Essentials of Fire Fighting, Seventh Edition Fire Dynamics

Chapter 4
Fire Dynamics

Lesson Goal
After completing this lesson, the student shall be able to explain
the basic principles of fire science, describe the stages of fire
development, and the reaction of building construction to fire.

Objectives
Upon successful completion of this lesson, the student shall be
able to:
1. Explain the basic principles of fire science. [NFPA 1001,
4.3.11]
2. Describe how thermal energy impacts fire behavior. [NFPA
1001, 4.3.11, 4.3.12]
3. Explain the function of fuel within the combustion process.
[NFPA 1001, 4.3.10, 4.3.11]
4. Explain the function of oxygen within the combustion
process. [NFPA 1001, 4.3.11]
5. Explain the self-sustained chemical reaction involved in
flaming combustion. [NFPA 1001, 4.3.11]
6. Differentiate among the stages of fire development. [NFPA
1001, 4.3.11, 4.3.12]
7. Explain how fire fighting operations can influence fire
behavior in a structure. [NFPA 1001, 4.3.11]
8. Describe how building construction and layout affects fire
development. [NFPA 1001, 4.3.10, 4.3.11]

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Instructor Information
This is the lesson covering fire dynamics. This lesson describes
the science of fire. It includes information about thermal energy,
fuel, and oxygen, as well as self-sustained chemical reactions.
The lesson also covers fire development in a compartment,
structure fire development, and the reaction of building
construction to fire.

Important instructor information is provided in shaded boxes

throughout the lesson plan. Carefully review the instructor
information before presenting the lesson.

Methodology
This lesson uses lecture and discussion. The level of learning is
comprehension.

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Outline Contents

Outline Text
Section
Pages Pages

Section I: Fire Science 4 117

Section II: Thermal Energy 25 127

Section III: Fuel 40 135

Section IV: Oxygen 52 140

Section V: Self-Sustained Chemical

56 144
Reaction

Section VI: Compartment Fire

59 144
Development

Section VII: Structure Fire Development 89 161

Section VIII: Reaction of Building

98 165
Construction to Fire

Audiovisuals
 Visuals 4.1 to 4.189 (PowerPoint® Presentation)
 Easel pad and marker

Evaluation
 Chapter 4 Quiz
 Chapter 4 Test

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Section I: Fire Science

Instructor Note: This chapter includes many

Key Terms which are important to cover in order
for students to fully understand the material.
Pay special attention to those Key Terms within
the text and take the time to cover them as
needed during the lecture.

I. FIRE SCIENCE
pp. 117-127 Objective 1 — Explain the basic
principles of fire science.
A. Science of Fire

1. Firefighters should have scientific

understanding of

a. Combustion

b. Fire

c. Heat

d. Temperature

2. All fires involve heat-producing chemical

reaction between some type of

a. Fuel

b. Oxidizer

i. Most commonly oxygen in air

ii. Not combustible but will support or

enhance combustion

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Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.1

“Common Oxidizers” on p. 117 of the
manual.

B. Physical Science Terminology

1. Physical science

a. Study of matter and energy

b. Includes chemistry, physics

2. Theoretical foundation must be translated

into practical knowledge of fire dynamics

3. To remain safe you need to be able to

a. Identify fire dynamics present in given

situation

b. Anticipate

i. Next stages of fire

ii. How fire fighting operations may

impact fire's behavior

4. Matter — Physical materials that

a. Occupy space

b. Have mass

5. Physical change

a. Occurs when substance

i. Remains chemically the same

ii. Changes in size, shape, or

appearance

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b. Examples

i. Water freezing (liquid to solid)

ii. Water boiling (liquid to gas)

6. Chemical reaction

a. Substance changes from one type of

matter to another

b. Example — Two or more substances

combining to form compounds

c. Oxidation

i. Chemical reaction involving

combination of oxidizer with other
materials

ii. Can be

(a) Slow — Combination of oxygen

with iron to form rust

(b) Rapid — Combustion of

methane (natural gas)

7. Energy — Capacity to perform work

8. Work

a. Occurs either when

i. Force is applied to object over

distance

ii. Substance undergoes chemical,

biological, or physical change

b. Heat — Work means increasing

substance's temperature

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9. Forms of energy

a. Classified as potential or kinetic

b. Potential energy

i. Amount of energy that object can

release at some point in the future

ii. Fuels have certain amount before

they are ignited, based on chemical
composition

iii. Heat of combustion — Potential

energy available for release in
combustion process

iv. Rate at which fuel releases energy

over time depends on many
variables including

(a) Chemical composition

(b) Arrangement

(c) Density of fuel

(d) Availability of oxygen for

combustion

c. Kinetic energy

i. Energy that moving object

possesses

ii. Fuel such as wood is not "moving"

(a) When heat is introduced,

molecules within the fuel
vibrate

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(b) As heat (thermal energy)

increases, molecules vibrate
more rapidly

iii. Fuel's kinetic energy is result of

vibrations in molecules

[Link] of energy include

a. Chemical

b. Thermal

c. Mechanical

d. Electrical

e. Light

f. Nuclear

g. Sound

[Link] energy can change from one type to

another

a. Example — Mechanical energy from a

machine can convert to thermal energy
when friction between moving parts
generates heat

b. Fire behavior — Potential chemical

energy of fuel converts into heat and
light during combustion

[Link] measurement

a. Joules (J)

i. Measure of energy in International

System of Units (SI)

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ii. 4.2 joules is quantity of heat

required to change temperature of
1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius

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b. British thermal unit (Btu)

i. Unit of measurement for heat in the

customary system

ii. Amount of heat required to change

temperature of 1 pound of water by
1 degree Fahrenheit

iii. Not in use in scientific and

engineering texts — Still frequently
used in fire service

c. When comparing joules and Btu — 1

055 J = 1 Btu

[Link] and physical changes almost

always involve energy exchange

a. Fuel's potential energy

i. Releases during combustion

ii. Converts to kinetic energy

b. Exothermic reactions

i. Emit energy as they occur

ii. Fire is exothermic chemical reaction

that releases energy in form of heat
and sometimes light

c. Endothermic reactions

i. Absorb energy as they occur

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ii. Example — Converting water from

liquid to gas (steam)

(a) Requires input of energy

(b) Tactic for controlling,

extinguishing some types of
fires

Review Question: What is the difference

between a physical change and a chemical
reaction?
See pp. 117-120 of the manual for answers.

C. Fire Triangle and Tetrahedron

1. Models used to explain

a. Elements of fire

b. How fires can be extinguished

2. Fire triangle

a. Oldest, simplest model

b. Shows three elements necessary for

combustion

i. Fuel

ii. Oxygen

iii. Heat

c. Remove any of these elements and fire

will be extinguished

d. Used prior to general adaptation of fire

tetrahedron, which includes chemical
chain reaction

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3. Uninhibited chemical chain reaction must

be present for fire to occur

4. Fire tetrahedron — Model that includes

chemical chain reaction to explain flaming
or gas-phase combustion (fire is example
of gas-phase combustion)

Review Question: What is the difference

between the fire triangle and the fire
tetrahedron?
See p. 120 of the manual for answers.

D. Ignition

1. Fuels must be in gaseous state to burn

2. Solids, liquids must become gaseous in

order for ignition to occur

3. When heat is transferred to liquid or solid

a. Substance's temperature increases

b. Substance starts to convert to gaseous

state (off-gassing)

i. Pyrolysis — Chemical change in

solids

ii. Vaporization — Physical change in

liquids

4. Piloted ignition

a. Most common form of ignition

b. When mixture of fuel and oxygen

encounter external heat source with
sufficient heat or thermal energy to
start the combustion reaction

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5. Autoignition

a. Occurs without external flame or spark

to ignite fuel gases or vapors

b. Fuel's surface is heated to point at

which combustion reaction occurs

6. Once fuel is ignited, energy released from

combustion transfers to remaining solid
fuel

a. Results in production, ignition of

additional fuel vapors or gases

b. Exchange of energy from burning

gases to fuel results in sustained
chemical reaction

7. Autoignition temperature (AIT)

a. Minimum temperature at which fuel in

the air must be heated in order to start
self-sustained combustion

b. Always higher than substance's piloted

ignition temperature

Review Question: What is the difference

between piloted ignition and autoignition?
See pp. 120-122 of the manual for answers.

E. Combustion

1. Fire and combustion are similar —

Commonly used to mean same thing

2. Combustion

a. Chemical reaction

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b. Flaming combustion is only one

possible form

c. Can occur without visible flames

3. Modes of combustion

a. Nonflaming

b. Flaming

4. Nonflaming combustion

a. Occurs more slowly, at lower

temperature

b. Produces smoldering glow in material's

surface

c. Burning may be localized on or near

fuel's surface where it is in contact
with oxygen

d. Examples

i. Burning charcoal

ii. Smoldering wood or fabric

e. Fire triangle illustrates

elements/conditions required for this
mode of combustion

5. Flaming combustion

a. Commonly referred to as fire

b. Produces visible flame above material's

surface

c. Occurs when gaseous fuel

i. Mixes with oxygen in correct ratio

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ii. Heats to ignition temperature

d. Requires liquid or solid fuels to be

converted to gas phase through
addition of heat (vaporization or
pyrolysis)

e. When heated, liquid and solid fuels

emit vapors that mix with oxygen,
producing flames above material's
surface if gases ignite

f. Fire tetrahedron accurately reflects

conditions required for flaming
combustion

g. Elements of tetrahedron

i. Each must be in proper proportion,

in close physical proximity for
flaming combustion to occur

ii. Removing any element

(a) Interrupts chemical chain

reaction

(b) Stops flaming combustion

(c) Fire may continue to smolder

depending on characteristics of
fuel

h. Ignition

i. Where combustion process begins

ii. Heat source pyrolizes fuel, creating

fuel gases

iii. Gases mix with oxygen and ignite,

creating fire

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i. Fire can be compared to a pump

i. Fresh oxygen "pumped in" and

mixes with fuel gases

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ii. As it burns, fire "pumps out"

combustion products that have
larger amounts of mass and higher
levels of energy than inlet air

iii. Open burning

(a) "Pump" does not have well-

defined inlet or outlet

(b) Air is being entrained (drawn

in) from all around burning fuel

j. Fire generates heat

i. As heat transfers to gaseous

combustion products, they

(a) Expand

(b) Rise

(c) Move away from fire due to

buoyancy

ii. Density of hot combustion products

is less than surrounding air

(a) Combustion products "float" on

dense cool air surrounding fuel

(b) Create layers of smoke, fuel

gases that fill compartment
during fire

6. Products of combustion

a. As fuel burns

i. Chemical composition changes

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ii. Produces new substances — Simply

described as heat, smoke

b. Heat — Danger to anyone directly

exposed to it

c. Most fire deaths caused by

i. Exposure to toxic gases in smoke

ii. Lack of oxygen

d. Smoke

i. Aerosol comprised of gases, vapor,

solid particulates

ii. Product of incomplete combustion

(a) Combustion is incomplete when

any fuel is left after combustion
occurred

(b) Smoke, ash are examples of

left over fuel from incomplete
combustion

e. Combustion

i. Complete combustion

(a) Under ideal conditions, entire

fuel would undergo chemical
conversion from its current
form into equal amounts of new
material

