JINKA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
PHYSICS MODULE FOR PRE-UNIVERSITY REMEDIAL PROGRAM

AUTHORS:
1. BELETE DEGU (MS.C)
2. MESKELA CHALA (MS.C)

EDITOR
1. BAKANO BASIRE (MS.C)

March, 2023

JINKA, ETHIOPIA
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1
VECTORS ................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Vector and scalar quantities ...................................................................................................... 2
1.1.2 Vector Representation .................................................................................................................. 4
1.1.3 Vector Components...................................................................................................................... 7
1.4. Unit Summary ................................................................................................................................. 12
1.5. Review Questions ........................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 15
Kinematics of the particles.......................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 15
2.2 Motion in one dimension .................................................................................................................. 17
2.2.1 Uniform Motion in one dimension............................................................................................. 20
2.3. Uniformly accelerated Motion in one dimension............................................................................. 20
2.4. Free falling bodies............................................................................................................................ 21
2.5. Two dimension (2D) motion ............................................................................................................ 21
5.2.1 Projectile Motion........................................................................................................................ 22
5.6. Circular Motion................................................................................................................................ 25
5.6.1. Uniform Circular Motion .......................................................................................................... 25
2.6.2. Non-uniform Circular Motion ................................................................................................... 27
2.7. Unit Summary .................................................................................................................................. 28
2.7. Review Questions ............................................................................................................................ 29
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................................... 30
3. Angular Motion....................................................................................................................................... 30
3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 30
3.2 Angular Motion................................................................................................................................. 31
3.2.1 Rotational Kinematics ................................................................................................................ 31
3.3. Uniformly Accelerated Rotational Motion ...................................................................................... 32
3.4. Angular Momentum......................................................................................................................... 33
3.5. Review Questions ............................................................................................................................ 36
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................... 37

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3. Dynamics of the particles .................................................................................................................... 37
4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 38
4.2 linear momentum .............................................................................................................................. 44
4.2.1 Conservation of Momentum ...................................................................................................... 45
4.2.2 Collision ..................................................................................................................................... 45
Elastic Collision .................................................................................................................................. 46
Inelastic Collision ............................................................................................................................... 46
4.3 Center of Mass and Moment of Inertia ............................................................................................. 48
4.3.1 Center of Mass ........................................................................................................................... 48
4.3.2 Moment of Inertia ...................................................................................................................... 49
4.4 Torque and angular momentum ........................................................................................................ 52
4.5 Conditions of Equilibrium (First and second)................................................................................... 53
4.6. Unit Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 54
4.7. Review Questions ............................................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 56
5. Work, Energy and Power .................................................................................................................... 56
5.1 Work done by constant and variable forces ...................................................................................... 56
5.1.1 Work done by a variable force ................................................................................................... 58
5.2 Conservation of energy ..................................................................................................................... 60
5.3 Work energy theorem ....................................................................................................................... 62
5.4 Conservative forces ........................................................................................................................... 63
5.5 Power ................................................................................................................................................ 63
5.6. Review questions ............................................................................................................................. 64
CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................................... 65
6. Oscillation and Waves ........................................................................................................................ 65
6.1 Oscillatory motion ............................................................................................................................ 65
6.1.1 Harmonic Motion ....................................................................................................................... 66
6.1.2 Damped and Forced Oscillation ................................................................................................. 70
6.2 Properties of wave (frequency, wave length, period) ....................................................................... 74
6.3 Types of Waves................................................................................................................................. 75
6.3.1 Transverse and longitudinal ....................................................................................................... 75
6.3.2 Mechanical and Electromagnetic wave ...................................................................................... 76

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 6.4 Wave behavior (reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction) ...................................................... 76
6.4.1. Reflection of Waves ............................................................................................................ 76
6.4.2. Refraction of wave .............................................................................................................. 76
6.4.3. Diffraction of wave ............................................................................................................. 77
6.4.4. Interference of wave............................................................................................................ 77
6.5 Wave equation .................................................................................................................................. 77
6.6 Review questions ......................................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER SEVEN .................................................................................................................................... 80
7. Heat and thermodynamics ................................................................................................................... 80
7.1 Temperature and Heat ....................................................................................................................... 80
7.2 The Effect of Heat on Materials (Change of Temperature, Expansion, Change of Phase, Heat
Capacity .................................................................................................................................................. 82
7.3 Specific Heat and Latent Heat ..................................................................................................... 83
7.3 Laws of thermodynamics (zeros, First and second Laws) ................................................................ 85
7.3.1 Zeros Laws of thermodynamics ................................................................................................. 85
7.3.2 First Laws of thermodynamics ................................................................................................... 85
CHAPTER EGHIT ..................................................................................................................................... 89
8. Electrostatics and magnetism .............................................................................................................. 89
8.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 89
8.2 Coulomb's law................................................................................................................................... 90
8.3. Electric Field (E) .............................................................................................................................. 92
8.3.1 Electric Field Intensity ............................................................................................................... 92
8.4. Electric Field Lines ..................................................................................................................... 95
8.5. Electric potential of a point charge ............................................................................................. 96
8.5.1 Motion of charged particles in an electric Field......................................................................... 99
8.6. Capacitance and Capacitor networks ........................................................................................ 100
8.7 The Parallel Plate Capacitor ............................................................................................................ 101
8.7.1. Energy Stored in a Capacitor .................................................................................................. 103
8.8 Capacitance network ....................................................................................................................... 105
8.8.1 Parallel Combination................................................................................................................ 105
8.8.2 Series Combination .................................................................................................................. 107
CHAPTER NINE ...................................................................................................................................... 110

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9. Electric current and Magnetism ............................................................................................................ 110
9.1 Electric circuit ................................................................................................................................. 110
9.1.1 Ohm’s Law............................................................................................................................... 111
9.1.2. Resistance and Resistivity ....................................................................................................... 111
9.2 Electric circuit (Series, Parallel) ..................................................................................................... 112
Parallel Combination ........................................................................................................................ 113
9.3. Source of magnetic field ................................................................................................................ 115
9.3.1 The Biot–Savart Law ............................................................................................................... 115
9.4. Magnetic force ............................................................................................................................... 116
9.4.1. Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor ..................................................................... 117
9.4.2. Motion of charged particles in magnetic-field ........................................................................ 118
9.4.3. The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors ........................................................ 119
CHAPTER TEN...................................................................................................................................... 121
10: Electromagnetic Induction and AC Current........................................................................................ 121
10.1. Magnetic Flux .............................................................................................................................. 121
10.2 Gauss’ law in magnetism .............................................................................................................. 122
10 .3 Faraday’s Law of induction ......................................................................................................... 124
10.4 Alternating Current (AC) Circuits ................................................................................................ 128
10.4.1 AC Sources ......................................................................................................................... 128
11. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................... 130

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 INTRODUCTION TO THE MODULE

Dear students, welcome to this module. The module focus on physics of grade 9-12 classes
contents. It is concerned with the Vectors and it’s properties, Kinematics both in 1-D and 2-D,
physics of Angular motions, Dynamics, Work-Energy theorem, Physics of Oscillations and
waves, Heat and Thermodynamics, Electrostatics and Capacitors, Electric current and
magnetism as well as Electromagnetism induction and AC currents with their detail
explanations and worked examples.
We hope you will do more by managing your time. You ought to read notes of the course again
and again. You should have to answer all the questions and solve the problems that given as a
class work and Activity throughout the chapter.
If you can’t answer the questions, don’t limit to this module; you should consult other Reference
physics books.

GOOD LUCK!!

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 CHAPTER ONE

VECTORS
Chapter outline
1.1 Vector and scalar quantities
1.2 Vector addition and subtraction
1.3 Multiplication of vectors

Learning objectives
 Demonstrate an understanding of the difference between scalars and vectors and give
common examples.
 Explain what a position vector is.
 Use vector notation and arrow representation of a vector.
 Specify the unit vector in the direction of a given vector.
 Determine the magnitude and direction of the resolution of two or more vectors using
Pythagoras’s theorem and trigonometry.
 Add vectors by graphical representation to determine a resultant.
 Add/subtract two or more vectors by the vector addition rule.
 Use the geometric definition of the scalar product to calculate the scalar product of
two given vectors.
 Use the scalar product to determine projection of a vector onto another vector.
 Use the vector product to test for collinear and orthogonality vectors.
 Explain the use of knowledge of vectors in understanding natural phenomena.

Introduction

A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude (or size) and a direction. Both of these properties
must be given in order to specify a vector completely. In this unit we describe how to write down
vectors, how to add and subtract them, and how to use them in geometry. In order to master the
techniques explained here it is vital that you undertake plenty of practice exercises so that they
become second nature. After reading this module, and/or viewing the video tutorial on this topic,
you should be able to distinguish between a vector and a scalar; understand how to add and

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subtract vectors; know when one vector is a multiple of another; use vectors to solve simple
problems in geometry.

[Link] and scalar quantities

In Physics, we classify quantities into vectors and scalars. The quantities which have both
magnitude and direction are called vectors. Examples are velocity, force, displacement, weight,
acceleration, etc. The quantities which have only magnitude and no direction are called scalar
quantities. Examples of scalars are electric charge, density, mass etc.
Different Types of Vectors
(i) Equal Vectors: Two vectors of equal magnitude, in same direction are called equal vectors.

(ii) Negative Vectors: are two vectors of equal magnitude but in opposite directions.

(iii) Zero Vector or Null Vector: A vector whose magnitude is zero is known as a zero or null
vector. Its direction is not defined. It is denoted by 0.
Velocity of a stationary object, acceleration of an object moving with uniform velocity and
resultant of two equal and opposite vectors are the examples of null vector.

(iv) Unit Vector : A vector having unit magnitude is called a unit vector.
A unit vector in the direction of vector A is given by
⃗
̂ =

̂ read as A hat or caret is a unit vector that points in the direction of vector A.

A unit vector is unit less and dimensionless vector and represents direction only.

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Figure 1.1: Unit Vector in Rectangular Coordinate Axis
We shall use the symbols ̂ , ̂ and ̂ to represent at a unit vector pointing in the positive x,
y and z direction respectively as we can see from the figure above.
The unit vectors ̂ , ̂ and ̂ in rectangular coordinate System. Which are mutually
perpendicular axes to each other.
In general Vector A in rectangular coordinate system can be written as the sum of three vectors
each which is parallel to a coordinate axes
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = j+ k
Example: Find a unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = j+k
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = j + 2k
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = j + 4k

Solution:
Let resultant be ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ( j + k) + ( j + 2k) + ( j + 4k)

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗= j + 7k
The unit vector in the direction of the resultant of vectors is
⃗⃗
̂ = = = ( j + 7k)
√ √

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(v) Orthogonal Unit Vectors The unit vectors along the direction of orthogonal axis, i.e., X –
axis, Y – axis and Z – axis are called orthogonal unit vectors. They are represented by

(vi) Co-initial Vectors: Vectors having a common initial point, are called co-initial vectors.

(vii) Collinear Vectors: Vectors having equal or unequal magnitudes but acting along the same
or parallel lines are called collinear vectors.

(viii) Coplanar Vectors: Vectors acting in the same plane are called coplanar vectors.
(ix) Localized Vector: A vector, whose initial point is fixed, is called a localized vector.
(x) Non-localized or Free Vector: A vector whose initial point is not fixed is called a non
localized or a free vector.
(xi) Position Vector: A vector representing the straight line distance and the direction of any
point or object with respect to the origin is called position vector.

1.1.2 Vector Representation

Vectors are represented in two methods (Analytical/Algebraic) and Graphical/Geometrical)
1. Analytical methods: Vectors are represented analytically by a letter with an arrow over its
head or with bold face letter.
Example: Force = ⃗ or F, Momentum = ⃗⃗ or P etc.

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2. Graphical/Geometrical methods: Graphically vectors are represented by a straight line and
arrow drowns to the scale. The length of the line is the magnitude of the vector and arrow
tells us the direction.

Figure 1-2. A geometrical representation of a vector. (a) the displacement vector from the tent to the
park is represented by the arrow AB. (b) this displacement is denoted by ⃗⃗. (c) The magnitude and
direction of a vector are determined using a ruler and a protractor.
1.2. Addition and subtraction of Vectors
1. Triangle Law of Vectors
If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides of a
triangle taken in one order, then their resultant is represented by the third side of the triangle
taken in the opposite order.

If two vectors A and B acting at a point are inclined at an angle θ, then their resultant

If the resultant vector R subtends an angle β with vector A, then

tan β =

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1. Parallelogram Law of Vectors

If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram draw from a point, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram draw from the same point.

Resultant of vectors A and B is given by

If the resultant vector R subtends an angle β with vector A, then

tan β =

Polygon Law of Vectors

It states that if numbers of vectors acting on a particle at a time are represented in magnitude and
direction by the various sides of an open polygon taken in same order, their resultant vector R is
represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of polygon taken in opposite order. In
fact, polygon law of vectors is the outcome of triangle law of vectors.

R=A+B+C+D+E

OE = OA + AB + BC + CD + DE

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Properties of Vector Addition
(i) Vector addition is commutative, i.e., A + B = B + A
(ii) Vector addition is associative, i.e., A + (B + C) = B + (C + A) = C + (A + B)

(iii) Vector addition is distributive, i.e., m (A + B) = m A + m B

Rotation of a Vector
(i) If a vector is rotated through an angle , which is not an integral multiple of 2π, the vector
changes.

(ii) If the frame of reference is rotated or translated, the given vector does not change. The
components of the vector may, however, change.

1.1.3 Vector Components

Components of vectors are projection of vectors along coordinate axis (x, y, z-axis). This means
splitting vector into its Components. Consider the following figures. From the figures we can
see that Ax and By forms two sides of right angle triangle with hypotenuse of length A. Using
simple trigonometry (definition of sin and cosin)we see that

Figure 1.2: Vector Components

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Resolution of a Vector into Rectangular Components
If any vector A subtends an angle θ with x-axis, then its

Horizontal component Ax = A cos θ Vertical component Ay = A sin θ

Magnitude of vector A = √Ax2 + Ay2 tan θ = Ay / Ax

Direction Cosines of a Vector

If any vector A subtend angles α, β and γ with x – axis, y – axis and z – axis respectively and its
components along these axes are Ax, Ay and Az, then
cos α= Ax /A, cos β = Ay / A, cos γ = Az / A
and cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1
1.2.1. Subtraction of Vectors
Subtraction of a vector B from a vector A is defined as the addition of vector -B (negative of
vector B) to vector A. Thus, A – B = A + (-B)

1.3. Multiplication of a Vector

1. by a Real Number
When a vector A is multiplied by a real number n, then its magnitude becomes n times but
direction and unit remains unchanged.

2. by a Scalar
When a vector A is multiplied by a scalar S, then its magnitude becomes S times, and unit is the
product of units of A and S but direction remains same as that of vector A.

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Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors
The scalar product of two vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes and the cosine of

the smaller angle between them. It is denoted by. (dot).

A. B = AB cos θ

The scalar or dot product of two vectors is a scalar.

Properties of Scalar Product

(i) Scalar product is commutative, i.e., A . B= B . A

(ii) Scalar product is distributive, i.e., A .(B + C) = A . B + A . C
(iii) Scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.

A . B = AB cos 90° = O
(iv) Scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes, i.e.,
A . B = AB cos 0° = AB
(v) Scalar product of a vector with itself is equal to the square of its magnitude, i.e.

A. A = AA cos 0° = A2

(vi) Scalar product of orthogonal unit vectors

(vii) Scalar product in Cartesian coordinates

= AxBx + A yBY + AzBz

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Vector or Cross Product of Two Vectors
The vector product of two vectors is equal to the product of their magnitudes and the sine of the
smaller angle between them. It is denoted by * (cross).

A x B = AB sin θ n

The direction of unit vector n can be obtained from right hand thumb rule.

If fingers of right hand are curled from A to B through smaller angle between them, then thumb
will represent the direction of vector (A x B).

The vector or cross product of two vectors is also a vector.

Properties of Vector Product

(i) Vector product is not commutative, i.e.,

AxB≠BxA (A x B) = — (B x A)]
(ii) Vector product is distributive, i.e.,

A x (B + C) = A x B + A x C
(iii) Vector product of two parallel vectors is zero, i.e.,

A x B = AB sin O° = 0
(iv) Vector product or cross product of any vector with itself is zero.

A x A = AA sin O° = 0
(v) Vector product of orthogonal unit vectors

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(vi) Vector product in cartesian coordinates

 any cyclic product of the three coordinate axes is positive and any anticyclic
product is negative as shown bellow.

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Direction of Vector Cross Product
When C = A x B, the direction of C is at right angles to the plane containing the vectors A and B.
The direction is determined by the right hand screw rule and right hand thumb rule.

