diode range or equivalent ohmic range in
analogue meter respectively.
1. Mark the terminals of the MOSFET as 1, 2 and 3 from a specific direction.(imaginary)
2. With the Red probe stationary on 1 then Test 2 note your value and then Test 3 also
note your value using your black probe. Your value should be between 0.400 to 0.700
between only a pair of terminals (1-2 or 1-3) and in one direction.
3. 3. If no values are displayed as expected in 2 above then swap the Red probe from
terminal 1 to terminal 2 and test with respect to terminals 1 and 3 as in 2 above. Your
value should be between 0.400 to 0.700 between only a pair of terminals (2-1 or 2-3)
and in one direction

Figure 14: Physical look of MOSFET

4. If no values are displayed as expected in 2 and 3 above then swap the Red probe from
terminal 2 to terminal 3 and test with respect to terminals 1 and 2 as in 2 above. Your
value should be between 0.400 to 0.700 between only a pair of terminals (3-1 or 3-2)
and in one direction.
5. Ensure you short the three terminals before repeating each test to discharge the gate.

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6. Note the test connection where there is a display, the terminal placed with the RED
probe is the SOURCE and that placed with the BLACK probe is the DRAIN. The gate
when properly discharged does not read with DRAIN or SOURCE.
7. A slight bias with the RED probe on the gate will make the reverse connection (Black to
source Red to drain) conductive displaying some ohms.

Figure 15: APPLICATION N-channal MOSFET

APPLICATIONS
Used for heavy current switching as in
• UPS or inverters
• Frequency drive
• High voltage Power supply switching
• Speed control Consumes lest current.

PRECAUTION

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IGBT

Insulated gate field-effect transistors are unipolar devices just like JFETs: that is, the controlled
current does not have to cross a PN junction. There is a PN junction inside the transistor, but its
only purpose is to provide that non-conducting depletion region which is used to restrict
current through the channel.

Figure 16: symbol for IGBT (N-channel, D-type)

Notice how the source and drain leads connect to either end of the N-channel, and how the
gate lead attaches to a metal plate separated from the channel by a thin insulating barrier. That
barrier is sometimes made from silicon dioxide (the primary chemical compound found in sand),
which is a very good insulator. Due to this Metal (gate) - Oxide (barrier) - Semiconductor
(channel) construction, the IGFET is sometimes referred to as a MOSFET. There are other types
of IGFET construction, though, and so "IGFET" is the better descriptor for this general class of
transistors.

Notice also how there are four connections to the IGFET. In practice, the substrate lead is
directly connected to the source lead to make the two electrically common. Usually, this
connection is made internally to the IGFET, eliminating the separate substrate connection,
resulting in a three-terminal device with a slightly different schematic symbol:

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With source and substrate common to each other, the N and P layers of the IGFET end up being
directly connected to each other through the outside wire. This connection prevents any
voltage from being impressed across the PN junction. As a result, a depletion region exists
between the two materials, but it can never be expanded or collapsed. JFET operation is based
on the expansion of the PN junction's depletion region, but here in the IGFET that cannot
happen, so IGFET operation must be based on a different effect.

Indeed it is, for when a controlling voltage is applied between gate and source, the conductivity
of the channel is changed as a result of the depletion region moving closer to or further away
from the gate. In other words, the channel's effective width changes just as with the JFET, but
this change in channel width is due to depletion region displacement rather than depletion
region expansion.

Thyristors (SCR), TRIACS and DIACS

Figure 17: symbols and pin placements for: a-THYRISTOR, b-TRIAC, c-DIAC

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Thyristor (SCRs)

Figure 18: different types and shapes of THYRISTOR

REVIEW OF SCR
❖ A silicon-controlled rectifier SCR essentially a Shockley diode with an extra terminal added.
This extra terminal is called the gate, and it is used to trigger the device into conduction
(latch it) by the application of a small voltage.

❖ To trigger, or fire an SCR, voltage must be applied between the gate and cathode, positive to
the gate and negative to the cathode. When testing an SCR, a momentary connection
between the gate and the anode is sufficient in polarity, intensity, and duration to trigger it.