(b) Example — Complete

combustion of methane in air
results in production of heat,
light, water vapor, carbon
dioxide

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ii. Incomplete in structure fire

(a) Some fuel does not burn, but

gets entrained with hot gases
and rises

(b) Unburned fuel is smoke and

has potential to burn

f. Most structure fires

i. Involve multiple types of fuels

(a) Carbon-based (wood, cotton)

(b) Hydrocarbon (plastics,

synthetic fabrics)

(c) Other types

ii. Tend to have limited air supply

iii. Higher level of incomplete

combustion which produces more
smoke

iv. These factors result in complex

chemical reactions that generate
wide range of products of
combustion including

(a) Toxic and flammable gases

(b) Vapors

(c) Particulates that comprise

smoke

g. Components of smoke

i. Gases such as carbon monoxide

(CO) are generally colorless

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ii. Vapor, particulates give smoke its

varied colors

iii. Most are toxic, dangerous to human

life

iv. Materials vary from fuel to fuel, but

generally all smoke is toxic

h. Toxic effects of smoke inhalation are

result of interrelated effect of all toxic
products present

i. Combustion process consumes oxygen

from air

i. Removes it from the environment

ii. As part of the chemical reaction,

consumed oxygen

(a) Combines with carbon in smoke

(b) Forms combustion products like

CO or carbon dioxide (CO2)

iii. Low oxygen concentrations alone

can result in hypoxia or death

iv. Combination of low oxygen

concentration, toxic gases can

(a) Reduce time victim could

survive

(b) Cause asphyxiation (fatal level

of oxygen deficiency in the
blood)

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.2

“Common Products of Combustion and Their
Toxic Effects” on p. 125 of the manual.

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j. Carbon monoxide (CO)

i. Toxic, flammable product of

incomplete combustion of organic
(carbon-containing) materials

ii. Colorless, odorless gas

iii. Present at almost every fire

iv. Released when organic material

burns in atmosphere with limited
oxygen supply

v. Exposure is frequently identified as

cause of death in civilian fatalities

vi. Chemical asphyxiant

vii. CO poisoning

(a) Sometimes lethal

(b) CO molecules attach to

hemoglobin, decreasing blood's
ability to carry oxygen

(c) CO molecules combines with

hemoglobin about 200 times
more effectively than oxygen
does

(d) Does not act on the body, but

excludes oxygen from the
body, leading to hypoxia of
brain and tissues

(e) Death follows if process is not

reversed

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Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.3 “Health

Effects of CO” on p. 125 of the manual.

k. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)

i. Toxic, flammable substance

produced in combustion of
materials containing nitrogen

ii. Commonly found in smoke at lower

concentrations than CO

iii. Incomplete combustion of

substances that contain nitrogen
and carbon produce HCN

iv. Materials that produce HCN

(a) Natural fibers such as wool,

cotton, silk

(b) Resins such as carbon fiber or

fiberglass

(c) Synthetic polymers such as

nylon or polyester

(d) Synthetic rubber such as

neoprene, silicone, latex

v. These materials are found in

(a) Upholstered furniture

(b) Bedding

(c) Insulation

(d) Carpets

(e) Clothing

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(f) Other common building

materials and household items

vi. Significant byproduct of combustion

of polyurethane foam used in many
household furnishings

vii. Released during off-gassing as

object is heated

viii. May be found in vehicle

fires where new insulation materials

(a) Give off high amounts of gas

(b) Cause fires to last longer

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.4 “Health

Effects of HCN” on p. 126 of the manual.

ix. 35 times more toxic than CO

x. Acts as chemical asphyxiant

(a) Different mechanism of action

than CO

(b) Prevents body from using

oxygen at cellular level

xi. Can be inhaled, ingested, or

absorbed into the body

(a) Targets heart, brain

(b) Inhaled HCN enters

bloodstream, prevents blood
cells from using oxygen
properly, killing cells

xii. Effects of HCN

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(a) Depend on concentration,

length, type of exposure

(b) Large amounts, high

concentrations, lengthy
exposures are more likely to
cause severe effects including
permanent heart and brain
damage, death

CAUTION: Wear full PPE and SCBA anytime

you may be exposed to smoke, heat, or toxic
gases.

l. Carbon dioxide (CO2)

i. Product of complete combustion of

organic materials

ii. Not toxic in same manner as CO or

HCN, but displaces oxygen which
creates oxygen deficient
atmosphere

iii. Acts as respiratory stimulant,

increasing respiratory rate

NOTE: Fire gases also contain many other

gases than the three highlighted in this
section. These additional gases have their
own effects and exposure times. The
exposure time is based on the combination of
gases or the lethal effective dose.

m. Irritants in smoke

i. Substances that cause

(a) Breathing discomfort

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(b) Inflammation of eyes,

respiratory tract, skin

ii. Wide range depending on fuels

involved

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iii. More than 20 identified, including

(a) Hydrogen chloride

(b) Formaldehyde

(c) Acrolein

n. Smoke contains significant amounts of

unburned fuels in form of solid and
liquid particulates and gases

i. Smoke must be treated with same

respect as any other flammable
gas, because it may burn or
explode

ii. Particulates can interfere with

vision, breathing

WARNING: Smoke is fuel and is potentially

flammable. Smoke can be oxygen deficient
and contain chemicals, which may be acutely
toxic, and/or carcinogens which may cause
cancer.

Review Question: List the various products

of combustion that may be found in a fire.
See pp. 122-126 of the manual for answers.

F. Pressure Differences

1. Pressure

a. Force per unit of area applied

perpendicular to a surface

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b. Example — Atmospheric pressure (1

atmosphere [app. 101kPA]) at standard
temperature (68° F [20° C]) indicates
amount of pressure the atmosphere
applies to the surface of the earth

2. At standard temperature and atmospheric

pressure, gases

a. Remain calm

b. Move very little

3. Differences in pressure create movement

in gases

a. Always move from areas of higher

pressure to areas of lower pressure

b. Even small differences in pressure,

such as the 0.1kPa or less differences
created in most compartment fires,
create this movement

4. Heat from fire increases pressure of

surrounding gases

a. Increased pressure will seek to expand,

equalize with areas of lower pressure

b. Heated gases

i. Rise, remain aloft (buoyant)

ii. Generally travel up and out

c. Cooler, fresh air generally travels

inward toward fire

d. Exchange of air creates convective

flow

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e. As pressure differences between high

and low pressure areas increases, the
speed with which gases will move from
high to low also increases

5. Critical for firefighters to understand how

small changes to gas pressure within a
structure can dramatically affect fire
behavior

Review Question: How does fire influence

the pressure of the surrounding gases?
See pp. 126-127 of the manual for answers.

Discussion Question: Why is it important

for firefighters to understand the principles of
fire science?

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Section II: Thermal Energy

II. THERMAL ENERGY

pp. 127-135 Objective 2 — Describe how thermal
energy impacts fire behavior.
A. Thermal Energy

1. Working knowledge of fire dynamics

requires understanding of

a. Temperature

b. Energy

c. Power or heat release rate

2. Terms often used interchangeably

because differences between them are
not always understood

B. Difference between Heat Release Rate

and Temperature

1. Heat

a. Thermal kinetic energy needed to

release potential chemical energy in
fuel

b. As heat vibrates molecules in fuel, the

fuel begins physical change from solid
or liquid to gas

c. Fuel emits flammable vapors which can

ignite, release thermal energy

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d. New source of thermal energy begins

to heat uninvolved fuels

i. Converting their energy

ii. Spreading the fire

2. Temperature

a. Measurement of heat

b. Specifically, the measurement of

average kinetic energy in particles of a
sample of matter

c. Example — Block of wood at room

temperature

i. Stable molecules

ii. No danger of ignition

iii. When thermal energy transfers to

wood

(a) Wood is heated

(b) Temperature of wood rises

because molecules begin to
vibrate and move more freely,
rapidly

d. Can be measured using several

different scales

i. Celsius — International System of

Units (SI) (metric system)

ii. Fahrenheit — Customary system

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iii. Freezing, boiling points of water

provide simple way to compare two
scales

e. Temperature is not an accurate

predictor or measurement of heat
transfer

i. Example — One candle burns at

same temperature as ten candles

(a) Heat release rate (kW) of ten

candles is ten times greater
than one candle at same
temperature

(b) Increased heat release rate

results in increased heat
transfer to an object

ii. Heat flux

(a) Energy flow to unit area

(b) Measured in kilowatts per

square meter

iii. Interior fire environment

(a) Temperature in structure may

be within tolerances for PPE

(b) Heat flux to PPE from fire

indicates real measurement of
how long PPE will protect

(c) Temperature tells you it is safe

to go in, but heat transfer rate -
not temperature - tells you how
long you can stay in

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Review Question: What is the difference

between heat and temperature?
See pp. 127-128 of the manual for answers.