(i) Right Hand Screw Rule Rotate a right handed screw from first vector (A) towards second
vector (B). The direction in which the right handed screw moves gives the direction of vector
(C).
(ii) Right Hand Thumb Rule Curl the fingers of your right hand from A to B. Then, the
direction of the erect thumb will point in the direction of A x B.

[Link] Summary
 A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude (or size) and a direction.
 Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and direction.
 A unit vector is a vector of magnitude one.
 Two vectors are collinear if they are parallel or anti parallel and act along the same line.
 Properties of Vector Addition
 Vector addition is commutative, i.e., A + B = B + A
 Vector addition is associative, i.e., A + (B + C)= B + (C + A) = C + (A + B)
 Vector addition is distributive, i.e., m (A + B) = m A + m B
 Subtraction of Vectors A – B = A + (-B)
 Properties of Scalar Product
 Scalar product is commutative, i.e., A . B= B . A
 Scalar product is distributive, i.e., A .(B + C) = A . B + A . C
 Scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.

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1.5. Review Questions
1. In the methane molecule, CH4, each hydrogen atom is at a corner of a regular tetrahedron
with the carbon atom at the center. In coordinates where one of the C - H bonds is in the
direction of ̂̇+ ̂+̂ , an adjacent C - H bond is in the ̂̇- ̂-̂ direction. Calculate the angle
between these two bonds.
2. A force of magnitude 6.00 units acts at the origin in a direction 30.0° above the positive x
axis. A second force of magnitude 5.00 units acts at the origin in the direction of the
positive y axis. Find graphically the magnitude and direction of the resultant force F1 + F2.
3. In the product ⃗ = q ⃗⃗ x ⃗⃗, take q = 2, ⃗ = 2 ̂̇ +4 ̂̇ +6 ̂̇ and ⃗ = 4 ̂̇ -2 ̂̇ +12 ̂̇ . What then is ⃗⃗ in
unit vector notation if Bx = By?
4. Is the triple product defined by A . (B x C) a scalar or a vector quantity? Explain
why the operation A . (B x C) has no meaning.
5. The vector a is shown below.

Sketch the vectors 2a, 3a, and −2a.

6. In ∆OAB, and = b. In terms of a and b,

(a) What is ? (b) What is ?

(c) What is , where P is the midpoint of AB? (d) What is ?

(e) What is ? (f) What is , where Q divides AB in the ratio 2:3?

7. What is meant by a unit vector?

8. If e is a unit vector, what is the length of 3e?

9. In ∆ABC, AB = a, BC = b, CA = c. What is a + b + c?

10. Given ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ b find such that ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a vector pointing
along the x-axis (i.e. has no y component).

11. Do the following questions accordingly:

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 CHAPTER TWO

Kinematics of the particles

Chapter outline
2.1 Motion in one dimension
2.1.1 position and reference frame
2.1.2 distance and displacement
2.1.3 speed and velocity
2.1.4 uniform motion
2.1.5 uniformly accelerated motion

Learning objectives
 Describe Kinematical terms such as distance, Displacement, average speed (velocities)
and instantaneous speed (velocity).
 Solve numerical problems involving average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
 Derive equations of motion for uniformly accelerated motion.
 Apply equations of uniformly accelerated motion in solving problems.
 Relate scientific concepts to issues in everyday life.
 Explain the science of kinematics underlying familiar facts, observations and related
phenomena.
 Describe the conditions at which freely falling bodies attain their terminal velocity.
 Define, Analyses and predict, terms in 2D motion
 Apply equations to solve problems related 2D motion.
 Distinguish between uniform and non-uniform circular motion.
 Analyses and predict, in quantitative terms, and explain uniform circular motion in the
 horizontal and vertical planes with reference to the forces involved.

2.1 Introduction
The branch of physics which deals with the study of motion as the function of time is known as
kinematics. It does not give any information about force that causes it to move.

Kinematics refers to the study of motion of natural bodies. The bodies that we see and deal with
in real life are three dimensional objects and essentially not a point object. A point object would
occupy a point (without any dimension) in space. The real bodies, on the other hand, are entities

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with dimensions, having length, breadth and height. This introduces certain amount of
complexity in so far as describing motion. First of all, a real body cannot be specified by a single
set of coordinates. This is one aspect of the problem. The second equally important aspect is that
different parts of the bodies may have path trajectories different to each other. When a body
moves with rotation (rolling while moving), the path trajectories of different parts of the bodies
are different; on the other hand, when the body moves without rotation (slipping/ sliding), the
path trajectories of the different parts of the bodies are parallel to each other. In the second case,
the motion of all points within the body is equivalent as far as translational motion of the body is
concerned and hence, such bodies may be said to move like a point object. It is, therefore,
possible to treat the body under consideration to be equivalent to a point so long rotation is not
involved. For this reason, study of kinematics consists of studies of:

1. Translational motion: is type motion in which all points (parts) of an object move the same
distance in a given a given time. Example: A car moving in a straight line, child going down, a
bird flying in the sky. In the above example, all the points of the body/object in motion are in the
same direction. Translational motion can be of two types, rectilinear and curvilinear.
Rectilinear motion is when an object in translational motion moves in a straight line motion.
When an object in translational motion moves along a curved path, it is said to be in curvilinear
motion
2 Rotational motion: is when an object moves about an axis and different parts of it move by
different distances in a given interval of time. Examples: blades of a rotating fan, merry-go
round, blades of a windmill. When an object undergoes rotational motion, all its parts do not
move the same distance in a given interval of time. For example, the outer portion of the blades
of a windmill moves much more than the portion closer to the center.
3 Vibrational motion: is when a body moves to and fro about its mean position is called
vibratory motion. Vibratory motion can be described as any object moving/swinging back and
forth, moving up and down, pulsating, etc. Examples Pendulums, swings, tuning forks, etc are of
vibratory motion. Vibrational motion can be periodic or non-periodic. A motion can be pure
translational or pure rotational or a combination of the two types of motion. The translational
motion allows us to treat a real time body as a point object. Hence, we freely refer to bodies,
objects and particles in one and the same sense that all of them are point entities, whose position

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2.2 Motion in one dimension
This is motion of a particle along straight line in fixed direction (or motion along one coordinate
axis). Example: a car moving along a flat straight narrow road.

Definition of Kinematical terms

Distance and Displacement
Distance: is the total path length covered by the moving object.
Displacement: is change of position i’e the shortest distance between start and end of motion. For
example: a particle moving from point A to B as shown in figure below.

Figure 2.1: Comparison of Distance and Displacement

Speed and Velocity

Speed (v): is the rate of change of distance in a unit time.
Average Speed (vav): is total distance traveled by the total time required to cover the distance.

Velocity (v): the rate of change of displacement as a function of time.

Average Velocity (vav): is change of displacement x divided by the time interval t during which
the displacement occur.

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Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
Instantaneous Velocity v(t): is the Velocity of the particle at a given instant of time. It is the limit
of average velocity as t approaches to zero.

This can be rewritten as first derivatives of displacement with respect time.

( )

The magnitude of Instantaneous velocity is instantaneous speed.

Activity
1. Which of the following is true for displacement?
(a) It cannot be zero.
(b) Its magnitude is greater than the distance travelled by the object.
(c) Displacement may or may not be equal to distance
2. In which of the following cases of motions, the distance moved and the magnitude of
displacement are equal?
(a) If the object is moving along straight road
(b) If the object is moving along straight path
(c) The pendulum is moving back and froth
(d) The earth revolving around the sun

3. A particle moves along the x-axis according to the equation given below.

where t is in Second.

a) Determine the displacement of this particle between the time interval t = 0 and t = 1s
b) Determine the average velocity during those two time intervals

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c) Drive a general expression for the instantaneous velocity as a function of time.
d) Calculate instantaneous velocity at t = 2s.
4. A boy walk from his home to school at constant speed of 5m/s along straight line and then
back along the same line (road) from school to his home at constant speed of 6m/s.
a) What is his average speed?
b) What is his average velocity?

Acceleration (⃗⃗): is the rate of change of velocity.

Average acceleration (⃗⃗ ): is the change in velocity divided by time interval during which
it occur.

Instantaneous acceleration a(t): is the acceleration of the particle at a given instant of time. It is
the limit of average acceleration as t approaches to zero.

This can be rewritten as Second derivatives of displacement or first derivatives of velocity with
respect time.

Activity
1. A particle moves along the x-axis component varies with time according to equation given
below.
⃗( ) ( ) ̂ where t is in Second.
a) Determine initial position of the particle.
b) Determine the displacement of this particle between the time interval t = 0 and t = 1s; t = 1
and t = 4s
c) Determine the average velocity during those two time intervals
d) Drive a general expression for the instantaneous velocity as a function of time.

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e) calculate instantaneous velocity at t = 3s.
f) average acceleration between t = 2s to t = 3s.
g) Drive a general expression for the instantaneous acceleration as a function of time.
h) calculate instantaneous acceleration at t = 2s.

2.2.1 Uniform Motion in one dimension

Uniform Motion: A body is said to be in a state of uniform motion if it travels equal distances in
equal intervals of time. If the time distance graph is a straight line the motion is said to be
uniform motion. This means that the velocity of the body remain constant as it cover equal
distance in equal interval of time, in case of uniform rectilinear motion acceleration of the body
will be zero. Here, the average speed and instantaneous speed will be equal to the actual speed;
average velocity and instantaneous velocity will be equal to the actual velocity and the
magnitude of velocity is equal speed.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗⃗ ( )

| ⃗⃗ |

⃗⃗ ( )

2.3. Uniformly accelerated Motion in one dimension

This is motion with constant acceleration i’e velocity change with uniform rate.

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 Activity
1. An electron in a cathode ray tube accelerate uniformly from 2x104m/s to 6x 104 m/s over
1.5cm
a) How long does the electron take to travel this 1.5cm?
b) What is its acceleration?

2.4. Free falling bodies

A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity alone,
regardless of its initial motion.
Example: object thrown upward or down ward and object released from rest.
Free fall is motion with constant gravitational acceleration g = 9:81m=s2 toward the center
of the earth. So we can use equation of uniformly accelerated as in table below

Activity
1. A girl throws a ball upwards, moving it an initial speed u = 15m/s. Neglect air resistance
a) How long does the ball take to return to the girl's hand?
b) What will be its velocity then?
2. A ball is thrown upward. While the ball is in free fall, does its acceleration (a) increase
(b) decrease (c) increase and then decrease (d) decrease and then increase (e) remain
constant?
3. After a ball is thrown upward and is in the air, its speed (a) increases (b) decreases (c)
increases and then decreases (d) decreases and then increases (e) remains the same.

2.5. Two dimension (2D) motion

2D motion is motion in a plane (This means object moving along two coordinate axis
simultaneously, and its position can be described by two coordinate). Example: Projectile
motion, Circular motion

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 Figure 2.2: Motion in a plane

If a particle move from point A to point B in figure 2.2 its displacement is given by

For infinitesimal change ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = dxi+ dyj

Average velocity (vav) is given by

5.2.1 Projectile Motion

Projectile motion is motion of an object in a plan under the influence of gravity alone, regardless
of its initial motion(neglecting air resistance). Examples: A ball kicked from the horizontal
ground. The path followed by projectile motion is trajectory and downward

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Figure 2.3: Projectile Motion

parabola due to gravitational acceleration and combination of horizontal and vertical velocity as
we can see in figure 2.3. As projectile motion is 2D motion we can regard it as two separate and
independent horizontal (x-component) and vertical (y-component) motion.
Horizontal motion of projectile
Horizontal motion of projectile motion is uniform motion (velocity constant, ax = 0). Because
no net force act on horizontal motion of projectile motion.

That is this is horizontal component of initial velocity.

=constant

And ( )

Vertical motion of projectile

Vertical motion of projectile motion is uniformly accelerated motion. It is motion with
constant gravitational acceleration of g = 9:8m/s2 toward the center of the earth.
At the origin this is vertical component of initial velocity.
Now we can use equation uniformly accelerated motion as

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Range (R) is maximum horizontal displacement (xmax)

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Figure 2.4: A projectile launched from the origin with an initial speed of 50 m/s at various
angles of projection. Note that complementary values of result in the same value of R
(range of the projectile).

Activity
1. A stone is catapulted into the air at an angle of 40.0° above level ground. It reaches
maximum height 1.20 s later.
(a) What is its acceleration at the highest point?
(b) What is its average acceleration in the first 1.20 s?
(c) Find the speed of projection of the stone.
(d) Find its average velocity in the first 1.20 s.
(e) Find its average velocity in the first 2.40 s.

5.6. Circular Motion

5.6.1. Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform circular motion: is a type of motion in which an object moves in a circular path at a
constant speed. The direction of motion is constantly changing as the object moves around the
circle. For example, imagine a car moving around a circular racetrack at a constant speed of 100
km/h. The car is always moving in a circle, and the direction of the car is constantly changing as
it goes around the track. However, the car's speed is always the same, so the car is said to be in
uniform circular motion.

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Figure 2.5: Uniform Circular Motion.

In uniform circular motion velocity is not constant because continuous variation of direction.

So the two triangle are similar by SAS. For similar triangle the ratio of their side is equal

Thus ac is radial or centripetal acceleration and it is always toward the center of the circle
perpendicular to velocity. Its magnitude is constant but its direction change continuous
perpendicular to velocity. This acceleration is due to a centripetal force. A centripetal force is a
net force that acts on an object to keep it moving along a circular path and its direction is toward

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the center the circle. Example: The tension force in the string of a swinging tethered ball and the
gravitational force keeping a satellite in orbit are both examples of centripetal forces. Multiple
individual forces can even be involved as long as they add up (by vector addition) to give a net
force towards the center of the circular path.
Period (T): it is time taken for one complete rotation.

2.6.2. Non-uniform Circular Motion

Non-uniform circular motion is a type of circular motion in which the speed of an object moving
in a circular path changes at different points along the path. In other words, the magnitude of the
velocity vector of the object is not constant, meaning that the object is accelerating even though
it is moving in a circle.
An example of non-uniform circular motion is a car driving around a curved road. The car's
speed may change as it navigates the curve, depending on factors such as the car's position on the
curve and the road conditions. The car's direction is constantly changing as it moves around the
curve, but the speed is not constant. As a result, the car is undergoing non-uniform circular
motion. Another example of non-uniform circular motion is a planet orbiting a star, as the planet
speeds up and slows down in its elliptical orbit. In this case there are two type of acceleration:-
1. .Radial or centripetal acceleration:- due to change of direction of motion.

2. Tangential acceleration:- due to change magnitude of velocity. Its magnitude is change of

velocity over change of time.

Its direction is in the direction of Velocity which is perpendicular to centripetal acceleration.

Thus total acceleration ⃗ ⃗ ⃗

Its magnitude ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ √( ⃗ ) (⃗ )

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Its direction

Activity
1. A ball tied to the end of a string 1m in length swings in a vertical circle under the influence
of gravity. When the string makes an angle of 200 its speed was 2m/s.
Calculate
a) magnitude of centripetal acceleration
b) magnitude of centripetal Tangential acceleration
c) magnitude and direction of total acceleration

2.7. Unit Summary

A body is said to be in a state of uniform motion if it travels equal distances in equal
intervals of time.
Translational motion is type motion in which all points (parts) of an object move the same
distance in a given a given time.

Rotational motion: is when an object moves about an axis and different parts of it move by
different distances in a given interval of time.

Vibrational motion: is when a body moves to and fro about its mean position.
A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of gravity alone,
regardless of its initial motion.

Projectile motion is motion of an object in a plan under the influence of gravity alone, regardless
of its initial motion(neglecting air resistance)
Uniform circular motion: is a type of motion in which an object moves in a circular path at a
constant speed

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2.7. Review Questions
1. A track covers 40m in 8.5s while smoothly slowing down to a final speed of 2.8m/s.
Find a) its original velocity b) its acceleration
2. A jet lands on an air craft at 140mi/hr and stops in 2s due to an arresting cable that
Snags the air plane. a) What is its acceleration?
b) If the plane touches down at position xi = 0 what is the final position of the plane?
3. A car traveling at constant speed of 45m/s passes a trapper hidden behind a billboard. One
second after the speeding car passes the billboard; the trapper sets out from the billboard to
catch it, accelerating at constant rate of 3.0m/s2. How long does it take her to overtake the
car?
4. A ball is kicked with an initial velocity if 40m/s from the ground at an angle of 300 to the
horizontal. (Use g = 10m/s2) Calculate
a) Horizontal and vertical component of initial velocity at t=1sec and 2se
b) The vertical velocity after t = 1s, 2s, 3s, and 4s
c) Position (r = xi + yj) after t = 1s, 2s, 3s, and 4s
d) Time of flight (total time)
e) maximum height
f) Range of projectile
5. An air plane moving horizontally with velocity of 500km/hr at a height of 2km above the
ground dropped a bomb when it directly above the target. By how much distance will the bomb
miss the target?
6. An astronaut on a strange planet finds that she can jump a maximum horizontal distance of
15.0m if her initial speed is 3m/s. What is the free-fall acceleration on the planet?