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❖ SCRs may be fired by internal triggering of the gate terminal, excessive voltage (breakdown)
between anode and cathode, or excessive rate of voltage rise between anode and cathode.
SCRs may be turned off by anode current falling below the holding current value (low-
current dropout), or by “reverse-firing” the gate (applying a negative voltage to the gate).
Reverse-firing is only sometimes effective, and always involves high gate current.

❖ A variant of the SCR, called gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO), is specifically designed to be

turned off by means of reverse triggering. Even then, reverse triggering requires fairly high
current: typically 20% of the Anode current.

❖ SCRs are true rectifiers: they only allow current through them in one direction. This means
they cannot be used alone for full-wave AC power control.

❖ If the diodes in a rectifier circuit are replaced by SCRs, you have the makings of a controlled
rectifier circuit, whereby DC power to a load may be time-proportioned by triggering the
SCRs at different points along the AC power waveform.

Thyristor symbol

Figure 19: internal structure of a thyristor

Figure 20: thyristor symbol

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Figure 21: Thyristor module

TESTING SCRS
❖ SCR terminals may be identified by a continuity meter; the only two terminals showing
continuity between them at all should be the gate and cathode. Gate and cathode terminals
connect to a PN junction inside the SCR, so a continuity meter should obtain a diode-like
reading between these two terminal with the red (+) lead on the gate and the black (-) lead
on the cathode. Beware, though, that some large SCRs have an internal resistor connected
between gate and cathode, which will affect any continuity readings taken by a meter.

Figure 22: Testing thyristor

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Thyristor applications

Thyristors, or silicon controlled rectifiers, SCRs are used in many areas of electronics where they
find uses in a variety of different applications. Some of the more common applications for them
are outlined below:

• AC power control (including lights, motors, etc).

• Overvoltage protection crowbar for power supplies.
• AC power switching.
• Control elements in phase angle triggered controllers.
• Within photographic flash lights where they act as the switch to discharge a stored
voltage through the flash lamp, and then cut it off at the required time.

Thyristors are able to switch high voltages and withstand reverse voltages making them ideal
for switching applications, especially within AC scenarios.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLES

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Figure 23: Thyristor principle of work

SCR control of AC power

Being a unidirectional (one-way) device, at most we can only deliver half-wave power to the
load, in the half-cycle of AC where the supply voltage polarity is positive on the top and negative
on the bottom. However, for demonstrating the basic concept of time-proportional control, this
simple circuit is better than one controlling full-wave power (which would require two SCRs).

With no triggering to the gate, and the AC source voltage well below the SCR’s breakover
voltage rating, the SCR will never turn on. Connecting the SCR gate to the anode through a
standard rectifying diode (to prevent reverse current through the gate in the event of the SCR
containing a built-in gate-cathode resistor), will allow the SCR to be triggered almost
immediately at the beginning of every positive half-cycle: (Figure below)

Figure 24: SCR control of AC power

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Delaying The Triggering Of The SCR: connecting a resistance into the gate will increasing
the amount of voltage drop required before enough gate current triggers the SCR. In other
words, if we make it harder for electrons to flow through the gate by adding a resistance, the
AC voltage will have to reach a higher point in its cycle before there will be enough gate current
to turn the SCR on. The result is in Figure below.

THYRISTOR TO CONTROL LOAD CURRENT

Figure 25: thyristor to control load current

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Figure 26: Using variable resistor to control the firing current

Figure 27: Using capacitor to get lower load current from the 2nd quadrant

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CHARACTERIZING SCRs FOR CROWBAR

APPLICATIONS
The use of a crowbar to protect sensitive loads from power supply overvoltage is quite common
and, at the first glance, the design of these crowbars seems like a
straightforward, relatively simple task. The crowbar SCR is selected so as to handle the
overvoltage condition and a fuse is chosen at 125 to 250% of the supply’s rated full−load line
current.

Figure 28: Typical crowbar configuration

Placing the crowbar across the input filter capacitors, although effectively lamping the output,
has several disadvantages.
1. There is a stress placed on the input rectifiers during the crowbarring short circuit time
before the line fuse opens, particularly under repeated operation.
2. Under low line conditions, the minimum short circuit current can be of the same magnitude
as the maximum primary line current at high line, high load, making the proper fuse selection a
difficult choice.
3. The capacitive energy to be crowbarred (input and output capacitor through rectifier D1) can
be high. When the SCR crowbar and the fuse are placed in the dc
load circuit, the above problems are minimized. If crowbarring occurs due to an external
transient on the line and the regulator’s current limiting is working properly, the SCR only has to
crowbar the generally smaller output filter capacitor and sustain the limited regulator current.
If the series pass devices were to fail (short), even with current limiting or fold back disabled,
the crowbarred energy would generally be less than of the previous case. This is due to the
higher impedance of the shorted regulator (due to emitter sharing and current sensing
resistors) relative to that of rectifier D1.