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C. Sources of Thermal Energy

1. Chemical, electrical, and mechanical

energy

a. Common sources of heat that result in

ignition of fuel

b. Can all transfer heat, cause

temperature of substance to increase

c. Most frequently the ignition sources of

structure fires

2. Chemical energy

a. Most common source of heat in

combustion reactions

b. Self-heating

i. Form of oxidation

ii. Chemical reaction that increases

temperature of material without
addition of external heat

iii. Can lead to spontaneous ignition

which is ignition without addition of
external heat

c. Oxidation normally produces thermal

energy slowly

i. Energy dissipates almost as fast as

it is generated

ii. External heat source such as

sunshine can imitate or accelerate
the process

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d. Factors required for self-heating to

progress to spontaneous ignition

i. Insulation properties of material

immediately surrounding fuel must
be such that heat cannot dissipate
as fast as it is generated

ii. Rate of heat production must be

great enough to raise temperature
of material to autoignition
temperature

iii. Available air supply in, around

heated material must be adequate
to support combustion

e. Rags soaked in linseed oil, rolled into a

ball, thrown into corner have the
potential for spontaneous ignition

i. Natural oxidation of vegetable oil

and cloth will generate heat if some
method of heat transfer such as air
movement around rags does not
dissipate the heat

ii. Cloth could eventually increase in

temperature enough to cause
ignition

f. Rate of most chemical reactions

increases as temperature of reacting
materials increases

i. Oxidation reaction that causes heat

generation accelerates as fuel
generates and absorbs more heat

ii. When generated heat exceeds heat

being lost, material may

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(a) Reach its autoignition

temperature

(b) Ignite spontaneously

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.5

“Spontaneous Heating Materials and
Locations” on p. 129 of the manual.

3. Electrical energy

a. Can generate temperatures high

enough to ignite any combustible
materials near the heated area

b. Electrical heating can occur in several

ways

c. Resistance heating

i. Electric current flowing through

conductor produces heat

ii. Some electrical appliances are

designed to make use of resistance
heating, such as

(a) Incandescent lamps

(b) Ranges

(c) Ovens

(d) Portable heaters

iii. Other electrical equipment is

designed to limit resistance heating
under normal operating conditions

d. Overcurrent or overload

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i. When current flowing through

conductor exceeds its design limits,
conductor may overheat and
present ignition hazard

ii. Unintended resistance heating

e. Arcing

i. In general — High-temperature
luminous electric discharge across a
gap or through a medium such as
charred insulation

ii. May be generated when there is

(a) Gap in conductor such as cut or

frayed wire

(b) High voltage, static electricity,

or lightning

f. Sparking — When electric arc occurs,

luminous (glowing) particles can form
and splatter away from point of arcing

4. Mechanical energy

a. Generated by friction and compression

i. Movement of two surfaces against

each other

(a) Creates heat of friction

(b) Generates sparks

ii. Heat generated when gas is

compressed

(a) Diesel engines use this

principle to ignite fuel vapors
without spark plugs

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(b) Reason that SCBA cylinders feel

warm after they are filled

(c) When compressed gas

expands, gas absorbs heat

(d) Absorption accounts for way

cylinder cools when a CO2
extinguisher is discharged

D. Heat Transfer

1. Transfer of heat from one point or object

to another is part of study of
thermodynamics

2. Heat transfer from initial fuel package

(burning object) to other fuels in and
beyond area of fire origin

a. Affects growth of any fire

b. Part of study of fire dynamics

3. Heat transfers from warmer objects to

cooler objects

a. Because heated materials naturally

return to state of thermal equilibrium
in which all areas of an object are a
uniform temperature

b. Objects at same temperature do not

transfer heat

4. Heat transfer rate

a. Related to

i. Temperature differential of the

bodies

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ii. Thermal conductivity of material

involved

b. The greater temperature differences

between the bodies, the greater the
transfer rate

c. Material with higher thermal

conductivity will transfer heat more
quickly than other materials

5. Heat transfers from one body to another

by three mechanisms

a. Conduction

b. Convection

c. Radiation

6. Conduction

a. Transfer of heat through and between

solids

b. Occurs when material is heated as

result of direct contact with a heat
source

c. Results from increased molecular

motion and collisions between
substance's molecules, resulting in
transfer of energy throughout the
substance

d. The more closely packed the molecules

of a substance are, the more readily it
will conduct heat

e. Example — If fire heats metal pipe on

side of a wall, heat conducted through
pipe can ignite wood framing

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components in the wall or nearby

combustibles on other side of wall

f. Dependent upon three factors

i. Area being heated

ii. Temperature difference between

heat source and material being
heated

iii. Thermal conductivity of heated

material

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.6,

"Thermal Conductivity of Common
Substances" on p. 132 of the manual.

g. Air is the least able to conduct heat of

most substances — It is a good
insulator

h. Insulating materials

i. Slow conduction of heat from one

solid to another

ii. Good insulators are materials that

do not conduct heat well because
their physical makeup disrupts the
point-to-point transfer of heat or
thermal energy

iii. Best commercial insulators used in

building construction are made of
fine particles or fibers with void
spaces between them filled with gas
such as air

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iv. Gases do not conduct heat well

because their molecules are
relatively far apart

7. Convection

a. Transfer of thermal energy by

circulation or movement of fluid (liquid
or gas)

b. In the fire environment, usually

involves transfer of heat through
movement of hot smoke and fire gases

c. Heat flows from hot fire gases to cooler

structural surfaces, building contents,
air

d. May occur in any direction

i. Vertical movement is due to

buoyancy of smoke and fire gases

ii. Lateral movement is usually result

of pressure differences (movement
from high to low pressure)

e. Dependent upon three factors

i. Area being heated

ii. Temperature difference between

hot fluid or gas and material being
heated

iii. Turbulence and velocity of moving

gases

8. Radiation

a. Transmission of energy as
electromagnetic waves such as light

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waves, radio waves, or X-rays, without

an intervening medium

b. Radiant heat can

i. Become the dominant mode of heat

transfer as fire grows

ii. Have significant effect on ignition of

objects located some distance from
fire

c. Radiant heat transfer is significant

factor in fire development, spread in
compartments

d. Factors that influence radiant heat

transfer include

i. Nature of exposed surfaces

(a) Dark-colored materials emit

and absorb heat more
effectively than light-colored
materials

(b) Smooth or highly-polished

surfaces reflect more radiant
heat than rough surfaces

ii. Distance between heat source and

exposed surfaces — Increasing
distance reduces effect of radiant
heat

iii. Temperature of heat source

(a) Radiant heat transfer primarily

depends on temperature of
heat source

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(b) As temperature and heat

release rate of heat source
increases, radiant energy also
increases

e. As an electromagnetic wave, radiated

heat energy travels in a straight line at
speed of light

f. Best example

i. Heat of sun

ii. Energy travels at speed of light

from sun through space (a vacuum)
until it strikes and warms surface of
the earth

g. Common cause of exposure fires

i. As fire grows, it radiates more

energy which other objects absorb
as heat

ii. Large fires — Possible for radiated

heat to ignite buildings or other fuel
packages a considerable distance
away

h. Radiated heat travels through

vacuums, air spaces that would
normally disrupt conduction or
convection

i. Materials that reflect, absorb, or

scatter radiated energy will disrupt
heat transmission

ii. Flames have high temperature

resulting in significant radiant
energy emission — Hot smoke or

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flames in upper layer can also

radiate significant heat

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “The Importance of Understanding
Temperature and Heat Transfer Rate” on p.
134 of the manual.
Emphasize the danger of using only
temperature to determine whether a
compartment is safe to enter.

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.7

“Response to Temperature of an Object Being
Heated” on p. 135 of the manual.

9. Interaction among the methods of heat

transfer

a. Methods rarely occur individually

during a fire — The fire

i. Radiates heat

ii. Causes convection of heat through

hot fuel gases

iii. Conducts heat through burning

materials or metals

b. Convected heat, radiated heat that

reaches walls, ceilings

i. Heats those surfaces which begins

to conduct heat to whatever extent
possible based upon material's
thermal conductivity

ii. One side of object is warm and

slowly warms through the object

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until opposite side is of equal

temperature

iii. Heated surface then radiates heat

which could lead to combustion,
convection, and so on — Cycle
continues until interrupted

c. Example — How PPE absorbs heat

during interior operations

i. Convected, radiated heat will heat

PPE exterior

ii. The longer you are in heated

environment, the more heat the
surface will absorb

iii. PPE has low thermal conductivity,

so will conduct heat slowly

iv. Eventually interior surface of PPE

heats to same level as exterior

v. Wherever gear is compressed

against skin or underclothing, heat
will be conducted faster

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vi. Where PPE is not in contact, it will

radiate heat to insulating air layer
between your body and surface of
the gear

(a) Transferred heat can cause

heat stress

(b) Will eventually cause PPE to fail

vii. Heat absorption and build-up in PPE

is direct result of all of the heat
transfer methods acting at the
same time

Review Question: Contrast the three

methods of heat transfer.
See pp. 134-134 of the manual for answers.

Discussion Question: Provide an example

of each of the methods of heat transfer:
conduction, convection, and radiation.

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Section III: Fuel

III. FUEL
pp. 135-140 Objective 3 — Explain the function of
fuel within the combustion process.
A. Fuel

1. Oxidized or burned material or substance

in the combustion process

2. May be found in any of three physical

states of matter: gas, liquid, or solid

3. Reducing agent — Fuel in a combustion

reaction

4. May be inorganic or organic

a. Inorganic

i. Such as hydrogen, magnesium

ii. Do not contain carbon

b. Most common fuels are organic

i. Contain carbon and other elements

ii. Can be divided into hydrocarbon-

based fuels such as

(a) Gasoline

(b) Fuel oil

(c) Plastics

(d) Cellulose-based materials

(wood, paper)

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5. Chemical content influences its

a. Heat of combustion

b. Heat release rate

6. Heat of combustion

a. Total amount of thermal energy

released when a specific amount of
that fuel burns

b. Different materials release more or

less heat than others based on their
chemical makeup

c. Many plastics, flammable liquids,

flammable gases contain more
potential thermal energy than wood

d. Synthetic materials

i. Common in modern construction,

furnishings

ii. Synthesized from petroleum

products

iii. Have higher heats of combustion

iv. May generate higher heat release

rates than wood on a per-mass
basis

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.8

“Representative Peak Heat Release Rates
(HRR) During Unconfined Burning” on p. 136
of the manual.

7. Power

a. Rate at which energy transfers

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b. Another way to describe it — Rate at

which energy converts from one form
to another

c. Standard international (SI) unit for

power is the watt (W) — One watt is 1
joule per second (J/s)

d. In terms of fire behavior — Power is the

heat release rate during combustion

i. When fuel is heated

(a) Work is being performed

(b) Energy is being transferred

ii. Speed with which this work occurs,

heat release rate, is amount of
generated power

e. Heat release rate

i. Energy released per unit of time as

a fuel burns

ii. Usually expressed in kilowatts (kW)

or megawatts (MW)

iii. Depends on type, quantity,

orientation of the fuel

iv. Directly relates to oxygen

consumption

(a) Combustion process requires

continuous supply of oxygen

(b) Typically, the more oxygen is

available, the higher the heat
release rate

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(c) Heat release rate decreases if

all available oxygen is
consumed and not replenished

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Prefixes for Units of Measure: Kilo and
Mega” on p. 137 of the manual.