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 CHAPTER THREE

3. Angular Motion
Chapter outline
[Link] position
[Link] velocity
[Link] acceleration
2.4. Relation between Linear and angular motion

Learning objectives
Describe the rotational kinematical quantities.
Give the angular speed and angular velocity of a rotating body.
Determine the velocity of a point in a rotating body.
Derive equations of motion with constant angular acceleration.
Use equations of motion with constant angular acceleration to solve related problems.
State the law of conservation of angular momentum.
Apply the law of conservation of angular momentum in Understanding various natural
Phenomena and solving problems.
Express angular momentum as a cross product of r and p.
Derive an expression for angular momentum in terms of I and ω.
Use the relationship between torque and angular momentum, according to Newton's
Second law.
Apply the relationship between torque and angular momentum to solve problems
involving rigid bodies.

3.1. Introduction
Kinematics is the description or the study of the motion of objects, without any reference to the
forces that causes that the motion. The kinematics of rotational motion describes the
relationships among angular displacement, angular velocity, angular acceleration, and time.
Kinematics for rotational motion is completely analogous to translational kinematics that already
you discussed in one-dimensional kinematics presented in previous chapter. Kinematics
concerned with the description of motion without regard to force or mass. We will find that

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translational kinematics quantities, such as displacement, velocity, and acceleration have direct
analogs in rotational motion

3.2 Angular Motion

Angular motion is a type of motion that occurs when an object moves along a circular path or
rotates around a fixed axis. Angular motion is characterized by two main quantities: angular
displacement and angular velocity. Angular motion is important in many areas of physics,
including mechanics, electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics. It is also used in many
practical applications, such as in the design of engines, turbines, and other rotating machinery.

3.2.1 Rotational Kinematics

Angular displacement: is the change in the angle of rotation of an object with respect to a fixed
axis as we can see in figure below. Radian (rad) is SI unit of angular displacement, one radian is
angle subtended by an arc length equal to radius of the arc. The relation between revolution(rev),
degree(deg or 0) and radian (rad)
2πrad = 3600 = 1rev

Average Angular velocity: is the rate of change of the angular displacement of an object
with respect to time. Its represented by Greek letter ω. It is measured in radians per second
or (degrees per second or revolution per second) and is equal to the ratio of the change in
the angular displacement of the object to the time interval over which the change occurred.

⃗⃗

Instantaneous Angular Velocity: It is average angular velocity as o. This means

31 | P a g e
angular velocity at instant of time (for infinitesimal change)

( )
⃗⃗( )

Angular acceleration: the rate of change of the angular velocity of an object with respect
to time. It is denoted by Greek letter α
Average angular acceleration (αav): is the ratio of angular velocity to time interval
during which the change occur.

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
⃗

Instantaneous Angular acceleration: It is average angular acceleration as o. This

means angular acceleration at instant of time (for infinitesimal change). Its SI unit is rad/s2

( ) ( )
⃗( )

3.3. Uniformly Accelerated Rotational Motion

Uniformly accelerated angular motion refers to the motion of an object rotating around an axis at
a constant rate of acceleration ( ). This means that the angular velocity of the object is
changing at a constant rate over time. In this type of motion, the angular acceleration of the
object is constant, which means that the rate of change of the angular velocity is also constant.
The equation that describes this relationship is:

For uniformly accelerated angular motion the average angular velocity is given by

Therefore, ( )

Using all those together; and

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Activity

1. The angular position of a y wheel of car engines is given by

( )

the diameter of the flywheel is 0.36m.

a) Find the angle in radian, degree and revolution at time t1=2sec andt2 = 5sec
b) Find the distance that the particle of the rim moves during that time interval .
c) Find the average angular velocity in rad/s, and rev/m
d) Find the general expression for the angular velocity at any time t.
e) Find the general expression for the angular acceleration at any time t.
2. A wheel rotates with angular acceleration of 3.5 rad/s2. If the angular speed of the
wheel is 2.0m/s at t=0.
a) through what angle does the wheel rotate in 2.0s
b) what is the angular speed at t = 2.0s

3.4. Angular Momentum

The angular momentum ( ⃗⃗) of a moving particle with respect to a given axis is given by

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Where ⃗⃗⃗ is distance from axis of rotation and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗= m ⃗⃗ is linear momentum.

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

and we know that v = rɷ

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗

And we know that I = mr2

⃗⃗

This Eqn. is angular momentum. Taking time derivatives of above equation

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 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum

This states that if the net external torque acting on the system is zero (the system is isolated
) then the angular momentum of the system is conserved (remain unchanged)

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

The relationship between the kinematic equations of rotational motion and linear
motion

Activity
1. The position vector of a particle of mass 2kg is given as a function of time by
⃗ (t) = (6i + 5tj) m. Determine the angular momentum of the particle about the origin as
a function of time.
2. A large circular disk of mass 2kg and radius 0.2m initially rotating at 50rad/s is coupled a
smaller circular disk of mass 4kg and radius 0.1m initially rotating at 20rad/s in the same
direction as large disk.

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 a) Find the common angular velocity after the disk is coupled.
b) Calculate the loss of kinetic energy during this collision.

Unit Summary

Angular displacement is the distance an object travels on a circular path and is often
measured in radians.
Tangential displacement is the distance an object moves in a straight line. Thus, an object
that moves round a complete circle will have an angular displacement of 2π radians but a
tangential displacement of 0 m.
Angular velocity is the angular displacement in a given unit of time. It is often measured
in radians per second.
Tangential velocity is the linear distance moved in a given unit of time and is often
measured in meters per second.
You can express angles in terms of revolutions, radians and degrees. For example, 1
revolution is the same as 2π radians or 360°.
Angular acceleration is the change in angular velocity per unit time. It is angular
acceleration that contributes to the centripetal force which enables objects to move in
circular paths. It is often measured in rad/s2.
Tangential displacement and angular displacement are related by the equation:
Tangential displacement = radius of path × angular displacement
Tangential velocity and angular velocity are related by the equation tangential velocity =
radius of path × angular velocity
Angular acceleration and angular velocity are related by the equation: angular
acceleration = angular velocity/ time
The equations of motion with constant angular acceleration are related to the equations of
motion with constant linear acceleration.
Circular motion is due to centripetal force, while rotatory motion involves torque.

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 3.5. Review Questions
1. An automobile traveling 80.0 km/hr has tires of 75.0 cm diameter. (a) What is the angular
speed of the tires about the axle? (b) If the car is brought to a stop uniformly in 30 turns of
the tires (without skidding), what is the angular acceleration of the wheels? (c) How far does
the car move during the braking?

2. a) State the equations of motion with constant angular acceleration.

b) Find the final angular velocity when the initial angular velocity is 5 rad/s, the angular
acceleration is 2 rad/s and the time of motion is 10 s.
c) Find the distance travelled when the final angular velocity is 20 rad/s, the angular
acceleration is 2 rad/s and the time of motion is 5 s.

3. A satellite is in orbit 35600 km above the surface of the Earth. Its angular velocity is
7.27 x 10 -5 rad/s. What is the velocity of the satellite? (The radius of the Earth is
6400 km.)
4. A wheel of radius 50cm starting from rest accelerates with uniform angular acceleration to
attain an angular velocity of 8rad/s in 2sec. Determine the a) angular acceleration b) total
acceleration of a point on the rim of the wheel after 2sec.
6. A circular plate of metal rotates with a constant angular velocity of 12rad/s about its center.
Calculate the angular and linear speeds of two points on the plate 5cm and 8cm away from the
axis of rotation.
7. A girl sits on a merry-go-round at a distance of 1.5 m from the center. If she moves through
an arc length of 2.5 m, through what angular displacement does she move?
8. A beetle sits at the top of a bicycle wheel with a diameter of 0.75 m. Assuming that the wheel
turns counterclockwise, what is the angular displacement of the beetle before it is squashed
under that wheel? What arc length does the beetle travel through before it is squashed?
9. A car tire rotates counterclockwise 3.5 times during a time interval of 0.75 s. What is the
angular speed of the tire?
10. A girl ties a toy airplane to the end of a string and swings it around her head. What is the
plane’s angular speed if the plane moves through an angular displacement of 3.3 rad during 1.5
s?

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 CHAPTER FOUR

3. Dynamics of the particles

Chapter outline
[Link] of force (contact and Non-contact force, Normal force, Friction force, Applied force,
spring force )
[Link]’s law of motion
[Link] of newton’s laws
[Link] momentum (elastic and non-elastic collision)
[Link] of mass and moment of inertia
[Link] and angular momentum
[Link] of equilibrium (first and second)

Learning objectives:
 Identify the four basic forces in nature.
 Define and describe the concepts and units related to force.
 Define the term dynamics.
 Define and describe the concepts and units related to coefficients of friction.
 Use the laws of dynamics in solving problems.
 Interpret Newton's laws and apply these to moving objects.
 Explain the conditions associated with the movement of objects at constant velocity.
 Solve dynamics problems involving friction.
 Analyze, in qualitative and quantitative terms, the various forces acting on an object
in a variety of situations, and describe the resulting motion of the object.
 Describe the terms momentum and impulse.
 State the law of conservation of linear momentum.
 Discover the relationship between impulse and momentum, according to Newton's
second law.
 Apply quantitatively the law of conservation of linear momentum.
 Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collisions.
 Describe head-on collisions.
 Describe glancing collisions.

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  Define and describe the concepts and units related to torque.
 Describe center of mass of a body.
 Determine the position of center of mass of a body.
 Interpret Newton's laws and apply these to objects undergoing uniform circular motion.
 Solve dynamics problems involving friction.

4.1 Introduction
Dynamics: In physics, dynamics is the branch of mechanics that deals with the study of motion
and the forces that cause or affect that motion. It involves the analysis of how an object moves
and the forces that cause it to move, including the study of the forces that cause changes in the
motion of an object, such as acceleration, deceleration, and changes in direction. The
fundamental concepts in dynamics are force, mass, and acceleration, as described by Newton's
laws of motion. Dynamics is used to describe a wide range of physical phenomena, from the
motion of particles at the subatomic level to the motion of planets in the solar system. It is used
in many fields, including engineering, physics, and applied mathematics, to understand and
predict the behavior of physical systems.
Force is a physical quantity that describes an interaction between two objects that can cause a
change in motion of one or both objects. It is defined as the product of mass and acceleration, or
more formally as the rate of change of momentum with respect to time. It is a push or a pull of an
object (Interaction that change state of motion). We can't see force with our necked-eye but, in
everyday life, we experience the following effects of force all the time.
 Force set or tends to set an object to motion
 Force stop or tends to stop motion
 Force change direction of motion
 Force accelerate or decelerate motion
 Force change shape and size of materials
Type of force
Force usually categorized into two
1. Contact Force: This is a force that requires physical contact between two objects in order for
the force to be applied. Examples: Frictional force, Tension force, Normal force, Air resistance
force, and Applied force.

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2. Non-contact Force: This is a force that can act over a distance without any physical contact
between the objects. Examples: Gravitational force, Magnetic force, Electrostatic force,
Electromagnetic force, Nuclear force.

Newton's Law of Motion

Newton's laws of motion are three fundamental principles that describe the behavior of objects in
motion. They were first introduced by Sir Isaac Newton in his 1687 work "Philosophic Naturalis
Principia Mathematical". The laws are:,
2. Newton's first Law of motion (Law of inertia),
3. Newton's second law (Law of acceleration) and
4. Newton's third law (action and reaction force)
Newton's first law: This states that "Unless an external force exerted on the body the state of
motion the body remain as it is". This is called law of inertia. Inertia: is the tendency of the body
to resist its change of state of motion.
Newton's second law: This states that "acceleration of an object is directly proportional
to the net force acting on it and inversely proportional to is mass".

∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗

∑⃗ ∑⃗ ∑⃗ ∑⃗ (⃗ ⃗ ⃗ )

Newton's third law: This states that "if object A exert force on object B, then object B exert a
force on object A that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction". Thus force always occur
in pair. This pair of force are called action and reaction force. For every action force there is
reaction force. Action and reaction force are always:
 the same in magnitude
 opposite in direction
 act on different bodies the same type

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Activity
1. Object of mass 10kg is exerted on by a force of ⃗ = (2i + 3j)N, ⃗ = (4i - 3j )N and
⃗⃗ = (-i + 3j)N, calculate
a) Net force on this object
b) its acceleration
2. A 2kg object undergoes an acceleration of given by ⃗= (3i + 4j) m/s2. Find the magnitude of
the resultant force.
3. A particle of mass 2unit moves along space curve defined by ⃗ (t) = (4t4-t3) i – 5tj + (t4-2)k.
Find the force acting on it at any time t.
4. Find the force needed to accelerate a mass of 400kg from velocity ⃗⃗ = (4i - 5j +3k) m/s to
⃗⃗ = (8i + 3j - 5k)m/s in 10s.

Friction Force
Friction force: is a force generated in opposite direction to the motion when solid object slide or
attempt to slid over each other. Its magnitude is given by

Where is coefficient of friction (constant that depend on the nature of the surface in contact),
FN is normal force.
There are two type of frictional force
1) Static friction:- friction occur when object attempt to slid over each other but not yet
slide over each other. Its magnitude given
is coefficient of static friction.
4. Kinetic friction:- friction force occur when object sliding over each other
is coefficient of kinetic friction.
NB > thus fs > fk

Normal Force (FN):- Is a force or component of force that is perpendicular to the surface in
contact and equal in magnitude to the force that holds the surface press together. Normal force
equal to mg when the sliding object is on horizontal surface and acted on by horizontal force as
shown in figure below. But if the force acted on the object is at a certain angle to the horizontal
the normal force is different as shown in figure below

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Activity
1. A 20kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal surface. A horizontal force of 75N is a required
to set the block in motion. After it is in motion a horizontal force of 60N is required to keep the
block moving with constant speed. Find the coefficient of static and kinetic friction.

Applied Force:
Applied force is a physical force that is applied to an object by a person or another object. It is a
force that causes an object to move, accelerate, or change direction.
Applied force is an important concept in physics and is used to describe many physical
phenomena, including the motion of objects, the behavior of fluids, and the behavior of
electromagnetic fields.
Gravitational force is the force by which a planet or other body draws objects toward its center.
The force is always attractive and acts along the line connecting the two bodies. The force is
proportional to the product of the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them. The proportionality constant is known as the gravitational constant. The
gravitational force is responsible for keeping the planets in orbit around the sun and for keeping
the moon in orbit around the Earth. The mathematical formula for the gravitational force
between two objects can be expressed using Newton's law of gravitation:

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where:
⃗ is the gravitational force between the two objects, measured in Newtons (N), G is the
gravitational constant, which has a value of approximately 6:674x10-11Nm2/kg2, an
are the masses of the two objects in kilograms (kg), r is the distance between the centers of
mass of the two objects, measured in meters (m)
A restoring force is a force that acts to bring an object back to its original position after it has
been displaced. In other words, it is a force that opposes displacement. For example, the force
exerted by a spring when it is stretched or compressed is a restoring force. In a simple harmonic
motion, restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement and acts in the direction
opposite to the displacement. The mathematical expression of the restoring force for a spring is:
F = -kx
where F is the restoring force, x is the displacement from the equilibrium position, and k is the
spring constant, which is a measure of the stiffness of the spring.
Another example of a restoring force is the force of gravity acting on a pendulum. The restoring
force of a pendulum is given by:
⃗

where F is the restoring force, m is the mass of the pendulum, g is the acceleration due to gravity,
and is the angle between the pendulum and the vertical. In general, the mathematical
expression of the restoring force depends on the specific physical system being considered, and
can be derived from the laws of physics governing that system.

Application and Newton's law of motion

In this case we apply Newton's law to objects either in equilibrium (a = 0) or accelerating along
straight line under action of constant force. The following procedure is recommended when
dealing problems with involving Newton's law.
1. Identify the object or particle on which force are exerted.
2. Identify the force exerted on the object (Draw free body diagram)
3. Decompose each force into their x, y and z-components.
4. Calculate net force, acceleration, velocity and so on.

Activity

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1. A block of mass 10kg hungs from three cords as shown below

2. A block of mass m slides down an inclined plane as shown in the figure below.

3. Two object of unequal mass are hung vertically over a frictionless pulley of negligible
mass as in figure below

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4. The block of mass m sliding horizontally as shown in figure below.