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Figure 29: Typical crowbar configuration (b)

THE TRIAC

Figure 30: TRIACS

• SCRs are unidirectional (one-way) current devices, making them useful for controlling DC
only.

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• If two SCRs are joined in back-to-back parallel fashion just like two Shockley diodes were
joined together to form a DIAC, we have a new device known as the TRIAC:
The TRIAC is a three terminal semiconductor device for controlling current. It gains its name
from the term TRIode for Alternating Current.

Figure 31: The TRIAC SCR equivalent and, TRIAC schematic symbol

Applications

TRIACs are used in a number of applications. However they tend not to be used in high power
switching applications - one of the reasons for this is the non-symmetrical switching
characteristics. For high power applications this creates a number of difficulties, especially with
electromagnetic interference.

However TRIACs are still used for many electrical switching applications:

• Domestic light dimmers

• Electric fan speed controls
• Small motor controls
• Control of small AC powered domestic appliances

Testing TRIAC

1. First make sure you know the terminals of the TRIAC. If you do not know, you can always
refer to a semiconductor data book or browse through the internet. Once you have
located the terminals, use your meter set to ohms range.
2. Place the red probe to terminal 2 and the black probe to terminal 1, you should get a
high resistance reading. resistance reading at the meter panel and remain low even
when the gate connection is broken. (not for all TRIACS)
3. Reverse the probes and retest again and you should expect the same result.

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4. These reading are approximate and may vary with manufacturer or different
specification from the TRIAC. Any result that is significantly different would point to a
faulty TRIAC.

Now, use a screw driver tip to create a momentarily short between the gate and terminal 2 or
you can just move the red probe touching the gate while the red probe is still on terminal 2.
This short will cause the TRIAC to turn ON and you will see a low Because individual SCRs are
more flexible to use in advanced control systems, these are more commonly seen in circuits like
motor drives; TRIACs are usually seen in simple, low-power applications like household dimmer
switches. A simple lamp dimmer circuit is shown in Figure below, complete with the phase-
shifting resistor-capacitor network necessary for after-peak firing.

figure 32: intensity control using TRIAC

TRIACs are notorious for not firing symmetrically. This means these usually won’t trigger at the
exact same gate voltage level for one polarity as for the other. Generally speaking, this is
undesirable, because unsymmetrical firing results in a current waveform with a greater variety
of harmonic frequencies. Waveforms that are symmetrical above and below their average
centerlines are comprised of only odd-numbered harmonics. Unsymmetrical waveforms, on the
other hand, contain even-numbered harmonics (which may or may not be accompanied by odd-
numbered harmonics as well).

In the interest of reducing total harmonic content in power systems, the fewer and less diverse
the harmonics, the better—one more reason individual SCRs are favored over TRIACs for
complex, high-power control circuits. One way to make the TRIAC’s current waveform more
symmetrical is to use a device external to the TRIAC to time the triggering pulse. A DIAC placed
in series with the gate does a fair job of this: (Figure below)

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figure 33: better control using DIAC

TRIAC REVIEW:
• A TRIAC acts much like two SCRs connected back-to-back for bidirectional (AC)
operation.
• TRIAC controls more often seen in simple, low-power circuits than complex, high-power
circuits, in large power control circuits, multiple SCRs tend to be favored.
• When used to control AC power to a load, TRIACs are often accompanied by DIACs
connected in series with their gate terminals. The DIACs helps the TRIAC fire more
symmetrically (more consistently from one polarity to another).
• Main terminals 1 and 2 on a TRIAC are not interchangeable.
• To successfully trigger a TRIAC, gate current must come from the main terminal 2 (MT2)
side of the circuit!