B. Gases

1. Fuels must be in gaseous state for flaming

combustion to occur

2. Thermal energy is required to change

solids, liquids to gaseous state

3. Vapor — Common term used to describe

gaseous state of fuel that would normally
exist as liquid or solid at standard
temperature, pressure

4. Gaseous fuels such as methane (natural

gas), hydrogen, acetylene

a. Can be most dangerous of all fuel

types

b. Already in physical state required for

ignition

5. When wood burns inefficiently,

combustion products may contain
methane, acetylene, other fuel gases

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.9

"Characteristics of Common Flammable
Gases" on p. 137 of the manual.

6. Vapor density

a. Density of gases in relation to air

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b. Air — Vapor density of 1

c. Gases with vapor density of less than

one, such as methane, will rise

d. Gases with vapor density greater than

1, such as propane, will sink

e. Based upon assumption that density is

measured at standard temperature,
pressure

f. Heated gases — Expand, become less

dense

g. When cooled — Contract, become

more dense

C. Liquids

1. Have mass, volume

2. No definite shape except for flat surface or

shape of their container

3. Unlike gases, will not expand to fill all of

their container

4. When released on the ground will

a. Flow downhill

b. Pool in low areas

5. Liquid density is compared to water —

Specific gravity

a. Ratio of mass of a given volume of

liquid compared to mass of equal
volume of water at same temperature

b. Water — Specific gravity of 1

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c. Liquids with specific gravity less than 1

i. Such as gasoline, other flammable

liquids

ii. Lighter than water, will float on the

surface

d. Liquids with specific gravity greater

than 1

i. Such as corn syrup

ii. Heavier than water, will sink

6. Liquids must vaporize to burn

a. Vaporization — Transformation of liquid

to vapor or gaseous state

b. Liquids retain state of matter partly

due to standard atmospheric pressure

c. For vaporization to occur, escaping

vapors must be at greater pressure
than atmospheric pressure

d. Vapor pressure

i. Pressure that vapors escaping from

a liquid exerts

ii. Indicates how easily substance will

evaporate

iii. Flammable liquids with high vapor

pressure present a special hazard to
firefighters

e. Rate of vaporization

i. Determined by

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(a) Vapor pressure of substance

(b) Amount of thermal energy

applied to it

ii. Example

(a) Puddle of water eventually

evaporates because of slow
heat transfer from the sun

(b) When same amount of water is

heated on the stove, it
vaporizes more quickly
because more thermal energy
is applied

f. Volatility or ease with which liquid

gives off vapor influences how easily it
can ignite

g. Size of liquid's surface area influences

extent to which the liquid will give off
vapor

h. In many open containers, surface area

of liquid exposed to atmosphere is
limited

7. Flash point

a. Minimum temperature at which liquid

gives off sufficient vapors to ignite, but
not sustain combustion, in the
presence of a piloted ignition source

b. Fire point — Temperature at which

piloted ignition of sufficient vapors will
begin sustained combustion reaction

c. Commonly used to indicate

flammability hazard of liquid fuels

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d. Liquid fuels that vaporize sufficiently to

burn at temperatures under 100°F (38°
C) present significant flammability
hazard

8. Firefighters must know how liquid fuels

react with water

a. Solubility

i. Describes extent to which a

substance (liquid) will mix with
water

ii. May be expressed

(a) In qualitative terms (slightly or

completely)

(b) As a percentage (20 percent

soluble)

iii. Materials that are miscible in water

will mix in any proportion

iv. Liquids such as hydrocarbon fuels

(gasoline, diesel, fuel oil) are lighter
than water and do not mix with it

v. Polar solvents

(a) Flammable liquids such as

alcohols (methanol, ethanol)

(b) Mix readily with water

b. Liquids that are less dense (lighter)

than water

i. More difficult to extinguish using

water as sole extinguishing agent

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ii. Fuel is less dense and will not mix

with water

(a) Adding water may disperse

burning liquid instead of
extinguishing it

(b) Which could potentially spread

fire to other areas

iii. Firefighters should use appropriate

foam or chemical agent to
extinguish fuels that are not water-
soluble

c. Water-soluble liquids

i. Will mix with some water-based

extinguishing agents, such as many
types of fire fighting foam

ii. Extinguishing agent will mix with

burning liquid and become much
less effective at extinguishing fire

iii. To avoid mixture — Use alcohol-

resistant fire fighting foams
specifically designed for polar
solvents

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.10

"Characteristics of Common Flammable and
Combustible Liquids" on p. 140 of the
manual.

D. Solids

1. Have definite shape, size

2. Different solids react differently when

exposed to heat

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a. Some such as wax and metals will

change state, melt

b. Others such as wood and plastics will

not

3. When heated — Pyrolize (off-gas) and

release fuel gases, vapors

a. Begin to decompose and emit

combustible vapors

b. If there is enough fuel and heat,

pyrolysis generates sufficient
flammable vapors to ignite in presence
of sufficient oxygen or other oxidizer

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.11

“Pyrolysis of Wood and Polyurethane Foam”
on p. 141 of the manual.

4. Pyrolysis of wood

a. When wood first heats — Begins to

pyrolize, decompose into its volatile
components and carbon

b. Begins at temperatures below 400°F

(204° C) — Lower than temperature
required for ignition of released vapors

c. Home construction

i. Still uses wood based products for

framing, subfloor, roof decking

ii. Insulation, exterior and interior

finish materials, and contents are
likely to be or contain synthetic
materials like polyvinyl chloride,

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polyethylene, polystyrene,
polypropylene, polyurethane

iii. Flexible polyurethan foam is one of

most common materials in
upholstered furniture

5. Definite shape, size which significantly

affects how easily they ignite

a. Surface-to-mass ratio

i. Primary consideration

ii. Surface area of fuel in proportion to

its mass

b. Example — Large tree

i. To produce lumber, tree must be

felled, cut into a log

(a) Surface area of log is low

compared to its mass

(b) Low surface-to-mass ratio

ii. Log cut into planks

(a) Reduces mass of individual

planks compared to the log

(b) Surface area increases,

increasing surface-to-mass
ratio

iii. Chips, sawdust produced as planks

are cut into boards have higher
surface-to-mass ratio

iv. If boards are milled or sanded, the

shavings or sawdust have highest
surface-to-mass ratio

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c. As surface-to-mass ratio increases, fuel

particles become more finely divided

i. Ability to ignite increases

tremendously

ii. As surface area increases

(a) More of the material is exposed

to heat

(b) Generates combustible

pyrolysis products more quickly

6. Proximity, orientation relative to heat

source affects the way the fuel burns

a. Example — Ignite the corner of sheet

of 1/8-inch (3 mm) plywood paneling

i. Lying horizontally (flat) — Fire will

consume fuel at relatively slow rate

ii. Vertical position (standing on edge)

(a) Burns more rapidly

(b) Heated vapors rise over more

surface area and transfer more
heat to the paneling

Review Question: How are gaseous, liquid,

and solid fuels different?
See pp. 137-140 of the manual for answers.

Discussion Question: Why is it important

for firefighters to understand the properties
of fuels?

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Section IV: Oxygen

IV. OXYGEN
pp. 140-144 Objective 4 — Explain the function of
oxygen within the combustion process.
A. Oxygen

1. Primary oxidizing agent in most fires

2. Air normally consists of about 21 percent

oxygen

3. Energy release in fire is directly

proportional the amount of oxygen
available for combustion

a. When fire ignites in open area where

air is plentiful, fire will release energy
based on given surface area

b. When fire ignites within compartment

with limited air supply — Fire can only
react with oxygen from compartment's
air and additional oxygen supplied
through openings

c. Most compartment fires — Energy

released is proportional to limited
oxygen available, not amount of fuel
available

4. Oxygen concentrations

a. At normal ambient temperatures (68°F

[20°C]), materials can ignite and burn
at oxygen concentrations as low as 15
percent

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b. Limited concentration — Flaming

combustion will diminish, causing
combustion to continue in nonflaming
mode

c. Nonflaming or smoldering combustion

can continue at extremely low oxygen
concentrations even when surrounding
environment's temperature is relatively
low

d. At high ambient temperatures, flaming

combustion may continue at lower
oxygen concentrations

Safety Alert: Refer students to the box,

“Effects of Oxygen Concentration” on p. 143
of the manual.

e. Oxygen-enriched atmospheres

i. When oxygen concentration is

higher than normal, materials
exhibit different burning
characteristics

ii. Materials that burn at normal

oxygen levels

(a) Burn more intensely

(b) May ignite more readily

(c) Some petroleum-based

materials autoignite

iii. Many materials that do not burn at

normal oxygen levels will burn —
One example is Nomex® fire-
resistant fabric

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(a) Used in many types of

protective clothing

(b) When placed in oxygen-

enriched atmosphere of
approximately 31 percent
oxygen, it ignites and burns
vigorously

iv. Fires are more difficult to extinguish

and present potential safety hazard

v. Firefighters may find these

conditions in

(a) Hospitals, healthcare facilities

(b) Some industrial occupancies

(c) Private homes where occupants

use breathing equipment
containing pure oxygen

5. For combustion to occur after fuel

converts to gaseous state, fuel must be
mixed with air (oxidizer) in the proper
ratio

6. Flammable (explosive) range

a. Range of concentrations of fuel vapor

and air

b. Reported using percent by volume of

gas or vapor in the air for the lower
explosive (flammable) limit (LEL) and
upper explosive (flammable) limit
(UEL)

c. LEL

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i. Minimum concentration of fuel

vapor and air that supports
combustion

ii. Concentrations below LEL — Too

lean to burn

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d. UEL

i. Concentration above which

combustion cannot take place

ii. Concentrations above UEL — Too

rich to burn

e. Flammable range

i. Within, there is an ideal

concentration at which there is
exactly correct amount of fuel,
oxygen required for combustion

ii. Chemical handbooks such as

National Fire Protection Association
(NFPA) Fire Protection Guide to
Hazardous Materials

(a) Present flammable limits for

combustible gases

(b) Normally reports limits at

standard temperature,
atmosphere pressures

iii. Variations in temperature, pressure

can cause flammable range to vary
considerably

Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.12

“Flammable Ranges of Common Flammable
Gases and Liquids (Vapor)” on p. 144 of the
manual.