4.2 linear momentum

Linear momentum (⃗⃗) is defined as quality of an object to exert a force on anything that tries to
change its state of motion. Linear momentum is an important concept in physics because it is a
measure of an object's ability to cause change through its motion. For example, a moving car has
a lot of linear momentum and is able to do a lot of damage in a collision because it is difficult to
stop. On the other hand, a stationary car has no linear momentum and is not able to cause much
change through its motion. Its magnitude is the product of mass of the system with its velocity.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

For an object's in three dimension ⃗⃗ ( ̂ ̂ ̂)

Linear momentum is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The
direction of an object's linear momentum is the same as the direction of its velocity.

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Its SI unit is kgm/s.
Impulse ( ⃗) : Impulse is defined as the product of the force acting on an object and the time for
which the force acts. Mathematically, impulse can be expressed as:
From Newton's second law
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ ( ⃗)

This can be rewritten as ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Or ⃗ = This is the relation between p and resultant force acting on it.

4.2.1 Conservation of Momentum

Whenever two or more particles in an isolated system (in which net external force acting on the
system is zero) interact, the total momentum of the system remain constant (conserved)
i’e ∑ ⃗⃗ ∑ ⃗⃗

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗

Where u1 & u2 are initial velocity of m1 and m2 respectively, and v1 & v2 are final velocity
of and respectively. Thus

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ; ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗

Activity

1. A 60 kg archer stands at rest on a frictionless ice and fires a 0.5 kg arrow horizontally at
50m/s. With what velocity does archer move across the ice after firing the arrow?

4.2.2 Collision
Collision: is the event of two particles coming together for short time and thereby producing
impulsive force on each other. Collisions are an important topic in physics because they can be
used to understand a wide range of phenomena, from the behavior of subatomic particles to the
motion of celestial bodies in the universe. Depending on kinetic energy, the
Q-value and coefficient of restitution Collision grouped in two
(1) Elastic Collision, and

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(2) Inelastic Collision.

Elastic Collision
It is type of collision in which both kinetic energy and momentum are conserved.

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗

The collision in which kinetic energy is fully conserved is called perfectly elastic collision.

Figure 4.5: perfectly elastic collision

Inelastic Collision
It is a type of collision in which only momentum is conserved but kinetic energy is not
conserved.

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗

A collision in which a colliding object stick together after collision is called perfectly in-
elastic collision In this collision kinetic energy lost as a form of heat and sound during collision.

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Figure 4.6: perfectly inelastic collision

This lost of kinetic energy represented by Q-value. The Q-value is equal zero for elastic collision
and less than zero (Q < 0) for inelastic collision.
Coefficient of restitution (e)= is equal 1 for elastic collision and zero for inelastic

collision.

Head-on Collisions: Collision, when objects rebound on straight line paths that coincide with
original direction of motion. These collisions can be treated one dimensionally.
Glancing Collisions: When Object do not collide on the same path line they make glancing
collision. To solve this problem, break it into components as shown in Figure
bellow.

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Figure 4.7: Glancing Collision.

Activity
1. Due to signal malfunction, a train of mass M kg travelling at 30 km/ hr collides with another
of mass 2.5M kg travelling in the opposite direction at 35 km/hr. The two trains lock together
after the collision.
(a) Determine the velocity of the locked trains immediately after the collision.
(b) In terms of M, calculate the total kinetic energy of the two trains immediately before the
collision.
(c) Compare the answer in (b) with the total kinetic energy immediately after the collision.
Discuss the difference.

4.3 Center of Mass and Moment of Inertia

4.3.1 Center of Mass
The center of mass of an object or system is the unique point at which the entire mass of the
object or system can be considered to be concentrated. It is the point about which the object or
system will balance if it is supported at that point, and it is the point around which the object or
system will rotate if it is free to do so. In a system of particles, the center of mass is the average
position of all the particles in the system, weighted according to their masses.

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It is a useful concept in mechanics because it allows the analysis of the motion of an object or
system as if all of its mass were concentrated at a single point. It is located somewhere on the
line joining the particle and closer to the larger mass. The center of mass of an object or system
can be found by taking the sum of the positions of all the particles in the system multiplied by
their masses, and then dividing by the total mass of the system. Center of mass of several particle
with mass m1;m2; _ _ _ mn at a distance ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗,, _ _ _ , ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, from each other is given by

∑ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
⃗ ∑
∑

Where ∑

For coordinate x, y and z, center of mass given by

⃗ ∑ ̂, ⃗⃗ ∑ ̂ , and ⃗ ∑ ̂

This is known as the center of mass formula. The concept of center of mass is closely related to
other important concepts in mechanics, such as the center of gravity, which is the point at which
the gravitational force acting on an object or system can be considered to be concentrated. In
many cases, the center of mass and the center of gravity of an object or system are at the same
location, but this is not always the case, especially for objects or systems that are not
symmetrical.

4.3.2 Moment of Inertia

Moment of Inertia: is the measure of body's resistance to rotational motion about a particular
axis. It is typically denoted by the symbol I and is measured in kg /m 2. Its magnitude is affected
by distribution of mass of the body in relation to its axis of rotation. Thus there is no single value
of moment of inertia of an object. But for a point mass moment of inertia is given by

Moment of inertia of a rigid object, made up of a particles of mass m1;m2 --- at respective
distance r1; r2, … from its axis of rotation, its moment of inertial about that axis is given by

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 ∑

For continuous mass distribution ∫

In general moment of inertia of a body depend on

 size of the body
 Shape of the body
For example consider disk and sphere of the same mass and the same radius.

for uniform disk

for uniform sphere

 It also depend on a point of axis of rotation.

 Example: For uniform rod axis of rotation through its center

 For uniform rod axis of rotation through its one end

Solid cylinder or Hoop about Rod about center

Disc , symmetric axis symmetric axis Solid sphere

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Hoop about Hollow sphere Thin rod about Diameter with thin wall end point

Figure 4.2.2: Moment of inertia for different bodies about their indicated axis.
Activity
1. A system consists three particles of m1 = 1kg, m2 = 1kg and m3 = 2kg located as in
figure below. Find the center of mass of the system.

2. A particles are connected by a light rod as shown bellow

3. Calculate moment of inertia of 4 equal masses be each having a mass of 50g and situated
at the corner of the square of side 30cm. when axis of rotation passes through
a) the center of the square perpendicular to the plane of the square
b) the center of the square perpendicular to sides of the square.
c) along the side of the square.

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 4.

4.4 Torque and angular momentum

Torque: is defined as rotational effect of force i’e (it is measure of force that cause an object to
rotate around an axis. Torque is represented by symbol (Greek letter) . Torque is vector
quality with both magnitude and direction. It is calculated by the product of force and
perpendicular distance from its axis of rotation.
⃗ ̂ ⃗ ⃗

Where is the direction of line of action of force ̂ is unit vector in the direction of torque
(clockwise or anticlockwise), r is moment arm of force (point of application of force from axis of
rotation) F is applied.
Magnitude of torque is depend on
 Size of force
 moment arm of force (radius or point of application of force)
 line of action of force (direction of line of action of force or )

Torque has maximum value when = 90o and zero when = 0o or180o
Torque in terms of angular accelerate from definition of Torque we have

From Newton's 2nd law F = m for a particle moving in circle of radius but where
is angular acceleration Using those all together

( )

The term in the bracket is moment of inertia (I) so

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 Activity
1. A force of F = 2i + 3j is applied to an object that is pivoted about a fixed axis that is aligned
along the z-axis. If the force is applied at a point located at r = 3i -2j. Find the Torque of an
object?

4.5 Conditions of Equilibrium (First and second)

Condition of Equilibrium in physics refers to state to the state where an object or system is not
accelerating that is, its velocity is constant or zero (static equilibrium:-system is stable and at
rest, the net torque must also be zero ).
There are two main conditions of equilibrium.
1. First condition of equilibrium: This states that, the net force acting object must be zero. This
means that the vector sum of all force acting on the object must be equal to zero.
Mathematically this can be expressed as

∑ ∑ ∑ ∑

2. Second condition of equilibrium: This states that, the net torque acting on the object must be
zero. This means that the vector sum of all the torque acting on the object must be equal to
zero. Mathematically this can be expressed as
∑ ∑ ∑ =0

Example:
1. Two kids balancing a seesaw satisfy both conditions for equilibrium. In the figure 4.8, we see
the lighter child sitting farther away from the pivot to create a torque equal in magnitude to
that of the heavier child.

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Figure 4.8: seesaw satisfy both conditions for equilibrium

4.6. Unit Summary

 In this section you have learnt that:
o The moment of inertia of a point mass, M, is I = MR2.
o The moment of inertia for a disc of mass M and radius R is: I = MR2
o The moment of inertia for a sphere of mass M and radius R rotating on its axis is:
I = MR2.
o The rotational kinetic energy of a body is Iω2.
o You can use the above formulae for simple problems relating to moment of inertia
and rotational kinetic energy.
o A torque is a turning effect. It is the total moment acting on that body about the
axis of rotation, and is measured by multiplying the force by its perpendicular
distance from the axis. τ = F × rper. Its unit is Nm, which is not the same as a
joule.
o Torque = moment of inertia × angular acceleration
o If we give torque the symbol τ, then in symbols this equation is written as: τ = Iα

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 o When a torque turns a body the work it does = τ θ, the torque multiplied by the
angle it turns. You can use this formula W = τθ to solve problems related to work
done by torque.

4.7. Review Questions

1. A hollow ring with a mass of 0.5kg and a radius of 0.75m is originally at rest. A torque of
150Nm is applied to the ring in order to get it to rotate.
a) What is the angular acceleration of the ring?
b) How long does it take for the ring to accelerate to an angular velocity of 1200rad/s?
2. A ball of mass 2 kg is moving with a velocity of 12m/s collides with a stationary ball of mass
6 kg and comes to rest. Calculate velocity of ball of mass 6kg after collision.
3. A 10.0g bullet is fired into a stationary block of wood (m = 5.00kg). The bullet sticks into the
block, and the speed of the bullet-plus combination immediately after collision is 0.600m/s.
What was the original speed of the bullet?
4. A block of mass m1 = 1:6kg initially moving to the right with a speed of 4m/s on a horizontal
frictionless track collides with a block of mass m2 = 2:1kg initially moving to the left with
speed of 2.5m/s. If the collision is elastic, find the velocities of the two blocks after collision?
5. A particle of mass 4.0kg initially moving with velocity of 2.0m/s collides with a particle of
mass 6.0kg, initially moving velocity of -4m/s. What is the velocity of the two particles after
collision?
6. A 4kg block moving right at 6m/s collides elastically with a 2kg moving at 3m/s left, find the
final velocities the blocks.
7. A skater spins with an angular speed of 12 rad/s with his arms outstretched. He lowers his
arms, decreasing his moment of inertia from 42 kgm2 to 36 kgm2.
a) Calculate his initial and final rotational kinetic energy.
b) Is the rotational kinetic energy increased or decreased?
c) How do you account for this change in kinetic energy?
8. A 400N child and a 300N child sit on either end of a 2m long seesaw that has a mass of 25 kg.
a) Where along the seesaw should the pivot be placed to ensure rotational equilibrium?
b) Suppose a 225 N child sits 0.20 m from the 400N child. Where must a 325 N child sit in
relation to the 300N child to maintain equilibrium?

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5. Work, Energy and Power

Chapter out line
 Work done by constant and variable forces
 Conservation of energy
 Work energy theorem
 Conservative force
 power
Learning objectives
 Define work, kinetic energy and potential energy
 Calculate the work done by a constant force
 Derive work-kinetic energy theorem and apply in solving related problems
 State the principle of conservation of mechanical energy
 Solve problems related to the topics discussed in this section

5.1 Work done by constant and variable forces

Brainstorming question

1. What is work?
Work done is defined as the magnitude of the force exerted in the direction of the displacement
(or distance moved) multiplied by the displacement. Therefore for work to be done on an object,
three essential conditions should be satisfied:
 Force must be exerted on the object
 The force must cause a motion or displacement
 The force should have a component along the line of displacement
Both force and displacement moved are vectors. Work done is the scalar product of force and
displacement:

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 Figure 5.1: Forces on a free body diagram

⃗ ⃗

where F and d are the magnitudes of the vectors. Work done is a scalar - it does not have
directional properties. We can show the forces on a free body diagram (Figure 5.1). The force in
the direction of the displacement is Fcos450, so work done is W = Fdcos which is the equation
for the scalar product of the force and displacement vectors. The work done by a force on a
moving object is zero when the force applied is perpendicular to the displacement of its point of
application. That is, if = 900, then W = 0 because cos90o = 0. The sign of the work also
depends on the direction of F relative to d. The work done by the applied force is positive when
the projection of F onto d is in the same direction as the displacement.
When the projection of F onto d is in the direction opposite the displacement, W is negative.
Remember that the unit of energy is the joule.
1joule = 1Newton x 1meter
So 1 joule is the work done when a force of 1 Newton moves through a distance of 1 meter.
This is the definition of the joule.
Example:
A man cleaning a floor pulls a vacuum cleaner with a force of magnitude F = 50.0 N at an angle
of 30:00 with the horizontal (Fig. 5.2). Calculate the work done by the force on the vacuum
cleaner as the vacuum cleaner is displaced 3.0m to the right

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 Figure 5.2: A vacuum cleaner

Solution
A free body diagram as shown in Figure 5.2b. Using the definition of work.

Figure 5.3: Free-body diagram

F = 50:0N , d = 3:0m _ = 30:00 cos30:00 = 0.866

W = Fdcos = (50:0N)(3:00m)(cos30:00) = (50:0N)(3:00m)(0:866) = 130J
To finalize this problem, notice in this situation that the normal force n and the gravitational Fg =
mg do no work on the vacuum cleaner because these forces are perpendicular to its displacement.
Activity 5.2
What are the differences between work done by constant and variable forces?

5.1.1 Work done by a variable force

A force is said to perform work on a system if there is displacement in the system upon ap-
plication of the force in the direction of the force.
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In the case of a variable force, work is calculated with the help of integration. For example, in
the case of a spring, the force acting upon any object attached to a horizontal spring can be given
as:

In the case of a variable force, work is calculated with the help of integration. For example, in
the case of a spring, the force acting upon any object attached to a horizontal spring can be given
as:

Where, k is the spring constant, x is the displacement of the object attached. We can see that this
force is proportional to the displacement of the object from the equilibrium position; hence the
force acting at each instant during the compression and extension of the spring will be different.
Thus, the infinitesimally small contributions of work done during each instant are to be counted
in order to calculate the total work done.
Therefore,

∫ ( )

∫ * +| ( )

When a force varies, we cannot use the equation work done = force x distance moved. But the
relationship for the area under the graph is still true. If we are able to record the force used and
the displacement and plot a graph, we could find the work done by finding the area under the
graph, as shown in Figure 5.3 You can estimate the average force by putting a ruler on top of the
graph as though you were going to draw a horizontal line. Adjust the position of the ruler so that
the area between the graph line and the ruler is about the same above the ruler as it is below the
ruler { this will give you an estimate of the average force.

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 Figure 5.4: Graph of variable force against displacement.

Example
1. A force F = 2x + 5 acts on a particle along the displacement. Find the work done by the force
during the displacement of the particle from x0 = 0m to x = 2m. Given that the force is in
Newton's.
Solution
Work done

∫ ( )

∫ ∫

∫ ( ) ⌊ | = 14J

5.2 Conservation of energy

In physics the term work (or often work done) is another way of saying energy is being
transferred from one object to another or transformed from one type to another.
Work done = energy transferred
The more energy transferred the more work has been done. We define the sum of kinetic and
potential energies as mechanical energy:

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 E = U + KE

Where E is the total mechanical energy, KE is the kinetic energy and U is the all types of
potential energy. So we can write the general form of the definition for mechanical energy
without a subscript on U In a system the mechanical energy of the system stays constant unless
there is a force such as friction acting on the system.
The potential energy can be gravitational potential energy or energy stored in a spring, for
example. When a spring is stretched, work is done because a force has been used to move one
end of the spring by a certain displacement. Work is also done against gravity when you walk up
stairs and you gain gravitational potential energy. When you walk down stairs, work is done by
gravity and you lose gravitational potential energy.
We can show this as:

Work done against gravity,

Work done by gravity, ( )
Where Final potential energy and initial potential energy
One of the possible outcomes of doing work on a system is that the system changes its speed. In
this section, we investigate this situation and introduce our first type of energy that a system can
possess, called kinetic energy.

The Conservation of mechanical energy is =( ) ( ) =0

( ) ( ) (Conservation of mechanical energy)

Activity
1. A bullet weighing 20g is moving at a velocity of 500m/s. This bullet strikes a windowpane
and passes through it. Now, its velocity is 400m/s. Calculate work done by a bullet when
passing through this obstacle.
2.
(a) A boy walks up a hill. His displacement from his starting point is (800, 150) m. How
much gravitational potential energy has he gained?