If the main use for this circuit below is to control the brightness of a light bulb, RS and CS are not
necessary

Figure 34: light bulb intensity or motor speed controller

Advantages

• Can switch both halves of an AC waveform

• Single component can be used for full AC switching

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Disadvantages

• A TRIAC does not fire symmetrically on both sides of the waveform

• Switching gives rise to high level of harmonics due to non-symmetrical switching
• More susceptible to EMI problems as a result of the non-symmetrical switching

• Care must be taken to ensure the TRIAC turns off fully when used with inductive loads

The DIAC

• The DIAC is a full-wave or bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in

both forward and reverse polarities.
• The DIAC gains its name from the contraction of the words Diode Alternating Current.
• The DIAC is widely used to assist even triggering of a TRIAC when used in AC switches.
DIACs are mainly used in dimmer applications and also in starter circuits for florescent
lamps.

Figure 35: DIAC symbol

Operation

The DIAC is essentially a diode that conducts after a 'break-over' voltage, designated VBO, is
exceeded.

When the device exceeds this break-over voltage, it enters the region of negative dynamic
resistance. This results in a decrease in the voltage drop across the diode with increasing
voltage. Accordingly there is a sharp increase in the level of current that is conducted by the
device.

The diode remains in its conduction state until the current through it drops below what is
termed the holding current, which is normally designated by the letters IH.

Below the holding current, the DIAC reverts to its high-resistance (non-conducting) state.

Its behaviour is bi-directional and therefore its operation occurs on both halves of an alternating
cycle.

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DIAC applications

Typically the DIAC is placed in series with the gate of a TRIAC. DIACs are often used in
conjunction with TRIACs because these devices do not fire symmetrically as a result of slight
differences between the two halves of the device. This results in harmonics being generated,
and the less symmetrical the device fires, the greater the level of harmonics produced. It is
generally undesirable to have high levels of harmonics in a power system.

Figure 36: Typical DIAC / TRIAC circuit configuration

Figure 37: Simple AC power control circuit using DIAC / TRIAC

To help in overcoming this problem, a DIAC is often placed in series with the gate. This device
helps make the switching more even for both halves of the cycle. This results from the fact that
its switching characteristic is far more even than that of the TRIAC. Since the DIAC prevents any
gate current flowing until the trigger voltage has reached a certain voltage in either direction,
this makes the firing point of the TRIAC more even in both directions.

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USE OF DATA BOOK

The need for databooks

The manufacturers and distributors of electronic components publish data books, containing
cross-referencing information and individual component specifications. A few examples of such
books are NTE Semiconductors, The GE Semiconductor Replacement Guide, and SK Replacement
Cross-Reference Dictionary.

A databook is a collection of datasheets, in printed book form, from a single manufacturer.

Sometimes manufacturers would include application notes or white papers in the databook as
well.

Back in "the day", engineers would have a large library of databooks. Around 1997 my library
was made from six 6-foot bookshelves completely full of databooks-- that used all the wall
space in the employee break room. Around the same time, manufacturer representatives and
field-sales people from distributors would drive from customer to customer with their trunk full
of databooks.

This was before the Internet was useful, and PDF's were commonplace. Databooks have been
mostly obsoleted now, to the delight of field sales people and employees taking breaks
everywhere.

PARTS OF A DATA BOOK

• Numerical index
(iii thru xxxii)
• Part 1 NTE components number
(1-9 thru 1-366)
• Part 2 cross reference

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(2-2 thru 2-481)

NUMERICAL INDEX
• This part contains alphabetical listing of components from 1xxxx to 7xxxx (1v010 thru
75493).
• It is used to locate the page number of NTE type component

PART 1- NTE COMPONENTS NUMBER

• This part contains detailed description of all NTE components referenced from numerical
index .It runs from 1-9 thru 1-366.
• It is used to locate the part diagram, part ratings, configuration, equivalent, pin number
and other relevant information about NTE equivalent part

PART 2 CROSS REFERENCE.

• This part contains conventional components part number available for all components.
It runs from 2-2 thru 2-481.
• It is used to locate the NTE equivalent part number of components which is then sorted
in the numerical index section to get a detailed description of components at part 1.

ORDER OF USAGE
• Open part 2 to search for conventional component name.
• Copy the NTE equivalent Part number
• Locate the equivalent Part number gotten above in the numerical index section.
• Go to the page number directed to in the numerical index section above which is located
in part 1

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