Review Question: How does oxygen

concentration relate to flammability?
See pp. 140-143 of the manual for answers.

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Section V: Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction

V. SELF-SUSTAINED CHEMICAL REACTION

p. 144 Objective 5 — Explain the self-
sustained chemical reaction involved in
flaming combustion.
A. Self-Sustained Chemical Reaction

1. Self-sustained chemical reaction involved

in flaming combustion is complex

2. Free radicals

a. Formed when the molecules of fuel gas

and oxygen (O2) break apart as flaming
combustion occurs

b. Combine with oxygen or elements

released from the fuel gas to form new
substances (molecules) and more free
radicals

c. Process also increases speed of

oxidation reaction

3. Example — Combustion of simple fuel

such as methane and oxygen

a. Complete oxidation of methane

releases elements needed to

i. Create carbon dioxide and water

ii. Release energy in the form of heat

and light

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b. Elements released when methane

molecules break down (carbon and
hydrogen) recombine with oxygen in
the air to form CO2 and H2O

c. At various points in combustion of

methane, the process results in
production of carbon monoxide and
formaldehyde, which are both
flammable and toxic

4. When more chemically complex fuels

burn, their combustion creates different
types of free radicals and intermediate
combustion products, many of which are
flammable and toxic

5. Flaming combustion

a. One example of a chemical chain

reaction

b. Sufficient heat causes fuel, oxygen to

i. Form free radicals

ii. Initiate self-sustained chemical

reaction

c. Fire continues to burn until it either

i. Consumes fuel or oxygen

ii. Extinguishing agent, applied in

sufficient quantity, interferes with
ongoing reaction

d. Chemical flame inhibition occurs when

extinguishing agent, such as dry
chemical or Halon-replacement agent

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i. Interferes with chemical reaction

ii. Forms stable product

iii. Terminates combustion reaction

Review Question: After flaming combustion

occurs, what is necessary to extinguish the
fire?
See pp. 144 of the manual for answers.

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Section VI: Compartment Fire Development

VI. COMPARTMENT FIRE

DEVELOPMENT
pp. 144-161 Objective 6 — Differentiate among the
stages of fire development.
A. Compartment Fire Development

1. Compartment surrounding burning fuel

has significant impact on

a. Available ventilation

b. Access to additional fuel

c. Heat losses or gains

2. Development depends upon whether fire

is

a. Fuel-limited

b. Ventilation-limited

3. Fuel-limited fires

a. When sufficient oxygen is available for

flaming combustion

b. Fuel's characteristics such as heat

release rate and configuration control
fire development

c. As long as fire can reach more

ignitable fuel, it will continue to burn

4. Ventilation-limited fires

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a. Have access to all of the fuel needed to

maintain combustion

b. Not enough oxygen to continue to burn

or spread to all available fuels

5. All compartment fires begin in incipient

stage as fuel-limited

a. Once fire reaches growth stage, it will

either

i. Remain fuel-limited if there is

enough oxygen to support growth

ii. Consume all available oxygen and

become ventilation-limited

b. Fuel-limited fires usually progress

through stages of fire development in
order

6. Ventilation-limited fires tend to enter early

state of decay at end of growth stage
because there is not enough oxygen for
fire to become fully developed

B. Stages of Fire Development

1. Fires develop through four stages

a. Incipient

b. Growth

c. Fully developed

d. Decay

2. Stages can occur with any fire

3. Three key factors that control how fire

develops

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a. Fuel properties

b. Ventilation available

c. Heat conservation

4. Depending on those factors, fire

development stages

a. Exhibit different characteristics

b. May occur in different sequence

5. Incipient stage

a. Starts with ignition when three

elements of fire triangle come together
and combustion process begins

b. Fire is small and confined to small

portion of fuel first ignited

6. Growth stage

a. More of initial fuel package becomes

involved

b. Production of heat, smoke increases

c. If there are other fuels close to initial

fuel package

i. Radiant heat from fire may begin to

pyrolize nearby fuels

ii. Which could spread fire to new fuel

packages

d. Depending on available oxygen, fire

may either

i. Continue to grow to become fully

developed

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ii. Enter early state of decay

7. Fully developed stage

a. Occurs when all combustible materials

in compartment are burning at their
peak heat release rate based on
available oxygen

b. Fire is consuming maximum amount of

oxygen it can

c. If fire is limited to one fuel package,

occurs when

i. Entire fuel package is on fire

ii. Fire has reached peak heat release

rate

8. Decay stage

a. Fire consumes available fuel or oxygen

b. Heat release rate declines

c. Fuel-limited fires may self-extinguish or

reduce to smoldering fires

d. Ventilation-limited fires may self-

extinguish

e. If oxygen becomes available before

complete extinguishment, fires are
likely to

i. Reenter growth stage

ii. Rapidly become fully developed

9. Open burning or free burn condition

a. Provides most basic fire growth curve

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b. Representative of fuel-limited fire such

as

i. Campfire

ii. Pile of wood pallets

iii. Sofa in large, open, empty

warehouse

c. Fire is considered fuel controlled

because there is sufficient oxygen
available to burn fuel until it can no
longer sustain combustion

d. As heat and fire gases are produced,

they

i. Move away from fuel

ii. Disperse throughout environment

e. Only limit or control on heat release

rate is the fuel itself

C. Incipient Stage

1. Where a fire begins

2. Once ignition occurs and combustion

process begins, development depends
largely upon characteristics and
configuration of fuel involved (fuel-limited
fire)

3. Air in compartment provides adequate

oxygen to continue fire development

4. When compartment fire enters incipient

stage

a. Radiant heat warms adjacent fuel and

continues process of pyrolysis

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b. Thin plume of hot gases, flame

i. Rises from fire

ii. Mixes with cooler air in

compartment

c. Ceiling jet — Hot gases in plume rise

until they encounter ceiling and spread
horizontally

d. Hot gases in contact with surfaces of

compartment and its contents transfer
heat to other materials

5. Fire has not yet significantly influenced

environment within compartment

6. Temperature

a. Increasing

b. Slightly above ambient in areas that

fire, plum, ceiling jet directly affect

7. Occupants can safely escape from

compartment

8. Portable extinguisher or small hoseline

can safely extinguish fire

9. Transition from incipient to growth stage

can occur quickly (in some cases in
seconds) depending on type and
configuration of fuel

[Link] height

a. Visual indicator that fire is leaving

incipient stage

b. When flames reach 2.5 feet (750 mm)

high

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i. Radiated heat begins to transfer

more heat than convection

ii. Fire will enter growth stage

CAUTION: Transition from the incipient to

growth stages can occur in a matter of
seconds depending upon the type and
configuration of fuel.

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Incipient Stage”
on p. 148 of the manual.

D. Growth Stage

1. Variety of fire behaviors can occur

depending on number of ventilation
sources

a. Fire may consume all available oxygen

and enter ventilation-limited state of
decay

b. Ventilation may provide enough

oxygen for rapid fire development
and/or growth to full development

2. Rapid fire development usually occurs

during growth stage

3. Understanding fire dynamics is largely an

understanding of everything that can
happen during growth stage

NOTE: Keep in mind that if the fire enters the

ventilation-limited decay, it does not

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necessarily indicate that the fire is in its final

stage of development.

4. Fire begins to influence more of the

compartment's environment

5. Fire has grown large enough for

compartment configuration and amount of
ventilation to influence it

6. First effect is amount of air entrained into

fire

a. Unconfined fires draw air from all sides

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b. Entrainment (drawing in) of air

i. Cools plume of hot gases

ii. Reduces flame length, vertical

extension

c. In a compartment fire, the location of

fuel package in relation to
compartment walls affects amount of

i. Air entrained

ii. Cooling that takes place

d. Positioning of fuel packages

i. Middle of room — Fire can entrain

air from all sides

ii. Near walls — Fire can only entrain

air from three sides

iii. In corners — Fire can only entrain

air from two sides

e. Combustion zone

i. Area where sufficient air is available

to feed the fire

ii. When fuel package is not in middle

of the room

(a) Combustion zone expands

vertically

(b) Higher plume results

(c) Higher plume increases

temperatures in developing hot
gas layer at ceiling level and

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increases speed of fire

development

(d) Heated surfaces around fire

radiate back toward burning
fuel which increases speed of
fire development

7. Fire is said to be in growth stage until

fire's heat release rate has reached its
peak either because of lack of fuel or
oxygen

8. When fire cannot grow without

introduction of new fuel source or new
oxygen source — Has become fully
developed

9. Common routes to full development

a. Fires that consume all available oxygen

and transition to state of ventilation-
limited decay

b. Fires that have enough oxygen and

move into the growth phase, possibly
into rapid fire development

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Growth Stage
— Transition from Incipient Stage” on p. 149
of the manual.

[Link] layering

a. Once ceiling jet reaches walls of fire

compartment, hot gas layer begins to
develop

b. Tendency of gases to form into layers

according to

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i. Temperature

ii. Gas density

iii. Pressure

c. If there is no mechanical mixing from a

fan or hose stream

i. Hottest gases form highest layer

ii. Cooler gases form lower layers

d. Radiation from hot gas layer acts to

heat interior surfaces of compartment,
its contents

e. Changes in ventilation, flow path can

significantly alter thermal layering

f. Flow path — Space between air intake

and exhaust outlet

g. Multiple openings (intakes, exhausts)

create multiple flow paths

h. Products of combustion from fire affect

environment within compartment

i. As fire grows, hot gas layer within

fire compartment gains mass,
energy

ii. As mass, energy of hot gas layer

increases, so does pressure

iii. Higher pressure causes hot gas

layer to spread downward and
laterally through openings

iv. If no openings for lateral movement

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(a) Higher pressure gases have no

lateral path to follow to an area
of lower pressure

(b) Hot gases fill compartment

starting at celling and filling
down

i. Isolated or intermittent flames may

move through hot gas layer

i. Combustion of these gases

indicates that

(a) Portions of hot gas layer are

within flammable range

(b) Sufficient heat to cause ignition

ii. As hot gases circulate to outer

edges of the plume or lower edges
of hot gas layer, they find sufficient
oxygen to ignite

iii. Phenomenon frequently occurs

before substantial involvement of
flammable products of combustion
in hot gas layer

iv. Appearance of isolated flames is

sometimes immediate indicator of
flashover

j. Neutral plane

i. Interface between hot gas layer and

cooler layer of air

ii. Net pressure is zero, or neutral,

where layers meet

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iii. Exists at openings where hot gases

exit and cooler air enters
compartment

(a) Hot gases at higher than

ambient pressure exit through
top of opening above neutral
plane

(b) Lower pressure air from outside

compartment entrains into
opening below neutral plane

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Growth Stage
— Thermal Layering” on p. 151 of the
manual.