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 (b) The boy then walks to a village. The displacement from his starting point is (400, 50)
m. How much gravitational potential energy did he lose going from the top of the hill
to the village?
(c) What was the boy's net change in gravitational potential energy from his starting
point to the village?
3. A spring has a spring constant of 75 N/m. It is stretched by 20 cm. How much energy is
stored in the spring?
4. A force of 40 N is used to stretch a spring which has a spring constant of 350 N/m. How
much energy is stored in the spring?
5. A spring has a spring constant of 150 N/m and a mass is 100 g is attached to it. The spring
sits on a horizontal frictionless surface and the other end of the spring is attached to a solid
block. The mass is pulled by 10 cm to stretch the spring and then let go. What is the highest
velocity of the mass?

5.3 Work energy theorem

According to Newton`s second law of motion, the sum of all the forces acting on a particle,

⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗

Let a force F is applied on an object initially moving with velocity u. If it is displaced to a

displacement s and changes its velocity into v, then its motion will be expressed by the equation
of motion. We can use the equation of motion

Multiplying this equation by mass m and dividing throughout by 2, we get:

Activity

1. A car with a mass of 1,000 kg brakes to a stop from a velocity of 20 m/s (45 mi/hr) over a
length of 50 meters. What is the force applied to the car?

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5.4 Conservative forces
Conservative forces a force that does not work when a body moves on a closed path.
Conservative forces have these two equivalent properties:
1. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving between any two points is
independent of the path taken by the particle.
2. The work done by a conservative force on a particle moving through any closed path is zero.
(A closed path is one in which the beginning and end points are identical.) The gravitational
force is one example of a conservative force, and the force that a spring exerts on any object
attached to the spring is another.
Activity
1. What are the differences between conservative and dissipative forces?

5.5 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done, or the work done per second. It is measured in the units
joules per second (j/s), which are also called watts (W).

Example:
A garage hoist lifts a truck up 2 meters above the ground in 15 seconds. Find the power delivered
to the truck. [Given: 1000 kg as the mass of the truck]
Solution
First we need to calculate the work done, which requires the force necessary to lift the truck
against gravity:
F = mg = 1000 x 9.81 = 9810 N.
W = Fd = 9810N x 2m = 19620 Nm = 19620 J.
The power is P = W/t = 19620J / 15s = 1308 J/s = 1308 W.

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 5.6. Review questions
1. A weightlifter lifts 200 kg through 1.8 m in 2 s.
a) What is the weightlifter's power?
b) Why is his actual power likely to be higher than this?
2. A petrol engine raises 200 liters of water in a well from a depth of 7 m in 6 seconds. Show that the
power of the engine is about 2330 W
3. A football of mass 550 g is at rest on the ground. The football is kicked with a force of 108N. The
footballer's boot is in contact with the ball for 0.3 m.
a. What is the kinetic energy of the ball?
b. What is the ball's velocity at the moment it loses contact with the footballer's boot?
4. A car of mass 1200 kg accelerates from 5 m/s to 15 m/s. The force of the engine acting on the car is
6000 N. Over what distance did the force act?
5. a) A boy walks up a hill. His displacement from his starting point is (800, 150) m. How much
gravitational potential energy has he gained?
b). the boy then walks to a village. The displacement from his starting point is (400, -50) m. How
much gravitational potential energy did he lose going from the top of the hill to the village?
b) What was the boy's net change in gravitational potential energy from his starting point to the
village?
6. A spring has a spring constant of 75 N/m. It is stretched by 20 cm. How much energy is stored in the
spring?
7. A force of 40 N is used to stretch a spring which has a spring constant of 350 N/m. How much energy
is stored in the spring?
8. A spring has a spring constant of 150 N/m and a mass is 100 g is attached to it. The spring sits on a
horizontal frictionless surface and the other end of the spring is attached to a solid block. The mass is
pulled by 10 cm to stretch the spring and then let go. What is the highest velocity of the mass?
9. A pendulum bob has a mass of 1 kg. The length of the pendulum is 2 m. The bob is pulled to one side
to an angle of 100 from the vertical.
(a) What is the velocity of the pendulum bob as it swings through its lowest point?
(b) What is the angular velocity of the pendulum bob?
10. A weightlifter lifts 200 kg through 1.8 m in 2 s. a) what is the weightlifter's power?
b) Why is his actual power likely to be higher than this?
11. How can you derive the work {energy theorem form Newton's second law of motion?

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 CHAPTER SIX

6. Oscillation and Waves

Chapter out line
6.1 Oscillatory motion
6.2 Properties of wave (frequency, wave length, period)
6.3 Types of waves
6.4 Wave behavior (reflection, refraction, diffraction)
6.5 Wave equation

Objective: - At the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Describe the periodic motion of a vibrating object in qualitative terms, and analyses it in
quantitative terms (e.g. the motion of a pendulum, a vibrating spring, a tuning fork).
 Define simple harmonic motion (SHM) and describe the relationship between SHM and
circular motion.
 Derive and use expressions for the frequency, periodic time, displacement, velocity and
acceleration of objects performing SHM.
 Describe the effects: free oscillations, damping, forced oscillations and resonance.
 Explain the energy changes that occur when a body performs SHM.
 Relate the energy of an oscillator to its amplitude.
 Solve problems on SHM involving period of vibration and energy transfer.
 Describe the characteristics of a mechanical wave and identify that the speed of the
wave depends on the nature of the medium.
 Calculate the frequency of the harmonics along a string, an open pipe and a pipe closed
at one end.

6.1 Oscillatory motion

Simple harmonic motion the periodic oscillation of an object about an equilibrium position, such
that its acceleration is always directly proportional in size but opposite in direction to its
displacement oscillating (vibrating) about a central position equilibrium position the position of
an oscillating object when at rest restoring force the force on a displaced object that acts towards
its original position.

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When a body repeats its path of motion back and forth about the equilibrium or mean position,
the motion is said to be periodic. All periodic motions need not be back and forth like the motion
of the earth about the sun, which is periodic but not vibratory in nature. The periodic motion in
which there is existence of a restoring force and the body moves along the same path to and fro
about a definite point, equilibrium position, is called oscillatory motion

6.1.1 Harmonic Motion

Any motion that repeats at regular intervals is called periodic motion or harmonic motion.
However, here we are interested in a particular type of periodic motion called simple harmonic
motion (SHM).
Periodic oscillations
If something is oscillating (vibrating) this means that it is moving backwards and forwards, up
and down, side to side, in and out, etc, around some central position. This central position is
called the equilibrium position and it is the position of the object when it is at rest. Whenever an
object is displaced from its equilibrium position there is a force that acts towards its original
position. This force is often referred to as a restoring force, as it tries to restore the system to its
equilibrium position. This is much easier to understand if we look at some simple examples.
How does a pendulum work?

Figure 6.1: Oscillation of a pendulum when the bob is pulled to one side and released

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A simple pendulum is made by hanging a mass, known as the bob, on a string from a fixed
support, as shown in Figure 6.1. If we let the mass hang without swinging, it will hang directly
below the support with all forces on it balanced. This position, where the resultant force acting
on the bob is zero, is known as the equilibrium position.
If we give the bob a small initial displacement by pulling it to one side and then release it, there
will be a resultant force, due to the weight of the bob and the tension acting in the string.
This force pulls it back towards the equilibrium position. This causes acceleration towards the
equilibrium position (opposite to the direction of displacement).
When the bob reaches the equilibrium position, the resultant force is now zero, but the bob is
moving and can't stop instantly. Its inertia keeps it moving through the equilibrium position, and
if there is no significant friction of air resistance, it will keep moving, slowing down all the time
until it is as high as it was when it started.
It now has a displacement equal and opposite to its starting displacement. However, as
displacement is a vector quantity it is now a negative value. If the initial displacement was 3 cm,
the displacement after one swing (half an oscillation) will be 3 cm.
In exactly the same way, it will swing back to where it started to complete one complete cycle of
the oscillation. It will now repeat this process again and again. It is important to notice the force
causing the oscillation always acts towards the equilibrium position. How does a mass on spring
oscillate?

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Figure 6.2: Oscillation of a mass spring system when the mass is displaced downwards and
released
If a mass is hung from a support by a spring and allowed to settle until it is stationary, it will
hang with the spring stretched so that the restoring force (in this case the tension in the spring) is
equal and opposite to the weight of the mass. This is the equilibrium position.
If we now pull the mass down, the tension in the spring will be greater than the weight of the
mass. The resultant force on the mass is upwards and so, if we let go, it accelerates upwards.
When the mass gets back to the equilibrium position it is moving and, although there is no
resultant force here, its inertia keeps it moving.
The mass keeps moving, slowing down all the time, until it is as far above the equilibrium point
as it started below. The tension in the spring is now less than the weight of the mass, the resultant
force is now downwards and the mass accelerates downwards. The mass passes through the
equilibrium position again, and carries on until it arrives back at where it started. It has
completed one cycle, and will now do the same again, and again.

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What does SHM look like?

If we plot how the displacement of an object performing simple harmonic motion varies with
time, we find that the variation is sinusoidal, as shown in Figure 6.3. Note that the displacement
goes positive and negative as the mass oscillates either side of the equilibrium position. The size
of the maximum displacement in either direction is called the amplitude A. The time to perform
one complete cycle of the oscillation is called the time period T. When we

Figure 6.3: Variation of displacement with time for simple harmonic motion say the oscillation is
sinusoidal, we mean that the displacement is described mathematically using sine or cosine
functions:
( ) or ( )

where A is the amplitude of the oscillation and T the time period. Either could be used, but
throughout the rest of this chapter we will use,

( )

although the cosine function gives a better description if the SHM is started by displacing the
oscillator and then releasing it.

If ( ) with in the expression relation.

When t = 0, ( ) ( )

For t= , , ( ) ( )

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 For t= , ( ) ( )

For t= , ( ) ( )

For t = T, ( ) ( )

Looking carefully at the information above you can see how in one oscillation the displacement
starts at 0 rises to a positive amplitude, falls back to zero, falls to a negative amplitude and then
rises back to zero.

6.1.2 Damped and Forced Oscillation

Damped Oscillation
The oscillatory motions we have considered so far have been for ideal systems that is, systems
that oscillate indefinitely under the action of only one force a linear restoring force. In many real
systems, non-conservative forces, such as friction, retard the motion.
Consequently, the mechanical energy of the system diminishes in time, and the motion is said to
be damped. Figure 6.4 depicts one such system: an object attached to a spring and submersed in
a viscous liquid. One common type of retarding force is proportional to the

Figure 6.4: One example of a damped oscillator is an object attached to a spring and submersed
in a viscous liquid speed of the moving object and acts in the direction opposite the motion. This
retarding force is often observed when an object moves through air, for instance.

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Air resistance and friction are typical examples of damping forces and are the reason why
pendulums naturally stop swinging and masses on springs stop oscillating. The damping force is
given by:
FD = -bV

b = the damping coefficient and is dependent on the medium providing the damping, v = the
velocity of the object through the medium.
This equations shows how the resistive force is directly proportional, but opposite, to the
velocity. As a result the amplitude of the oscillation will decay exponentially, as shown overleaf
in Figure 6.5 (a). Note that the period of the oscillation does not change as the amplitude gets
smaller. Heavier damping causes a more rapid decay of amplitude as shown in Figure 6.5(b).
Damping in a car suspension is not normally so heavy, as this would produce a very `hard' and
uncomfortable ride for the passengers. The damping shown in Figure 6.5(b), on the other hand,
would provide a very bouncy ride; this would be called under damping.

The damping in a car suspension is always a compromise somewhere near to the critical
damping shown in Figure 6.5(c). Critical damping is the amount of damping that leads to the
oscillator settling back to a stationary state at the equilibrium position in the shortest possible
time.

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Figure 6.5: Plots of displacement against time for an oscillator that is displaced and then
released, for different amounts of damping a very `hard' and uncomfortable ride for the
passengers. The damping shown in Figure 6.5(b), on the other hand, would provide a very
bouncy ride; this would be called under damping.
The damping in a car suspension is always a compromise somewhere near to the critical
damping shown in Figure 6.5(c). Critical damping is the amount of damping that leads to the
oscillator settling back to a stationary state at the equilibrium position in the shortest possible
time.
Damping reduces the effects of resonance. As the periodic driving force transfers energy into the
oscillator the damping mechanism dissipates the energy. The resonance peak in the graph of
driven amplitude against driving frequency becomes lower and relatively wider, as shown in
Figure 6.6. It can also be seen that damping also causes a very small reduction in the natural
frequency of the oscillator.

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Figure 6.6: Driven amplitude against driving frequency for forced oscillations of an oscillator
with different amounts of damping

Forced Oscillation
A common example of a forced oscillator is a damped oscillator driven by an external force that
varies periodically, such as F(t) = F0sin t, where ! is the angular frequency of the driving force
and F0 is a constant. In general, the frequency of the driving force is variable while the natural
frequency! of the oscillator is fixed by the values of k and m. Newton's second law in this
situation gives

∑ ⃗

After a sufficiently long period of time, when the energy input per cycle from the driving force
equals the amount of mechanical energy transformed to internal energy for each cycle, a steady
state condition is reached in which the oscillations proceed with constant amplitude.
( ) Where

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And where √ m is the natural frequency of the undamped oscillator (b = 0).

For small damping, the amplitude is large when the frequency of the driving force is near the
natural frequency of oscillation, or when 0. The dramatic increase in amplitude near the natural
frequency is called resonance, and the natural frequency 0 is also called the resonance frequency
of the system.

6.2 Properties of wave (frequency, wave length, period)

Terminologies in Wave
Crests/Troughs: are positions in a wave with maximum displacements above/below the
equilibrium position.
Amplitude (A): is the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.
Displacement (y): is position of a wave from equilibrium position at any time.
Wave length (λ): distance between any two consecutive points which are in phase.
Period (T): is the time taken by a wave to move one wave length.
Frequency (f): number of oscillations performed per unit time.
Speed (v): is constant in a medium provided the medium is homogeneous.

What is a travelling wave?

Electromagnetic and sound waves are particularly important to us, but waves on water are a little
easier to observe. A travelling wave transfers energy, and sometimes information, from one place
to another, in what is called the direction of propagation. An oscillation at the source of energy
causes an oscillation to travel through space. For electromagnetic waves this oscillation is of
electric and magnetic fields and does not need a medium. In a mechanical wave that involves the
oscillations of particles of a physical medium, as the particles pass on energy, they undergo
temporary displacements but no permanent change in the position.

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For example, when ripples travel across a pond the water molecules oscillate vertically but do
not move in the direction of the wave.
Frequency and time period
The frequency, f, of an oscillation is the number of cycles it completes per second. The unit is
the hertz, symbol Hz. A frequency of 50 Hz would correspond to 50 complete oscillations per
second. Frequency is related to time period by:

and so our mathematical expression for displacement can be written as

( )

Activity
(a) An object moving with simple harmonic motion has an amplitude of 3 cm and a
frequency of 30 Hz. Calculate:
i. the time period of the oscillation,
ii. the acceleration in the centre and at the maximum displacement of an oscillation, and
iii. the velocity in the centre and at the maximum displacement of an oscillation
(b) Describe the key features of the different forms of damping the general effect of
damping
on resonance.

6.3 Types of Waves

6.3.1 Transverse and longitudinal
Waves can also be categorized as transverse and longitudinal waves based on the way they are
propagating.
1. Transverse Wave- is a wave where particles of the disturbed medium oscillate perpendicular
to the direction of wave motion. Examples are: water waves, waves on strings, and all EM
waves. Sinusoidal graphs can represent this motion.
2. Longitudinal Wave- is a wave where particles of the disturbed medium oscillate parallel to
the direction of wave motion. Example: sound wave

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6.3.2 Mechanical and Electromagnetic wave
Waves can be categorized as Mechanical and Electromagnetic waves based on the need of
material medium for its propagation.
(c) Mechanical Waves- are waves produced by the oscillation of particles of a
mechanical medium and need a medium for propagation. Examples are water waves,
sound wave, waves in strings etc.
All mechanical waves require:
 some source of disturbance
 a medium that can be disturbed and
 Physical medium through which elements of the medium can influence each other.
2. Electromagnetic (EM) waves:-are produced by accelerated charged particles and can
propagate through both material medium and vacuum. Examples are: Light, radio and television
waves, micro waves, x-rays, etc. All EM waves in vacuum propagate with speed c = 3:0 x
102m/s.
Waves can either move in space (e.g water waves), the so called traveling waves, or be stationary
in an enclosure, the so called standing waves.

6.4 Wave behavior (reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction)

The characteristics of waves are important in determining the size of waves, the speed at which
they travel, how they break on shore, and much more. Following are some of the characteristics
of waves.

6.4.1. Reflection of Waves

Whenever a traveling wave reaches a boundary, part or the entire wave bounces back. This
phenomenon (rebounding of wave from a surface) is called reflection. For example, consider a
pulse traveling on a string that is fixed at one end. When the pulse reaches the wall, it is
reflected.