[Link] to ventilation-limited decay

a. Most residential fires that develop

beyond incipient stage become
ventilation-limited

b. Even when doors, windows are open,

insufficient air entrainment may
prohibit fire from developing based on
available fuel

c. When windows are intact and doors are

closed

i. Fire may move into ventilation-

limited state of decay more quickly

ii. Reduces heat release rate

iii. Fuel may continue to pyrolize,

creating fuel-rich smoke

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d. As interface height of hot gas layer

descends toward the floor

i. Greater volume of smoke begins to

interrupt entrainment of fresh air,
oxygen to seat of fire and into the
plume

ii. Interruption causes fire within

compartment to burn less efficiently

iii. As efficiency of combustion

decreases (incomplete combustion)

(a) Heat release rate decreases

(b) Amount of unburned fuel within

hot gas layer increases

e. Fire is now in state of ventilation-

limited decay because

i. Not enough oxygen to maintain

combustion

ii. Heat release rate decreased to

point that fuel gases will not ignite

f. Although heat release rate decreases

when fire is ventilation-limited,
temperature may remain high

g. Because there is not enough oxygen to

maintain combustion, fire has lower
heat release rate — Does not mean
environment is tenable

h. Compartment fills with fuel-rich gases

that only need more oxygen to ignite
because of higher temperatures in
compartment

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i. Pyrolysis can continue even if

temperatures decrease

i. Large volume of flammable

products of combustion can
accumulate within compartment

ii. Gases are fuel that can ignite, given

new source of oxygen

j. If no other source of oxygen exists

i. Compartment will fill with

(a) Black smoke

(b) Slowly cooling fuel gases

ii. Compartment will show no visible

flames

iii. Characteristics of fuel, fuel load in

today's typical fires will cause fires
to quickly become ventilation-
limited

k. Ventilation-limited fire needs new

supply of oxygen to grow

i. Ventilation introduces outside air to

fire as new source of oxygen

ii. If windows or doors fail, sudden

introduction of fresh air creates
rapid increase in

(a) Heat release rate

(b) Growth of fire

iii. Rapid increase can also occur when

firefighters open door or window to
enter compartment for

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extinguishment — Creates new flow

path

WARNING: Even coordinated tactical

ventilation increases the combustion rate in
ventilation-limited fires.

l. Pressure outside compartment is lower

than pressure inside

i. Any ventilation to outside provides

flow path

(a) Opening a door

(b) Breaking a window

ii. Hot gases can move from high

pressure area inside to low pressure
area outside

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Growth Stage
— Transition to Ventilation-Limited Decay” on
p. 153 of the manual.

[Link] fire development

a. Rapid transition from growth stage or

early decay stage to ventilation-
limited, fully developed stage

b. Events

i. Flashover

ii. Backdraft

NOTE: Smoke explosions are also incidents

of rapid fire development, but they involve
more than just one compartment of a

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structure. Smoke explosions will be described

later in this chapter.

c. Responsible for numerous firefighter

deaths, injuries

d. To protect yourself and crew, must be

able to

i. Recognize indicators of rapid fire

development

ii. Know conditions created by each of

these situations

iii. Determine best action to take

before they occur

[Link]

a. Rapid transition from growth stage to

fully developed

b. Combustible materials and fuel gases

in compartment ignite almost
simultaneously — Result is full-room
fire involvement

c. Typically occurs during growth stage,

but may occur during fully developed
stage as result of change in ventilation

d. Room environment

i. Changes from two-layer condition

(hot on top, cooler on bottom) to
single, well mixed hot gas layer
from floor to ceiling

ii. Untenable, even for fully protected

firefighters

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iii. Gas temperatures reach 1,100°F

(593° C) or higher

e. Rollover

i. Significant indicator of flashover

ii. Unburned fire gases that have

accumulated on top of
compartment ignite and flames
propagate through hot gas layer or
across ceiling

iii. May occur during growth stage as

hot layer forms at ceiling of
compartment

iv. Flames may appear in the layer

when combustible gases reach
ignition temperature

v. Flames add to total heat in

compartment — This condition is
not flashover

vi. Generally precedes flashover, but

may not always result in flashover

vii. Contributes to flashover conditions

viii. Burning gases at upper

levels of room generate tremendous
amounts of radiant heat which
transfers to other fuels

ix. New fuels begin pyrolysis and

release additional gases needed for
flashover

f. Transition between preflashover fire

conditions (growth stage/ventilation-

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limited decay) to postflashover (fully

developed stage) can occur rapidly

i. Radiation from compartment's

upper layer heats compartment's
contents until they reach ignition
temperature simultaneously

ii. When upper layer ignites, amount

of radiation increases to levels
which rapidly ignite contents of the
room, even if they are remote from
fire

g. Burning gases during flashover

i. Volume can increase from

approximately 1/4 to 1/2 of room's
upper volume to fill room's entire
volume and extend out of any
openings

ii. Push out of compartment openings

(such as door to another room) at
substantial velocity

h. Four common elements of flashover

i. Transition in fire development —

From growth stage to fully
developed stage

ii. Rapidity — Flashover happens

rapidly, often in matter of seconds

iii. Compartment — Must be enclosed

space

iv. Pyrolysis of all exposed fuel

surfaces — Fire gases from all
combustible surfaces in enclosed

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space ignite if sufficient oxygen to

support flaming combustion

i. Two interrelated factors determine

whether fire within compartment will
progress to flashover — Sufficient fuel
and heat release rate and ventilation

i. Must be sufficient fuel and heat

release rate — Example

(a) Ignition of discarded paper in

small metal wastebasket may
not have sufficient heat to
develop flashover conditions in
large room lined with gypsum
drywall

(b) Ignition of sofa with

polyurethane foam cushions
placed in same room will likely
flashover if fire has sufficient
oxygen

ii. Ventilation

(a) Regardless of type, quantity, or

configuration of fuel, heat
release rate depends on
oxygen

(b) Fire must have oxygen to reach

flashover, an amount that
sealed room may not provide

(c) Available air supply limits heat

release

(d) If insufficient natural

ventilation, fire may enter
growth stage but not reach

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heat release rate or gaseous

fuel production to transition
through flashover to fully
involved fire

NOTE: The autoignition temperature of CO,

the most abundant fuel gas created in most
fires, is approximately 1,100°F (595° C).

j. Survival rates for firefighters are

extremely low in flashover

k. Heat flux

i. At floor level, heat flux of

approximately 20kW/m2 is typical of
rollover conditions at start of
flashover

ii. Once flames begin to affect a

surface, heat flux could range from
60 to 200kW/m2

iii. NIST testing has shown that SCBA

face pieces begin to fail after 5
minutes of exposure to a heat flux
of 15kW/m2

l. Be aware of flashover conditions to

protect yourself

i. Building indicators — Interior

configuration, fuel load, thermal
properties, ventilation

ii. Smoke indicators — Rapidly

increasing volume, turbulence,
darkening color, optical density,
lowering of hot gas layer or neutral
plane

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iii. Heat indicators — Rapidly

increasing temperature in
compartment, pyrolysis of fuel
packages located some distance
away from fire, or hot surfaces

iv. Flame indicators — Isolated flames

or rollover in hot gas layers or near
ceiling

m. Levels of neutral plane observed from

exterior of structure are good
indicators of fire behavior within the
structure

i. High neutral plane

(a) May indicate fire is in early

stages of development

(b) High ceilings can hide fire that

has reached later development
stage

(c) Can indicate fire above your

level

ii. Mid-level neutral plane — Could

indicate that compartment has not
yet ventilated or flashover is
approaching

iii. Very low-level neutral plane

(a) May indicate that fire is

reaching backdraft conditions

(b) Could mean that fire is below

you (basement or lower story)

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n. When in ventilation-limited decay

i. Introduction of new oxygen can

trigger flashover quickly

ii. Flashover may occur whenever

sufficient oxygen, ventilation are
available for fire growth

o. In uncontrolled situation

i. May be difficult to identify what

stage fire is in

ii. Firefighters should assume that

flashover may occur at any time
that conditions are right

p. Flashover may not occur in every

compartment fire

i. Such as in large-area compartments

or compartments with high ceilings

ii. Fire development may take

alternative path in compartment
that becomes ventilation limited
before thermal energy can build in
compartment

iii. Fire may not progress to flashover

but instead progress to become
ventilation-limited, limiting heat
release rate and causing fire to
enter decay stage while continuing
process of pyrolysis and increasing
fuel content of the smoke

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Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Growth Stage
— Flashover” on p. 156 of the manual.

[Link]

a. Ventilation-limited compartment fire

can produce large volume of
flammable smoke, other gases due to
incomplete combustion

b. While heat release rate from

ventilation-limited fire decreases,
elevated temperatures may still be
present

c. Increase in ventilation such as door or

window can result in explosively rapid
combustion of flammable gases, called
backdraft

d. Occurs in space containing high

concentration of heated flammable
gases that lack sufficient oxygen for
flaming combustion

e. When potential backdraft conditions

exist in compartment, introduction of
new source of oxygen will return fire to
fully involved state rapidly (often
explosively)

f. Can occur with creation of horizontal or

vertical opening

g. All that is required — Mixing of hot,

fuel-rich smoke with air

h. Conditions can develop within room,

void space, or entire building

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i. Anytime a compartment or space

contains hot combustion products,
firefighters must consider potential for
backdraft before creating openings

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j. Backdraft indicators

i. Building indicators — Interior

configuration, fuel load, thermal
properties, amount of trapped fuel
gases, ventilation

ii. Smoke indicators — Pulsing smoke

movement around small openings
in the building; smoke-stained
windows

iii. Air flow indicators — High velocity

air intake

iv. Heat indicators — High heat,

crackling or breaking sounds

v. Flame indicators — Little or no

visible flame

k. Effects of backdraft can vary

considerably depending on number of
factors, including

i. Volume of smoke

ii. Degree of confinement

iii. Temperature of environment

iv. Pressure

v. Speed with which fuel, air mix

l. Do not assume that backdraft will

always occur immediately after
opening is made to building or involved
compartment

i. Must watch smoke for indicators of

potential rapid fire development

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including air currents changing

direction, or smoke rushing in or out

ii. Violence of backdraft depends on

extent to which fuel/air mixture is
confined in compartment; the more
confined, the more violent the
backdraft will be

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Growth Stage
— Backdraft” on p. 157 of the manual.

E. Fully Developed Stage

1. Occurs when heat release rate of fire has

reached its peak because of lack of fuel or
oxygen

2. Two main types of fully developed fires

a. Ventilation-limited

b. Fuel-limited

3. Factor limiting the peak heat release rate

is used to identify which type of fully
developed fire exists

4. Often misinterpreted to mean that fire can

no longer grow

a. More accurate description — Fire has

grown as much as it can

b. New sources of fuel introduced after

full development allow fuel-limited fires
to grow

c. New sources of oxygen introduced

after full development allow
ventilation-limited fires to grow

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5. Fuel-limited conditions

a. Available fuel limits peak heat release

rate in fuel-limited, fully developed fire

b. Most effective method of increasing

heat release rate is to provide more
fuel

c. Example — Campfire in a fire ring

i. Fire reaches its peak when all fuel

becomes involved

ii. Fire ring separates burning fuel

from other potential fuel

iii. Adding additional fuel or firewood

would increase energy release of
fire to new peak heat release rate

d. Most compartment fires are

ventilation-limited, even those that

i. Are ventilated

ii. Have untenable interior

environments

e. Adding ventilation points to

compartment fire that is already
limited will add oxygen that will allow
fire to grow

f. Fuel-limited full development usually

occurs when fires are not contained
within compartments such as

i. Wildland fires

ii. Vehicular fires

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iii. Fires burning in collapsed structures

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Fully Developed
— Fuel-Limited Conditions” on p. 158 of the
manual.

6. Ventilation-limited conditions

a. Fully developed, ventilation-limited fire

lacks oxygen available to grow
because the number, size of openings
in the compartment limit entrainment
of air

b. Fire reaches peak when it consumes all

available oxygen from air intake,
typically with incomplete combustion

c. Additional fuel is available and gaseous

fuel is leaving compartment in the
smoke — Fire cannot release any more
energy

d. Allowing additional air into

compartment via additional opening or
enlarging existing opening will

i. Provide more oxygen

ii. Result in higher peak release rate

WARNING: Even coordinated tactical

ventilation increases the combustion rate in
ventilation-limited fires.

e. Present hazardous situation to

firefighters

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f. To reduce risk of unpredictable window

failure, firefighters must transition fire
from ventilation-limited to fuel-limited

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i. With high heat of combustion in

modern furnishings, only
mechanism to transition fire is to
extinguish some of the burning fuel

ii. Not possible to make enough

openings in compartment to
transition from ventilation-limited to
fuel-limited conditions

WARNING: Additional ventilation alone will

not transition a ventilation-limited fire to a
fuel-limited fire.

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Fully Developed
— Ventilation-Limited Conditions” on p. 158
of the manual.

F. Decay Stage

1. When fire runs out of available fuel or

oxygen

a. Either is integral part of fire triangle —

Without all three components, fire will
decay and extinguish

b. Fuel-limited fires

i. Decay stage is usually fire's final

stage

ii. Leads to fire's self-extinguishment

when it runs out of fuel

c. Ventilation-limited fires can self-

extinguish due to lack of oxygen

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d. Both situations can lead to termination

of combustion reaction

e. Introducing new oxygen to ventilation-

limited fire can cause it to reenter
growth stage

2. Fuel-limited decay

a. After fuel-limited fire reaches fully

developed stage fire will decay as fuel
is consumed

b. Fire enters decay stage as

i. Fire consumes available fuel

ii. Heat release rate declines

c. Heat release rate will decrease, but

temperature of surrounding objects
may remain high due to absorbed heat

d. Compartment fires rarely enter state of

fuel-limited decay unless compartment
burns to the ground

e. If compartment fails and fire opens to

the atmosphere, the amount of fuel
available would limit fire's ability to
grow

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Fuel-Limited
Decay” on p. 160 of the manual.

3. Ventilation-limited decay

a. Not necessarily last stage of fire's

development

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b. Fire awaits new supply of oxygen to

return to growth stage — Even if
compartment ventilation has already
occurred

c. To ensure that decay stage of

ventilation-limited fire is the final
stage, a controlled transition from
ventilation-limited to fuel-limited must
take place

i. To provide control, firefighters must

cool hot fire gases

(a) Either before ventilation or

immediately following forcible
entry

(b) This tactic will lessen likelihood

of gases igniting when supplied
fresh oxygen

ii. If compartment has no ventilation

openings, heat release rate will
decrease to the point that heat in
compartment naturally transfers
through compartment to outside

(a) Takes time

(b) Rarely a viable fire fighting

strategy because firefighters
must ensure that no ventilation
occurs until compartment
transfers all heat

Instructor Note: Discuss the Information

Box “Example Compartment: Ventilation-
Limited Decay” on p. 160 of the manual.

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Review Question: How do the four stages of

fire development differ?
See pp. 146-160 of the manual for answers.

Discussion Question: How does

understanding the stages of fire development
help firefighters during structural fire fighting
operations?

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Section VII: Structure Fire Development

VII. STRUCTURE FIRE

DEVELOPMENT
pp. 161-165 Objective 7 — Explain how fire fighting
operations can influence fire behavior
in a structure.
A. Structure Fire Development

1. Structures composed of individual

compartments connected by hallways,
stairways, or openings

2. If fire starts within one compartment, how

it grows or decays is based on model
growth curves presented in previous
sections

3. Fire has potential to

a. Involve more than one compartment

b. Spread beyond contents of

compartment and involve structural
members of the building

4. Fighting fire in structure as opposed to

single compartment is challenging
because firefighters need to

a. Size up building

b. Find the fire

c. Find way to attack the fire

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B. Flow Path

1. Method by which fire receives oxygen to

sustain combustion reaction occurs
through one or many flow paths

2. Composed of two regions

a. Ambient air flow in

b. Hot exhaust air flow out

3. Flow is always unidirectional

a. Due to pressure differences

b. Ambient air

i. Flows toward seat of fire

ii. Reacts with fuel

c. Products of combustion flow

i. Away from fire

ii. Toward low pressure outlet

4. Floor plan and openings within the

structure determine available flow path —
Example

a. Hot gases from fire in bedroom travel

out of doorway, into hallway if door is
open

b. If other doors are open, adjoining

rooms become possible parts of flow
path

i. Pressure in these rooms is lower

than pressure in fire room

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ii. Hot fire gases, smoke will travel

toward those areas unless direction
of flow is altered, for example,
through tactical ventilation or door
control

c. Air in those rooms will entrain toward

fire as structure fills with fuel gases
and fire grows, spreads

5. Flow path's effectiveness to transport

ambient air to seat of fire is based on

a. Size of ventilation opening

b. Length of path traveled

c. Number of obstructions

d. Elevation differences between base of

fire and opening

6. When firefighters advance hoseline or

ventilate windows to make entry, they
establish new flow paths between fire
compartment and exterior vents of
building

a. May allow air and oxygen to reach fire,

increasing heat release rate

b. Hot, fuel-rich fire gases may flow

toward vent opened to building's
exterior because hot gases are at
higher pressure than air outside

c. When hot gases mix with outside

oxygen, they may be hot enough to
autoignite

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7. Since any ventilation creates new flow

paths for oxygen and hot gases,
firefighters must use tactics that control
oxygen available to fire and fire's
generated heat to prevent unwanted fire
spread

8. When hot gases follow flow path from

areas of high to low pressure

a. Convect heat to larger portion of

structure

b. Carry products of combustion to new

areas

9. Gases are a fuel — Fire can propagate

through them, out of the fire room

[Link] should

a. Know location of flow path

b. Coordinate ventilation and interior

activities accordingly

[Link] working in exhaust portion of

flow path will feel temperature increase as
velocity and/or turbulence increases,
causing convective heat transfer

[Link] heat transfer

a. Similar to wind chill, except energy is

transferred from hot fluid (gas) to solid
surface (PPE) rather than from hot
surface (skin) to cooler fluid (air)

b. If ventilation is not well coordinated,

heat transfer — such as that
associated with flashover or backdraft

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— can be unsurvivable even when

wearing PPE

[Link] in the flow path

a. Risky, potentially life threatening

b. Time should be strictly limited

[Link] fire that extends beyond room

of origin may have two compartments
involved, each in different stages of
development

a. Room of origin may be fully developed,

ventilation-limited stage

b. Adjacent compartment may be in

growth stage, nearing flashover

[Link] model growth curves, what

conditions to expect based on fire
dynamics will aid firefighters in finding or
establishing tenable environment for
interior operations

[Link] employed for fire suppression,

ventilation, search and rescue will directly
relate to fire dynamics

C. Ventilation and Wind Considerations

1. Beginning attack on ventilation-limited

structure fire with ventilation alone

a. Will increase fire's heat release rate

and spread as additional vents are
made

b. Once fire has filled structure's

compartments with hot, unburned,

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gaseous fuel, using ventilation as only

tactic will not enable you to

i. Get ahead of fire

ii. Limit fire growth, spread

2. Unplanned ventilation

a. When structural member fails

i. Usually because of exposure to heat

ii. Introduces new source of oxygen to

fire

b. New oxygen source

i. Could result from failure of

(a) Window

(b) Roof

(c) Doorway

(d) Wall

ii. Does not have to originate from

outside building — When floors fail
above basement fires, interior air in
structure becomes new oxygen
source

c. Often result of

i. Occupant action

ii. Fire effects on building (such as

window glazing)

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iii. Actions other than planned,

systematic, coordinated tactical
ventilation

d. Situational awareness is essential to

ensure safety of you, other crew
members

3. Wind conditions

a. Wind can

i. Increase pressure inside structure

ii. Drive smoke, flames into unburned

portions of structure and onto
advancing firefighters

iii. Upset tactical ventilation efforts

b. Wind direction, velocity

i. Must be aware of it

ii. Use it to advantage to assist in

tactical ventilation

WARNING: Wind-driven conditions can occur

in any type of structure. Wind speeds as low
as 10 mph (16 km/h) can create wind-driven
fire conditions.

c. Wind conditions can create differences

in pressure that cause windows to fail

i. Exterior pressure on upwind side of

structure will be higher than
pressure on downwind side

ii. Ambient air on outside of structure

is constantly trying to move through

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structure along path from high to

low pressure

iii. If heat exposure weakens windows

in the path

(a) Wind pressure could cause

them to fail

(b) Introduces new flow path for

oxygen, hot fire gases

CAUTION: A strong wind can overpower the

natural convective effect of a fire and drive
the smoke and hot gases back into the
building.