6.4.2. Refraction of wave

It is the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another caused by its change
in speed. For example, waves in deep water travel faster than in shallow. If an ocean wave
approaches a beach obliquely, the part of the wave farther from the beach will move faster than

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that closer in, and so the wave will swing around until it moves in a direction perpendicular to
the shoreline. The speed of sound waves is greater in warm air than in cold.
At night, air is cooled at the surface of a lake, and any sound that travels upward is refracted
down by the higher layers of air that still remain warm. Thus, sounds, such as voices and music,
can be heard much farther across water at night than in the daytime.

6.4.3. Diffraction of wave

It is the spreading of waves around obstacles. Diffraction takes place with sound; with
electromagnetic radiation, such as light, X-rays, and gamma rays; and with very small moving
particles such as atoms, neutrons, and electrons, which show wavelike properties. One
consequence of diffraction is that sharp shadows are not produced. The phenomenon is the result
of interference (i.e., when waves are superimposed, they may reinforce or cancel each other out)
and is most pronounced when the wavelength of the radiation is comparable to the linear
dimensions of the obstacle.

6.4.4. Interference of wave

It is the net effect of the combination of two or more wave trains moving on intersecting or
coincident paths. The effect is that of the addition of the amplitudes of the individual waves at
each point affected by more than one wave.
Interference also occurs between two wave trains moving in the same direction but having
different wavelengths or frequencies. The resultant effect is a complex wave. A pulsating
frequency, called a beat, results when the wavelengths are slightly different.

6.5 Wave equation

The frequency of a wave can be defined in two equivalent ways. It is the frequency of the
individual oscillators that pass the energy along, the number of times particles go up and down or
backwards and forwards per second. It is also the number of complete waves, the number of
wavelengths that pass any given point per second. If the wavelength is and f wave length pass a
point per second, then the speed of the wave must be given by the wave equation:

The speed of any travelling wave depends on the media it is travelling. For a mechanical wave
travelling along a string the speed of the wave depends on the tension of the string and the mass
per unit length(sometimes called linear density).
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 √

where = mass per unit length given by = m/l in kg/m; T = tension in the string in N.

The formula given above shows us that the `tighter' the string the faster the waves will travel
down its length. Additionally the `lighter' the string, (the smaller its mass/length ratio), the faster
the waves will travel down its length. The phase speed of a wave is the rate at which the phase of
the wave travels through space. Any given phase of the wave (for example, the crest or the
trough) will appear to travel at the phase velocity. The phase velocity is given in terms of the
wavelength (lambda) and period T as

6.6 Review questions

(d) A simple pendulum is made from a bob of mass 0.040 kg suspended on a light string
of length 1.4 m. Keeping the string taut, the pendulum is pulled to one side until it has
gained a height of 0.10 m. Calculate
a) the total energy of the oscillation
b) the amplitude of the resulting oscillations
c) the period of the resulting oscillations
d) the maximum velocity of the bob
e) the maximum kinetic energy of the bob.
(e) A piston in a car engine has a mass of 0.75 kg and moves with motion which is
approximately simple harmonic. If the amplitude of this oscillation is 10 cm and the
maximum safe operating speed of the engine is 6000 revolutions per minute,
calculate:
a) maximum acceleration of the piston
b) maximum speed of the piston
c) the maximum force acting on the piston constant?

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 (f) A car of mass 820 kg has an under damped suspension system. When it is driven by a
driver of mass 80 kg over a long series of speed bumps 10 m apart at a speed of 3 m/s
the car bounces up and down with surprisingly large amplitude.
a) Explain why this effect occurs.
b) Calculate the net spring constant of the car suspension system.
(g) If you are given a metal rod and a hammer, how must you hit the rod to produce:
a) a transverse wave, and
b) a longitudinal wave?
(h) A whistle producing a sound at 1 KHz is whirled in a horizontal circle at a speed of
18 m/s. What are the highest and lowest frequencies heard by a listener standing a
few metres away, if the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s?
(i) If the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s, what is the wavelength of a sound wave at 512
Hz?
(j) A travelling wave on a string, of amplitude 2 mm, frequency 500 Hz and speed 300
m/s, can be described by the function

(k) ( )
a) Sketch graphs of displacement Y against distance x for this wave, for the first 1.2m:
i) for time t= 0, and
ii) for time t= 0.5 ms
b) Sketch graphs of displacement Y against time t for the oscillation produced by this wave for
the first 4 ms
i) at the source where x= 0, and
ii) at a distance x= 30 cm from the source.

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 CHAPTER SEVEN

7. Heat and thermodynamics

Chapter outline

7.1. Temperature and heat

7.2. The effect of heat on materials (change of temperature, heat expansion, change of phase,
heat capacity)
7.3. Laws of thermodynamics (Zeroth, first, second)
Objective: - By the end of this unit students should be able to:
 Define the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
 Determine the relationship between temperature and energy transfer and thermal
equilibrium.
 Give the definitions of isothermal, isobaric, isochoric and adiabatic processes.
 State the first law of thermodynamics.
 Describe ways of changing the internal energy of a gas.
 Solve problems involving calculations of pressure, temperature or volume for a gas
undergoing adiabatic changes.
 State the assumptions made to define an ideal gas.
 Describe the kinetic theory of gases, including the importance of Brownian motion and
discussion.

7.1 Temperature and Heat

Thermodynamics is a science of the relationship between heat, work, temperature, and energy.
If we place two bodies of different temperatures in contact, then the particles at the boundary
will collide and the kinetic energy of particles is transferred backwards and forwards between the
objects. A `body' is another word for an object. On average, the particles in the hotter body have
more kinetic energy than those in the colder body, so there is a net transfer of thermal energy
from the hotter body to the colder body.

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This process is referred to as heating. This is the only way that the word heat can be used. A
body does not contain or possess heat. This is just the same as an electrical component, which
does not contain or possess electrical current. Instead we will use the term internal energy to
describe the total energy that is internal to bodies. Temperature is a measure of the average
random kinetic energy of particles in a body, and is used to determine in which direction there
will be a net energy flow when two bodies are close to one another.
Temperature Scales
Thermometers measure temperature according to well-defined scales of measurement. The three
most common temperature scales are Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin. Temperature scales are
created by identifying two reproducible temperatures. The freezing and boiling temperatures of
water at standard atmospheric pressure are commonly used. On the Celsius scale, the freezing
point of water is 00C and the boiling point is 1000C.

Relationships between the Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales are shown. The relative
sizes of the scales are also shown.
The unit of temperature on this scale is the degree Celsius (0C). The Fahrenheit scale has the
freezing point of water at 320F and the boiling point at 2120F. Its unit is the degree Fahrenheit
(0F).

To convert from Use this Equation

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 Celsius to Fahrenheit

Fahrenheit to Celsius
( )
Celsius to kelvin

kelvin to Celsius

Kelvin to Fahrenheit

( )

ACTIVITY
1. "Room temperature" is generally defined in physics to be 250C.
(a) What is room temperature in 0F?
(b) What is it in K?
2. Convert the following to degrees Celsius:
a) the boiling point of helium, 4.25 K
b) the freezing point of gold, 1340 K.
3. Convert the following to kelvin:
a) the freezing point of mercury, -390C
b) the average temperature of the universe, -270.420C.

7.2 The Effect of Heat on Materials (Change of Temperature, Expansion,

Change of Phase, Heat Capacity
Thermal Expansion
The expansion of alcohol in a thermometer is one of many commonly encountered examples of
thermal expansion, which is the change in size or volume of a given system as its temperature
changes. The most visible example is the expansion of hot air. When air is heated, it expands and
becomes less dense than the surrounding air, which then exerts an (upward) force on the hot air
and makes steam and smoke rise, hot air balloons oat, and so forth.
Linear Thermal Expansion
The increase in length L of a solid is proportional to its initial length L0 and the change in its
temperature T .The proportionality constant is called the coefficient of linear expansion, α

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 ( )

And has unit of 1/k or 1/0C

Areal Expansion
The change in area A of a solid is proportional to its initial area A0 and the change in its
temperature T That is,

( )

is coefficient of areal expansion.

Volume Expansion
The change in volume V of a solid is proportional to its initial volume V0 and the change
in its temperature . That is:

( )

is coefficient of volume expansion.

Activity
1. A steel rod has a length of exactly 20 cm at 300C. How much longer is it at 500C? [Use
Steel = 11 x10-6/C.] (Answer: The length of the bar increases by 4:4 x 10-3cm)
2. By how much does the volume of an aluminum cube 5.00 cm on an edge increase when the
cube is heated from 100Cto60 0C? [Use Al = 23 x 10-6/C] .Answer (The volume of the
cube increases by 0:43cm3)

7.3 Specific Heat and Latent Heat

Specific Heats: The quantity of heat, Q, required to change the temperature of a body of mass m
by is proportional to both the mass and the change in temperature. Mathematically,

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c is a proportionality constant called specific heat capacity(or in short specific heat) of the
substance defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of any
substance through a unit degree. Its SI unit is J=kg/K or J=kg/0C.
Molar heat capacity: The amount of heat required to change the temperature of n moles of a
substance, usually for gases, by is :
where C is heat capacity.

The heat capacity(C) is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature
of a substance by 10C.
Activity
1. A 0.500 kg aluminum pan on a stove is used to heat 0.250 liters of water from 20:00C to
80:00C.
a). How much heat is required?
b). what percentage of the heat is used to raise the temperature of
(i) the pan and (ii) the water?

Latent Heats
Latent Heat the heat required per unit mass of a substance to produce a phase change at constant
temperature. The latent heat, QL required to change the phase of m mass of a body at constant
temperature is calculated as,

Where L is the specific latent heat required to change the phase of 1 kg of a substance at constant
temperature.
Types of Latent Heat Transfer
There are two types of latent heat transfers between an object and its environment.
Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf): is the heat absorbed or released when matter melts, changing phase
from solid to liquid form at constant temperature. For example, 333.7 kJ of heat is required to
change 1 kg of ice to water at 00C, so for water Lf = 333:7kJ=kg.
Latent Heat of Vaporization (LV): is the heat absorbed or released when matter vaporizes,
changing phase from liquid to gas phase at constant temperature. To change 1 kg of water to
steam at 1000C, 2256 kJ of heat is required and so LV = 2256kJ=kg.
Activity

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1. If the amount of heat needed for a phase change is 300 kcal, calculate the latent heat of a 5 kg
material.
2. At 20oC, a piece of metal has a density of 60g. When immersed in a steam current at 1000C,
0.5g of the steam condenses on it. Provided that the latent heat of steam is 540cal/g, calculate
the specific heat of the metal.

7.3 Laws of thermodynamics (zeros, First and second Laws)

7.3.1 Zeros Laws of thermodynamics

The Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that: ‘’Two bodies that are separately in thermal
equilibrium with a third body must be in thermal equilibrium with each other."
When two bodies are in thermal equilibrium then there is no net transfer of energy between
them. From our everyday experience, the Zeroth law may seem obvious, but it provides us with a
way of defining temperature: it is the property of a body that determines whether it is in thermal
equilibrium with other bodies. This also enables accurate calibration between thermometers of
different kinds.

Figure 7.1: If A is in thermal equilibrium with B, and C is in thermal equilibrium with B, then A
is also in thermal equilibrium with C.

7.3.2 First Laws of thermodynamics

The work of Joule mentioned at the start of this section led to the idea that energy as a quantity is
conserved whenever any process takes place. This notion is expressed most often as the `law of
conservation of energy', which is a simplification of the first law of thermodynamics. The first
law states that: ‘’the increase in internal energy of a system is equal to the sum of the energy
entering the system through heating, and the work done on the system." When defining the three
quantities, particular attention must be paid to the sign of each quantity. These have the
following definitions:

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 U= increase in internal energy of the system
Q = the amount of energy transferred to the system by heating it (that is, by means of a
temperature gradient)
W = the amount of work done on the system
The first law of thermodynamics is therefore written as:

Isochoric process
In a constant volume process, the volume of the system stays constant. Consequently, W = 0.
From the first law we see that, All the heat entering the system goes into increasing the internal
energy.
Adiabatic Process
In an adiabatic process, the system does not exchange heat with its surroundings; that is, Q = 0.
The first law for an adiabatic process takes the form
U=W
Isothermal Process
It is a process which involves no change in the temperature of the system. If the process occurs at
constant temperature then there is no change in the internal energy of the system so . The first
law for an isothermal process takes the form

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Isobaric process
In an isobaric process the expansion or compression occurs at constant pressure. Any work done
by the system will result in an increase in volume. The work done in Pressure-Volume graph is
equal to the area under the PV graph. For an isobaric process the work done W is calculated as
( )

The first law for an isobaric process can be written as

( )

Table 7.3: Summary of some thermodynamic processes

Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics states that: "No process is possible in which there is an
overall decrease in the entropy of the universe."

Review of unit questions

1. Explain what is meant by internal energy. Hence suggest how the internal energy of a real
gas differs from that of an ideal gas.
2. A heat engine operating between 1000C and 7000C has efficiency equal to 40% of the
maximum theoretical efficiency. How much energy does this engine extract from the hot
reservoir in order to do 5000 J of mechanical work?

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88 | P a g e
 CHAPTER EGHIT

8. Electrostatics and magnetism

Chapter outline
8.1. Coulomb law
8.2. electric field due to point charges
8.3. electric field lines
8.4. electric potential due to point charges
8.5. capacitors (capacitance and capacitor networks)
Learning objectives
At the end of the unit, students will be able to
 State Coulomb's law and solve problems based on it
 Define an electric field and calculate it due to point charges,
 Distinguish between the direction of the Electric Field of positive and negative charges
 Draw Electric Field Lines
 Discuss the Electrostatics field of the conductor
 Define electric potential and electric potential energy
 Derive an expression for the potential at appoint p at a distance r from the charge
 Find the potential difference between the two points calculate capacitance

8.1. Introduction
During the remedial of your introductory year of physics you will study two special types of
forces which occur in nature as a result of the fact that the constituents of matter have electric
charge; these forces are the electric force and the magnetic force. In fact, the study of
electromagnetism adds something completely new to the ideas of the mechanics from the next
chapter of physics in your module, namely the concept of the electric and magnetic fields. These
entities are just as real as the masses and forces from your lower grade and they take center stage
when we discuss the phenomenon of electromagnetic radiation, a topic which includes the
behavior of visible light. But under this chapter we will see in detail about Electric Fields,
Electric potential, Energy and Capacitances with their explanations and examples.

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8.2 Coulomb's law
Coulombs law gives a relation between two charges Q1 and Q2 which are at a separation r apart.
Experiments show that the forces between two bodies obey an inverse square law and that the
force is proportional to the product of the charges. Simply, Coulomb's law states The Force
between two charges at a distance, r apart, is directly proportional to the product of the two
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them mathematically
this is written as
=
9
Where K= Nm2/c2 is a constant and is the permittivity of free space.

is a constant called the permittivity of free space (or vacuum permittivity). It has a value of
-12
8:85x10 F/m. This constant is fundamental to the study of electric fields. It links electrical
concepts such as electric charge to mechanical quantities such as length. Along with the
permittivity of free space, there is a similar constant relating to magnetic fields. This is called the
permeability of free space ( ).
The Force between similar charges is repulsive, and the Force between unlike charges is
attractive. In the case of gravitational Force, we can have only attractive Force due to masses.
When two charges exert forces simultaneously on a third charge, the total Force acting on that
charge is the vector sum of the forces that the two charges would exert individually. This
important property, called the principle of superposing, holds for any number of charges.
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + --------- Fn
Example
A test charge of q = +1 x10 -6c is placed halfway between a charge of q1 = +5 x10-6c and a
charge of q2 = +3 x10-6C that are 20cm apart in the figure below. Find the magnitude and
direction of the Force on the test charge

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The Force exerted on the test charge

( )( )
( )
( )

This Force is to the right and taken as positive. The Force exerted by the charge q2 on q is

( )( )
( )
( )

This Force is to the left. If the right is taken as positive, F2 is taken as negative

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = F1 + F2 = 4.5N – 2.7N= 1.8N

and it acts to the right, that is, towards the charge.

Exercise

1. Two charges, one of and the other attract each other with a force of 100N. How
far apart are they?

2. 3c and 5c charges are separated by 2m. Where between these charges is a third charge

placed, in order for the net Force on it to be zero?

3. Three identical charges of 2 c are placed at (-3, 0) m, (3, 0) m, and (0, 4) m in

a rectangular coordinate system. What is the resultant Force on the charge that is

placed at (0, 4) m.

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8.3. Electric Field (E)
The concept of an electric field is used to visualize how a charge, or a collection of charges,
influences the region around it. The electric field E is analogous to g, which we call the
acceleration due to gravity, but which is the gravitational field. Everything we learned about
gravity, and how masses respond to gravitational forces can help us understand how electric
charges respond to electric forces.
The electric field concept arose to explain action-at-a-distance forces. All charged objects create
an electric field that extends outward into the surrounding space. The charge alters that space,
causing any other charged thing that enters the space to be affected by this field.
The strength of the electric field is dependent upon how charged the object creating the field and
upon the distance of separation from the charged objects

8.3.1 Electric Field Intensity

Electric field strength is a vector quantity; it has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of
the electric field strength is defined in terms of how it is measured. Let's suppose that an electric
charge can be denoted by the symbol Q. This electric charge creates an electric field; since Q is
the source of the electric field, we will refer to it as the source charge. The strength of the source
charge's electric field could be measured by any other charge placed somewhere in its
surroundings. The charge used to measure the electric field strength is referred to as a test charge
since it is used to test the field strength. The test charge has a quantity of charge denoted by the
symbol q. When placed within the electric field, the test charge will experience an electric force
that is either attractive or repulsive. As is usually the case, this Force will be denoted by the
symbol F. The electric field's magnitude is defined as the Force per charge on the test charge.
( ⃗)
(⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)
( )

If the symbol ⃗⃗ denotes the electric Field strength, then the equation can be rewritten in
symbolic form as
⃗
⃗⃗ ̂

Where ̂ is a unit vector?

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The Electric field ⃗⃗ at a point in space is defined as the electric force ⃗ acting on a positive test
charge q placed at the point divided by the test charge.
The standard metric units of electric field strength arise from its definition. Since the electric
field is defined as a force per charge, its units would be force units divided by charge units. In
this case, the standard metric unit is Newton/Coulomb (N/C).
The electric field strength is not dependent upon the quantity of the test charge. Now we will
investigate a new equation that defines electric field strength in terms of the variables which
affect the electric field strength. To do so, we will have to revisit the Coulomb's Law equation
When applied to our two charges - the source charge (Q) and the test charge (q).

⃗ ̂

The formula for electric Force can be written as A new equation can be derived if the expression
for electric Force given by Coulomb's law is substituted for Force in the above equation.

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ ̂

The electric field strength depends upon the quantity of charge on the source charge Q and the
distance of separation r from the source charge.
The strength of an electric field created by source charge Q is inversely related to the square of
the distance from the source. This is known as an inverse square law.
Electric field strength is location dependent, and its magnitude decreases as the distance from a
location to the source increases. By whatever factors the distance changes, the electric field
strength will change inversely by the square of that factor.
If a number of point charges Q1;Q2;Q3; ----- Qn are at a distance r1; r2; r3; --- rn from a given
point P. each exerts a force on a test charge q placed, and the resultant Force on the test charge is
the vector of some of these forces.
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ∑ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Because each term to be summed is a vector, the sum is a vector sum. The fact that the fields that
would be caused by the individuals charge is a direct result of the principle of super position.

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Activity 8 .1
1. Explain what happens to the magnitude of the electric field created by a point charge as r
approaches zero
2. Consider two equal positive or negative point charges separated by the distance d. Atwhat
point (other than) would a third test charge experience no net force?
Example
1. What are the magnitude and direction of the electric field 1.5cm from a fixed point charge of
+1.2 x10 -10C?
Solution

⃗⃗ ̂ ̂ 103N/C

 Notice that r was expressed in the SI unit of meters

 The direction of the field is outward from the point charge because the charge is positive
Activity
2. Point charge Q1 and Q2 of 12x10 -9 C and -12x10 -9 C respectively, are placed 0.1m apart as
shown Compute the electric fields due to the charge at point a, b, and c

Answer ⃗⃗ 4:63 x104N/c: to: the::right

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8.4. Electric Field Lines
A more useful means of visually representing the vector nature of an electric field is through the
use of electric field lines of Force. These patterns of lines, sometimes referred to as electric field
lines, point in the direction which a positive test charge would accelerate if placed upon the line.
As such, the lines are directed away from positively charged source charges, and toward
negatively charged source charges.
The electric field can be represented graphically by field lines. These lines are drawn in such a
way that, at a given point, the tangent of the line has the direction of the electric field at that
point. The density of lines is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field.
Each field line starts on a positive point charge and ends on a negative point charge. Since the
density of field lines is proportional to the strength of the electric field, the number of lines
emerging from a positive charge must also be proportional to the charge.
Electric field lines provide a means to visualize the electric field. Since the electric field is a
vector, electric field lines have arrows showing the direction of the electric field. Lines of Force
are also called field lines. The direction of the field line at a point tells you what direction the
Force experienced by a charge will be if the charge is placed at that point. If the charge is
positive, it will experience a force in the same direction as the field; if it is negative the Force
will be opposite to the field. If the quantity of charge on a source charge is not identical, the
pattern will take on an asymmetric nature as one of the source charges will have a greater ability
to alter the electrical nature of the surrounding space.

a) b)

Figure 8.1: Electric field from an isolated, (a) Positive Charge (b) Negative Charge

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There are a number of principles which will assist in such predictions .These principles are
Electric field lines always extend from a positively charged object to a negatively charged object,
from a positively charged object to infinity, or from infinity to a negatively charged object.
 Electric field lines never cross each other
 Electric field lines are most dense around objects with the greatest amount of charge
 At locations where electric field lines meet the surface of an object, the lines are
perpendicular to the surface.
Activity 8.3
1. A charge 4q is at a distance r from a charge -q. Compare the number of electric field Lines
leaving the charge 4q with the number entering the charge –q where do the extra lines
beginning on 4q end.
2. A test charge is released in the field due to two point charges. Do the field lines indicate the
possible path traveled by the test charge?

Conductors in Electrostatic Fields

In general a conductor can be defined as a region in space where charges are free to move (e.g. a
metal). In a static situation the charges don't move. This implies that there is no field within then
conductor. Thus, inside a conductor:
E(r) =0

A conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium when the charge distribution (the way the charge is
distributed over the conductor) is fixed. Basically, when you charge a conductor the charge
spreads itself out. At equilibrium, the charge and electric field follow these guidelines:

 the excess charge lies only at the surface of the conductor

 the electric field is zero within the solid part of the conductor
 the electric field at the surface of the conductor is perpendicular to the surface
 charge accumulates, and the field is strongest, on pointy parts of the conductor

8.5. Electric potential of a point charge

The electric potential of a point charge is
V = kQ/r

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 9
. where k is a constant equal to Nm2/c2.
Electric field is a vector while electric potential is a scalar. The voltage resulting from a
combination of point charges is obtained by adding voltages as integers, whereas the overall
electric field is obtained by adding individual fields as vectors.
Point charges, such as electrons, are among the fundamental building blocks of matter.
Furthermore, spherical charge distributions (like on a metal sphere) create external electric fields
exactly like a point charge. The electric potential due to a point charge is, thus, a case we need to
consider. Using calculus to find the work needed to move a test charge q from a large distance
away to a distance of r from a point charge Q , and noting the connection between work and
potential
, we can define the electric potential V of a point charge:

Electric potential
Consider a charge q placed in an electric field E. Let us chose some arbitrary reference point A
in the field at this point the electric potential energy of the Charge is defined be zero. This
defines the electric potential energy of the charge at every other point in the field. For instance,
the electric potential energy UB at some point B is simply the work W done in moving the
charge from A to B along any path: It is clear that depends on both the particular charge q which
we place in the field and the magnitude and direction of the electric field along some arbitrary
route between points A and B. We can exploit this fact to define a quantity known as the electric
potential. The difference in electric potential between two points B and A in an electric field is
simply the work done in moving some charge between the two points divided by the magnitude
of the charge. Thus,

VB-VA =

The general expression for the electrical potential of a point charge Q can be obtained by
referencing to a zero of potential at infinity. The expression for the potential difference then.

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rB goes to infinity is gives simply

The zero of electric potential (voltage) is set for convenience, but there is usually some physical
or geometric logic to the choice of the zero point. For a single point charge or localized
collection of charges, it is logical to set the zero point at infinity. If there is n number of charges
in space, the potential at a point is found by superposition principles that are the electric potential
due to a number of charges is the algebraic sum of the individual potentials. The total electric
potential point p is the sum of the potential due to charges Q1; Q2; Q3; ----- Qn

= ∑

Note; potential a scalar quantity

Activity 8.4

1. In a certain region of space the electric field is zero. From this we can conclude that the
electric potential in this region is A) zero B) constant C) positive D) negative

The dimensions of electric potential are work (or energy) per unit charge. The units of electric
potential are, therefore, joules per Coulomb (J/c). A joule per Coulomb is usually referred to as a
volt (V)
1J/c = 1V

Consider a charge q which is slowly moved a small distance +x along the x-axis. Suppose that
the difference between the electric potential at the final and initial positions of the charge is +V.
By definition, the change +U in the charge's electric potential energy is given by

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Where E is the electric field strength According to equation electric field strength has the
dimension of potential difference over the length. It follows that the unit of electric field is volt
per mete (Vm).

8.5.1 Motion of charged particles in an electric Field

When a particle of charge of and mass m is placed in an electric field E, the electric Force
exerted on the charge is qE. If this is the only Force exerted on the particle it must be the net
Force and cause the particle to accelerated according to Newton's second law

⃗⃗
⃗

If E is uniform the acceleration is constant. If the particle has a positive charge, its acceleration is
in the directing of the electric field. If the particle has a negative charge, its acceleration is in the
direction of opposite the electric field.
Example:
1. As shown in the figure below, a positive point charge q of mass m is released from rest in a
uniform electric field E directed along the x-axis. Describe its motion

Solution

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The acceleration a is constant and is given by q E/m. The motion is simple linear motion along
the x- axis. Therefore we can apply the equation of kinematics in one dimension

( )

Choosing the initial position of the charge as xi = 0 and assigning Vi = 0 because the particle
starts from rest, the position of the particle as a function of time is

The speed of the particle is given by

The third kinematics equation gives us ( )

from which we can find the kinetic energy of the charge after it has moved a distance

( )( )

Activity
1. An electron entrees the region of a uniform electric field as shown with Vi = 3 x 106 m/s and
E = 200N/C. The horizontal length of the plane, L = 0.100 m
i) Find the acceleration of the electron while it is in the electric field
ii) If the electron enters the field at t = 0 and the time at which it leaves the field
iii) If the vertical position of led the electron as enters field is yi = 0, what the vertical
position when it leaves the fields?

8.6. Capacitance and Capacitor networks

A capacitor is a devise that is used to store electric charge. It is usually made up of two plates
separated by a thin insulating material known as the dielectric. The capacitance of a system
depends only on its shape and on the insulators it contains. One plate of the capacitor is

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positively charged, while the other has a negative charge. The charge in a capacitor is
proportional to the potential difference between the plates. For a capacitor with charge Q on the
positive plate and -Q on the negative plate, the capacitance measures the amount of charge a
capacitor can store. A convenient measure of the ability of a device to store electric charge is its
capacitance C.
A battery will transport charge from one plate to another until the voltage produced by the charge
buildup is equal to the battery voltage. The capacitance of an object is defined as being equal to
the charge required to raise the potential of that object by one V.

Where C is the capacitance in Farad Q is the charge in Coulomb stored in each plate V is the
potential in Volts applied to the plate.
The capacitor's capacitance (C) is a measure of the amount of charge (Q) stored on each plate for
a given potential difference or voltage (V) which appears between the plates.
The SI unit of capacitance is the farad F The circuit symbol for a capacitor is
1farad=1Coulomb/1Volt

Figure 8.2: The circuit symbol for a capacitor.

Activity
A 25 F capacitor is charged to a potential of 18V. How much charge stored on capacitor?

8.7 The Parallel Plate Capacitor

Consider two large at plates placed near one another. The plates are parallel, and have equal and
opposite charges uniformly distributed. This configuration is known as a parallel-plate capacitor.
A parallel-plate capacitor is a great way to create a uniform field.
Consider a capacitance C in vacuum consisting of two parallel plates, each with area A separated
by a distance d as shown in figure 1. One plate carries a charge Q, and the other carries a charge-

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Q. The amount of a charge that can be stored on a plate for a given potential increases as a plate
area increased. Thus, we expect the capacitance to be proportional to the plate area A.

Figure 8.3: The Parallel Plate Capacitor

Now consider the region that separates the plate. The electric field between the plates must
increase as d decreased. Moving the plates together causes the charge on the capacitor to
increases. If d is increased, the charge deceases. As a result, we expect the capacitance of the pair
of the plates to be inversely proportional to d. We can verify these physical arguments with the
following derivation. The surface charge density on either plate is

The magnitude of the Electric field has a very simple relation to the voltage between the plates
and their separation d.

⃗⃗

Using the definition of capacitance we can determine the capacitance C of an ideal capacitor
as a function of its structure.

This equation for the capacitance of a parallel capacitor shows that C is a constant independent
of the charge stored in on the plates or the voltage across the capacitor. The capacitance of a

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system depends on its shapes, dimensions
and separation of the conductors that make
up the capacitor

Figure 8.4: The Parallel Plate Capacitor

Activity

1) The plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are 5mm apart and 2m2 in area. The plates are in
vacuum. A potential difference 10, 000v is applied across the capacitor compute
A) The capacitance
B) The charge on the plate
C) The electric intensity in the space b/n them
2. Parallel plate capacitor is designed to have a capacitance of 1.00F when the plates are
separated by 1.00mm in vacuum what must be the arch of the plates. (Ans A = 1:13 x10 8m2)

8.7.1. Energy Stored in a Capacitor

The energy stored in a capacitor is the same as the work needed to build up the charge on the
plates. As the charge increases, the harder it is to add more. Potential energy is the charge
multiplied by the potential, and as the charge builds up the potential does too. If the potential
difference between the two plates is V at the end of the process, and 0 (zero) at the start, the
average potential is V/2. Multiplying this average potential by the charge gives the potential
energy.

Substituting in for Q, Q = CV, gives: The energy stored in a capacitor is: in terms of C and V.

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Substituting Q = CV and V = Q/C ;

This is U in terms of Q and V;

In terms of Q and C Where U=Electric potential energy in joule Q=Charge in Coulomb.

V=Potential in volt C = Capacitance in farad. These formulae are valid for any type of capacitor,
since the arguments we used to derive them do not depend on any special property of parallel

plate capacitors. The potential difference between the plates is V = Ed and

Thus, the energy stored in the capacitor can be written as

Now, Ad is the volume of the field filled region between the plates, so if the energy is stored in
the electric field then the energy per unit volume, or energy density, of the field must be

Activity

1) Air filled parallel plate capacitor has a capacitance of 5.0 p. A potential of 100V is applied
across the plates, which are 1.0 cm apart, using a storage battery.

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 a) What is the energy stored in the capacitor? Suppose that the battery is disconnected
and the plates are moved until they are 2.0 cm apart.
b) What is the energy stored in the capacitor now?
c) Suppose, instead, that the battery is left connected and the plates are again moved
until they are 2.0 cm apart. What is the energy stored in the capacitor in this case?

8.8 Capacitance network

8.8.1 Parallel Combination

Capacitors are one of the standard components of electronic circuits. Complicated combinations
of capacitors often occur in practical circuits. It is, therefore, useful to have a set of rules for
finding the equivalent capacitance of some general arrangement of capacitors. It turns out that
we can always find the equivalent capacitance by repeated application of two simple rules. These
rules related to capacitors connected in series and in parallel. In a parallel combination, the
capacitors are usually drawn side by side. If we imagine them as parallel-plate capacitors with
the same gap, snuggling them right up next to each other, the combination seems to become a
single capacitor with an area equal to the sum of the areas.
Then from the equation for capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor, we have.

( )

Or consider two capacitors connected in parallel; i.e. with the positively charged Plates
connected to a common "input" wire and the negatively charged plates attached to a common
"output" wire. What is the equivalent capacitance between the input and output wires?
In this case, the potential difference V across the two Capacitors is the same, and is equal to the
potential difference between the input and output wires.
The total charge Q, however, stored in the two capacitors is di-vided between the capacitors,
since it must distribute itself such that the voltage across the two is the same. Since the capacitors
may have different ,C 1 and C 2 , the charges Q 1 and Q 2 may also be different.

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The equivalent capacitance of the pair of capacitors is simply the ratio Q/V

When a number of capacitors are connected in parallel, the total or effective capacitance of the
group is equal to the sum of the individual capacitances The equation for calculating the total
capacitance C obtained by capacitances C1, C2;C3 etc. The formula for parallel capacitor is
same as the resistance in series. The working voltage of parallel capacitors is equal to the lowest
working voltage rating in the combination.

Figure 8.5: Capacitors connected in Parallel

. Parallel connected Capacitors always have the same voltage drop across each of them. They do
not have the same charge unless they have the same capacitance C. The charge on the equivalent
capacitor Ceq is the sum of the charges on both capacitors. The Voltage on the equivalent
capacitor Ceq is the same as the voltage across either capacitor.

Figure 8.6: Capacitors connected in Parallel

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The equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in parallel is the sum of the individual
capacitances

8.8.2 Series Combination

In a series combination, the capacitors are connected head-to-tail. We want to replace the pair or
more by a single equivalent capacitor. To do this, we must understand how the charge is
distributed on the plates. Consider the inner pair of plates, one from each capacitor, connected by
a conductor.
These three objects are electrically isolated from the remainder of the circuit; they form a single
isolated conductor. Since the net charge on the capacitors is zero before the battery is connected,
the net charge on the inner pair of plates must also be zero. After the battery is connected, the
plates of the capacitors will hold some charge, but the inner pair of plates will still have zero net
charge. Therefore, the charges on the inner pair of plates are equal and opposite, and we see that
both capacitors will hold the same charge. We don't add these charges together, as in the parallel
case. The quantity that adds is the voltage across each capacitor. Consider capacitors arranged so
that the potential across the combination is equal to the sum of the potential difference across
each as shown in fig.

Figure 8.7: Capacitors connected in Series

The voltage across acrs s the capacitor is related to their charges

and

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The definition of equivalent capacitor is

or

Therefore, +

For more than two Capacitor

Series connected Capacitors always have the same charge. They do not the same voltage unless
the capacitors have the same Capacitance C. The charge on the equivalent capacitor Ceq is the
same as the charge on either capacitor. The Voltage across the equivalent capacitor Ceq is the
sum of the voltage across both capacitors. If two or more capacitors are connected
in series as shown above, the total capacitance is less than that of the smallest capacitor in
the group.

Figure 8.8: Capacitors connected in Series

Example
1) Let C1 = 6 F and C2 = 3 , Vab = 18V
A. What is the equivalent capacitance of the series combination
B. What is the charge on each capacitor
C. Find the potation difference across the capacitor.

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Figure 8.9: Capacitors connected in Series

Solution
a) for series combination
=

b) The charge Q is Q1 = Q2 = Vab = (2 F)(18V ) = 36 C

c) The potential difference across the capacitor are

=6V

=12V

Activity
1) A 1 F and a 2 F capacitor are connected in parallel and this pair of capacitors is then
Connected in series with a 4 capacitor.
i) What is the equivalent capacitance of the whole combination?

ii) What is the charge on the 4 capacitor if the whole combination is connected across the
terminals of a 6V battery?
Iii; What are the charges on the 1 and 2 capacitors?

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 CHAPTER NINE

9. Electric current and Magnetism

After completion of this unit the learner will be able to:
 Explain the Electric circuit, Ohm’s Law, Resistance and Resistivity
 Determine the expressions of the Electric Circuit (Series , Parallel)
 Describe the Source of magnetic field

9.1 Electric circuit

You have studied in the previous lesson that when a potential difference is applied across a
conductor, an electric field is set up within it. The free electrons move in a direction opposite to
the field through the conductor. This constitutes an electric current. Conventionally, the direction
of current is taken as the direction in which a positive charge moves. The electrons move in the
opposite direction. To define current precisely, let us assume that the charges are moving
perpendicular to a surface of area A, as shown in Fig.1. The current is the rate of flow of charge
through a surface area placed perpendicular to the direction of flow. If charge Δq flows in time
Δt, the average current is defined as

Figure: Motion of charges inside a conductor of surface area A

If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, the current also varies with time. The instantaneous current
is expressed as:

The electric current through a conductor is the rate of transfer of charge across a surface placed normal to
the direction of flow

The SI unit of current is ampere. Its symbol is A :

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9.1.1 Ohm’s Law
In 1828, Ohm studied the relation between current in a conductor and potential difference
applied across it. He expressed this relation in the form of a law, known as ohm’s law

According to Ohm’s law, the electric current through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it, provided the physical conditions such as temperature and pressure
remain unchanged. Let V be the potential difference applied across a conductor and I be the current
flowing through it. According to Ohm’s law

Or

Where constant of proportionality R signifies the electrical resistance offered by a conductor to

the flow of electric current. Resistance is the property of a conductor by virtue of which it
opposes the flow of current through it.

The SI unit of resistance is ohm. It is expressed by symbol Ω (read as omega)

1 ohm = 1 volt/1 ampere

Most of the metals obey Ohm’s law and the relation between voltage and current is linear. Such
resistors are called ohmic.

9.1.2. Resistance and Resistivity

What is resistance?

The resistance can be defined as the materials properties which makes an obstruction within the
current flow. As the voltage supply is given across the conductor, then the electrons flow will be
there within an exact direction. So the heat can be generated while electrons follow collapses
with molecules or atoms. These will oppose the flow of electrons within a material. This is
named as the resistance.

What is resistivity?

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The precise resistance is known as resistivity. It signifies the resistance of the object which has
precise dimensions like the material which has one meter length as well as one square meter
region of a cross section.

• The quantity is called the resistance of the conductor

• The inverse of conductivity(σ) is resistivity (ρ):

•
We can express the resistance of a uniform block of material along the length L as:

Let us now study the factors which affect the resistance of a conductor.

The wire resistance mainly depends on the following factors

 When the length of the wire increases the automatically resistance of the wire will be
increased
 The conductors cross section area is inversely proportional to the resistance
 It depends on the object of the wire
 The resistance of the object mainly relies on its temperature
Example

1. A metal rod is 2m long and 8mm diameter. Compute its resistance if the resistivity of
the metal is 1.76x10^-8Ωm?

Solution

Given R=ρ ℓ/A =7x10^-4 Ω

ρ = 1.76x10^-8Ωm

ℓ= 2m

A = πr^2

9.2 Electric circuit (Series, Parallel)

Series Combination

You may connect many resistors in series by joining them end-to-end such that the same current
passes through all the resistors, two resistors of resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series.

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Suppose that current I flows through the series combination when it is connected to a battery of
voltage V. Potential differences V1 and V2 develop across R1 and R2, respectively. Then V1 =
IR1 and V2 = IR2. But sum of V1 and V2 is equal to V, i.e.

If equivalent resistance of this series combination is R, then

V= ( )

So that

That is, the equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistors is equal to the sum of
individual resistances.

Fig. 2: a) two resistors connected in series to a battery,

Parallel Combination
You may connect the resistors in parallel by joining their one end at one point and the other ends
at another point. In parallel combination, same potential difference exists across all resistors. Fig.
below shows a parallel combination of two resistors R1 and R2. Let the combination be
connected to a battery of voltage V and draw a current I from the source

Fig. Two resistors connected in parallel. The battery supplies the same voltage to both resistors

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The main current divides into two parts. Let I1 and I 2 be the currents flowing through resistors
R1 and R2, respectively. Then I 1 = V/R1 and I2 = V/R2. The main current is the sum of I 1 and I 2.
Therefore, we can write

If the equivalent resistance of combination is R, we write V = IR or I = V/R

Example:-Three resistors are connected in parallel as shown. A potential difference of 18 V is

maintained between points a and b.

a) Find the current in each resistor.

b) Calculate the power delivered to each resistor and the

total power delivered to the combination of resistors.

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9.3. Source of magnetic field

9.3.1 The Biot–Savart Law

Biot and Savart arrived at a mathematical expression that gives the magnetic field at some
point in space in terms of the current that produces the field. The magnetic field described by
the Biot–Savart law is the field due to a given current-carrying conductor. That expression is
based on the following experimental observations for the magnetic field dB at a point P
associated with a length element ds of a wire carrying a steady current I (see fig below)

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 To find the total magnetic field B created at some point by a current of finite size, we must
sum up contributions from all current elements I ds that make up the current. That is, we
must evaluate B by integrating the above equation:

̂
∫

Where the integral is taken over the entire current distribution. This expression must be
handled with special care because the integrand is a cross product and therefore a vector
quantity.

The focus of our studies in electricity and magnetism so far has been the electric fields
produced by stationary charges and the magnetic fields produced by moving charges. The
Source of magnetic field is bar magnet and moving charges.

9.4. Magnetic force

 Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic
moments of elementary particles associated with a fundamental quantum property,
their spin.
 We can define a magnetic field B at some point in space in terms of the magnetic
force FB that the field exerts on a charged particle moving with a velocity v, which we
call the test object.
 A compass reveals that magnetic field lines outside of a magnet point from the north
pole (compass points away from north pole) to the south (compass points toward the
south pole).
 Experiments on various charged particles moving in a magnetic field give the
following results:
 The magnitude FB of the magnetic force exerted on the particle is proportional to the
charge q and to the speed v of the particle.
 The magnitude and direction of FB depend on the velocity of the particle and on the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field B.
 When a charged particle moves parallel to the magnetic field vector, the magnetic
force acting on the particle is zero.

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  When the particle’s velocity vector makes any angle θ ≠ 0 with the magnetic field, the
magnetic force acts in a direction perpendicular to both v and B; that is, FB is
perpendicular to the plane formed by v and B, as shown in the next slide.
 The magnitude of the magnetic force exerted on the moving particle is proportional to
sinθ, where θ is the angle the particle’s velocity vector makes with the direction of B.
 We can summarize these observations by writing the magnetic force in the form

9.4.1. Magnetic force on a current carrying conductor

A current-carrying wire experiences a force when placed in a magnetic field. This follows
from the fact that the current is a collection of many charged particles in motion. The
resultant force exerted by the field on the wire is the vector sum of the individual forces
exerted on all charged particles making up the current. Then, the force exerted on the
particles is transmitted to the wire when the particles collide with the atoms making up the
wire. Magnetic field lines coming out of the paper are indicated by dots, representing the tips
of arrows coming outward.

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  Magnetic field lines going into the paper are indicated by crosses,
representing the feathers of arrows going inward.

9.4.2. Motion of charged particles in magnetic-field

• In the previous section, we found that the magnetic force acting on a charged
particle moving in a magnetic field is perpendicular to the velocity of the
particle and that consequently the work done by the magnetic force on the
particle is zero.

• Let us assume that the direction of the magnetic field is into the page, as in
the Figure (a)

•
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 • Since the force is always perpendicular to the velocity, the path of the
particle is a circle; Figure (a) shows the particle moving in a circle in a plane
perpendicular to the magnetic field.

• The particle moves in a circle because the magnetic force FB is

perpendicular to v and B and has a constant magnitude qvB

• As Figure (a) illustrates, the rotation is:

• counterclockwise for a positive charge

• If q were negative, the rotation would be clockwise.

• By equating the magnetic force to the product of the particle mass and the
centripetal acceleration:

9.4.3. The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors

Consider two long, straight, parallel wires separated by a distance a and carrying currents
I1 and I2 in the same direction, as in below. We can determine the force exerted on one
wire due to the magnetic field set up by the other wire. Wire 2, which carries a current I2
and is identified arbitrarily as the source wire, creates a magnetic field B2 at the location
of wire 1, the test wire. The magnetic force on a length ℓ of wire 1 is:

Because ℓ is perpendicular to B2 in this situation, the magnitude of F1 is

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 Hence: ( )

The direction of F1 is toward wire 2 because ℓxB2 is in that direction. If the field set up
at wire 2 by wire 1 is calculated, the force F2 acting on wire 2 is found to be equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to F1.

Hence, parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract each other, and
parallel conductors carrying currents in opposite directions repel each other. • Because
the magnitudes of the forces are the same on both wires, we denote the magnitude of the
magnetic force between the wires as simply FB. We can rewrite this magnitude in terms
of the force per unit length:

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 CHAPTER TEN

10: Electromagnetic Induction and AC Current

After completion of this unit the learner will be able to:
 Explain the Magnetic Flux and Gauss’ law in magnetism
 Determine the expressions Faraday’s Law of induction
 Describe the Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

10.1. Magnetic Flux

 The flux associated with a magnetic field is defined in a manner
similar to that used to define electric flux.

 Consider an element of area dA on an arbitrarily shaped surface, as

shown in below.

• If the magnetic field at this element is B, the magnetic flux through the
element is [Link], where dA is a vector that is perpendicular to the surface
and has a magnitude equal to the area dA.

• Therefore, the total magnetic flux ФB through the surface is:

• Consider the special case of a plane of area A in a uniform field B that makes
an angle Ѳ with dA. The magnetic flux through the plane in this case is:

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 • If the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane, as in Figure (a), then Ѳ =
90° and the flux through the plane is zero. If the field is

parallel to the plane, as in Figure (b), then Ѳ = 0 and the flux

through the plane is BA (the maximum value).

The SI of the magnetic flux is T*m2,which is defined as a Weber (Wb)

10.2 Gauss’ law in magnetism

• In electric field we found that the electric flux through a closed surface
surrounding a net charge is proportional to that charge (Gauss’s law)

• In other words, the number of electric field lines leaving the surface depends
only on the net charge within it. This property is based on the fact that
electric field lines originate and terminate on electric charges.

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 • The situation is quite different for magnetic fields, which are continuous and
form closed loops. In other words, magnetic field lines do not begin or end
at any point (see figure below)

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 ∮

10 .3 Faraday’s Law of induction

• Experiments conducted by Michael Faraday in England in 1831 and
independently by Joseph Henry in the United States that same year showed
that an emf can be induced in a circuit by a changing magnetic field.

• The results of these experiments led to a very basic and important law of
electromagnetism known as Faraday’s law of induction

• To see how an emf can be induced by a changing magnetic field, consider a

loop of wire connected to a sensitive ammeter, as illustrated in Figure
shown.

(a) When a magnet is moved toward a loop of wire connected to a sensitive

ammeter, the ammeter deflects as shown, indicating that a current is induced in the
loop.

(b) When the magnet is held stationary, there is no induced current in the loop,
even when the magnet is inside the loop.

(c) When the magnet is moved away from the loop, the ammeter deflects in the
opposite direction, indicating that the induced current is opposite that shown in part
(a).

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 Faraday concluded that an electric current can be induced in a circuit (the secondary circuit
in our setup) by a changing magnetic field.

It is customary to say that an induced emf is produced in the secondary circuit by the
changing magnetic field.

The emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the circuit

This statement, known as Faraday’s law of induction, can be written:

Where:

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 ∫

If the circuit is a coil consisting of N loops all of the same area and if ФB is the magnetic flux
through one loop, an emf is induced in every loop. The loops are in series, so their emfs add;
thus, the total induced emf in the coil is given by the expression

Suppose that a loop enclosing an area A lies in a uniform magnetic field B, as in figure below.

The magnetic flux through the loop is equal to BAcosѲ ; hence, the induced emf can be
expressed as:

( )

From this expression, we see that an emf can be induced in the circuit in several ways:

– The magnitude of B can change with time.

– The area enclosed by the loop can change with time.

– The angle Ѳ between B and the normal to the loop can change with time

– Any combination of the above can occur

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Exercise

1. A 50-turn rectangular coil of dimensions 5.00 cm X10.0

cm is allowed to fall from a position where B = 0 to a
new position where B = 0.500 T and the magnetic field
is directed perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
Calculate the magnitude of the average emf that is
induced in the coil if the displacement occurs in 0.250
s.
Solution

2. A strong electromagnet produces a uniform magnetic

2
field of 1.60 T over a cross-sectional area of 0.200 m .
We place a coil having 200 turns and a total resistance
of 20.0Ω (around the electromagnet. We then
smoothly reduce the current in the electromagnet
until it reaches zero in 20.0ms. What is the current
induced in the coil?
Solution

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10.4 Alternating Current (AC) Circuits

10.4.1 AC Sources
• An AC circuit consists of circuit elements and a power source that provides
an alternating voltage Δv.

• This time-varying voltage is described by:

• Where ΔVmax is the maximum output voltage of the AC source, or the

voltage amplitude.

• The angular frequency of the AC voltage is

10.2 Resistors in an AC Circuit

• Consider a simple AC circuit consisting of a resistor and an AC source

as shown in the Figure below

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 • At any instant, the algebraic sum of the voltage around a closed loop in a
circuit must be zero (Kirchhoff’s loop rule).

• Therefore, Δv + ΔvR = 0

• So that the magnitude of the source voltage equals the magnitude of the
voltage across the resistor:

• Where ΔvR is the instantaneous voltage across the resistor. Therefore, R =

ΔV/I, and the instantaneous current in the resistor is:

where Imax is the maximum current:

From Equations (I) and (II), we see that the instantaneous voltage across the
resistor is:

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11. REFERENCES
1. Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C., 2018, College Physics, 11th ed., Cengage Learning,
Boston, USA
2. University Physics with Modern Physics by Young, freedman and Lewis Ford
3. Physics for Scientists and Engineers with Modern Physics by Douglas C. Giancoli
4. Fundamentals of physics by David Halliday, Robert Resnick and Gearl Walker
5. College Physics by Hugh D. Young Sears Zemansky, 9 th edition
6. Herman Cember and Thomas A. Johnson, Introduction to Health Physics, 4th ed., (2008).

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