D. Smoke Explosions

1. Occurs when mixture of unburned fuel

gases, oxygen comes in contact with
ignition source

2. When smoke travels away from fire, it can

a. Accumulate in other areas

b. Mix with air

3. When fuel, oxygen are within flammable

range and contact an ignition source —
Result is explosive, rapid combustion

4. Violent because they involve premixed

fuel, oxygen

E. Effects of Fire Fighting Operations

1. Limiting or interrupting one or more

essential elements in combustion process
in fire tetrahedron controls, extinguishes
fire

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2. Firefighters can influence fire dynamics in

number of ways

a. Temperature reduction — Using water

or foam agent to cool fire gases, hot
surfaces for purpose of extinguishment

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b. Fuel removal

i. Eliminating sources of fuel in path

of fire's spread that could provide
new source of fuel

ii. Typically a tactic in wildland or

liquid and gas fires

c. Oxygen exclusion/flow path control —

Using door control, tactical ventilation
techniques to control amount of air
available

d. Chemical flame inhibition — Using

extinguishing agents other than water
and foam, such as some dry chemicals,
halogenated agents (Halons), and
Halon-replacement "clean" agents, to

i. Inhibit or interrupt combustion

reaction

ii. Stop flame production

Review Question: How can firefighters

impact fire behavior during fire fighting
operations?
See pp. 161-165 of the manual for answers.

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Section VIII: Reaction of Building Construction to

Fire

VIII. REACTION OF BUILDING

CONSTRUCTION TO FIRE
pp. 165-176 Objective 8 — Describe how building
construction and layout affects fire
development.
A. Reaction of Building Construction to Fire

1. As buildings burn, fire creates variety of

dangerous conditions

a. Must be aware of these to remain safe

b. Situation can worsen if firefighters

i. Fail to recognize potential of

situation

ii. Take wrong actions

2. Primary types of dangerous building

conditions

a. Conditions that contribute to spread,

intensity of fire

b. Conditions that make building

susceptible to collapse

3. These two conditions are related;

conditions that contribute to spread,
intensity of fire will increase likelihood of
structural collapse

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Instructor Note: Discuss Table 4.13 “Fire

Resistance Ratings for Type I through Type V
Construction (In Hours)” on p. 166 of the
manual.

B. Construction Type and Elapsed Time of

Structural Integrity

1. Most building codes rate construction

types according to how long each type
maintains its structural integrity over
certain period of time

2. Observations at fire scene must be used

to reevaluate estimations based on
construction type

3. Many unknown factors not reflected in fire

resistance estimates such as

a. Duration of fire up to time of arrival

b. Building's contents

c. Way(s) building contents affect heat

release rate

d. Heat release rate, intensity of fire

e. Renovations to interior that may have

compromised fire resistance

4. Information gathered at scene provides

best indicators of structural integrity

5. Can compare this immediate knowledge

with known information about structure to
form opinions about safety on the
fireground

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What this Means to You: Refer students to

the box on p. 167 of the manual.
Emphasize the importance of situational
awareness and communication between all
firefighters on scene.

C. Fuel Load of Structural Members and

Contents

1. Fuel load

a. Total quantity of combustible contents

of a building, space, or fire area

b. Some documents may use fire load

c. All combustible materials in building's

construction such as

i. Wood framing

ii. Floors

iii. Ceilings

iv. Furnishings

v. Combustible materials within the

building

2. The more materials that are combustible,

the more fuel is available to pyrolize and
burn

3. Knowledge of building construction,

occupancy types will be essential to
determining fuel loads

a. At a scene, you will only be able to

estimate fuel load based on
knowledge, experience

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b. Example — Concrete block structure

with steel roof assembly containing
stored still pipe will have smaller fuel
load than wood-frame structure used
for storing flammable liquids

4. Buildings where construction materials are

flammable

a. Materials add to structure's fuel load

b. Example — In wood-frame buildings,

structure itself is source of fuel

5. Orientation of fuels and their surface-to-

mass ratio will influence rate, intensity of
fire spread

6. Contents of a structure often the most

readily available fuel source

a. Significantly influencing fire

development in a compartment fire

b. When contents release large amount of

heat rapidly intensity of fire and spread
of development increase

c. Example — Synthetic furnishings, such

as polyurethane foam

i. Pyrolize rapidly under fire

conditions even when contents are
located some distance from fire's
origin

ii. Chemical makeup of foam and its

high surface-to-mass ratio speed
process of fire development

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7. Proximity, continuity of contents and

structural fuels will influence fire
development

a. Fuels in upper level of adjacent

compartments will pyrolize more
quickly because of heat radiating from
hot gas layer

b. Continuous fuels such as combustible

interior finishes will rapidly spread
through fire compartments

8. Fire's location within the building will

influence fire development

a. Fires originating on upper levels

generally extend downward much
more slowly following the fuel path or
as result of structural collapse

b. When fire originates in low level, such

as basement or first floor, convected
heat currents cause vertical extension
through

i. Atriums

ii. Stairways

iii. Vertical shafts

iv. Concealed spaces

9. If structural elements become involved in

fire

a. Structure provides new source of fuel

b. Fire may burn in hidden cavities

throughout the building

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c. Hidden spaces

i. Make finding, extinguishing the fire

more difficult

ii. Increase potential risk of collapse

[Link] commercial, industrial, and storage

facilities with large fuel loads

a. Fire can

i. Overwhelm capabilities of fire

suppression system

ii. Make it difficult for firefighters to

gain access during suppression
activities

b. Performing, updating preincident

surveys is most effective means of
establishing awareness of hazards

[Link] that there is available oxygen,

the higher the fuel load, the more likely
the fire will behave in the following ways

a. If structural members are part of fuel

load, structural integrity will
deteriorate faster

b. The longer fire burns, the more fire

spread accelerates

c. Fire may have higher heat release rate

d. Structure may self-ventilate

i. Introducing more oxygen to fuel-

limited fire

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ii. Accelerating fire development and

involvement of combustible
structural members

[Link]-limited fires

a. Higher fuel loads indicate greater

amount of unburned fuel that could
reignite with introduction of new
oxygen source

b. May be greater amount of unburned

fuel gases because fuel packages
pyrolized but did not begin combustion
before building became oxygen-limited

c. Subject to backdrafts, flashovers if

firefighters do not coordinate
ventilation

[Link] and finishes

a. Combustible interior finishes,

furnishings

i. Can be significant factor that

influences fire spread

ii. Major factor in loss of lives in fires

b. Interior finishes include window, wall,

and floor coverings such as

i. Drapes

ii. Wallpaper

iii. Carpet

c. Furnishings include

i. Tables

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ii. Sofas

iii. Desks

iv. Beds

v. Other items in occupancies

[Link] exterior wall coverings

a. Flammable material that contributes to

fuel load often covers exterior walls

b. May add carbon fuels (wooden siding)

or petroleum fuels (vinyl siding) to fuel
load

c. May be installed atop exterior

insulation, another fuel source

d. When exposed to heat and catch fire,

they can spread fire to

i. Other areas of the structure

ii. Adjacent exposures such as

vegetation or neighboring buildings

[Link] roof materials

a. Combustibility of roof's surface is a

concern to fire safety of the entire
community

b. Some of the earliest fire regulations in

North America related to combustible
roof coverings because they were
blamed for conflagrations caused by
flaming embers flying from roof to roof

c. Wood shakes

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i. Can significantly contribute to fire

spread, even when treated with fire
retardant

ii. Problem in wildland/urban interface

fires

d. Firefighters must use exposure

protection tactics to protect
combustible roofs on structures
adjacent to fire building or wildland fire

e. Fire-resistant metal roof decking

i. May be covered with combustible

layers of

(a) Foam insulation

(b) Felt paper covered with asphalt

waterproofing

ii. Fire below metal deck can melt,

ignite combustible materials,
causing fire above the roof

D. Building Compartmentation

1. Arrangement of compartments in a
building directly affects fire

a. Development

b. Severity

c. Possible duration

d. Intensity

2. Layout of various open spaces in a

structure, including

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a. Number of stories above or below

ground

b. Floor plan

c. Openings between floors

d. Continuous voids or concealed spaces

e. Barriers to fire spread

3. May contribute to fire spread or

containment

a. Open floor plan space may contain

furnishings that provide fuel sources on
all sides of point of ignition

b. Compartmentalized configuration may

have fire rated barriers

i. Such as walls, ceilings, doors

ii. Separating fuel sources

iii. Limiting fire development to

individual compartment

4. Any open space with no complete fire

barrier dividing it is considered a
compartment

a. Two rooms connected by doorway

i. Considered two compartments only

if doorway is closed

ii. When door is open, fire in either

room could access oxygen from
adjoining room

iii. Rooms will affect one another more

slowly than if intervening wall

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weren't there, but closed door will

slow effect of fire in one room on
adjoining room even further

b. Firefighters should use doors to their

advantage during interior operations,
closing doors when appropriate to
control available oxygen sources

5. Given enough available fuel, fire will follow

oxygen through building along any
available flow path

6. Firefighters can take advantage of

compartmentation to

a. Control flow path

b. Create more predictable fire behavior

during operations

E. Effects of Building Construction

Features

1. Building features such as lightweight

materials or open floor plans have direct
effect on how fire will spread

2. If you do not take building construction

features into account, firefighting
activities may worsen emergency

a. Possibly catastrophically

b. Rather than help extinguish fire

3. Structure fire is where fire dynamics,

building construction interact

4. Modern vs. legacy construction

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a. Building construction in North America

changed drastically over past 50 years

i. Single-family residential structures

— Square footage of houses
increased over 150 percent
between 1973 and 2008

ii. Lot sizes have shrunk

(a) Reducing firefighter access

(b) Increasing potential exposure

risks

b. Residential interior layouts and

construction materials changed

i. Older structures (prior to

approximately 1990) had

(a) Smaller compartments

(b) More compartments within

same square footage as
modern homes

(c) Windows that could be opened

for ventilation

(d) Air pockets in empty wall

cavities; construction technique
used air as insulation

ii. Modern single-family structures

may feature

(a) Open floor plans

(b) High ceilings

(c) Atriums

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(d) Lightweight manufactured

structural components

(e) Sealed windows

(f) Wall cavities

(g) Synthetic insulation

c. Construction materials, interior finishes

consisting of synthetic materials and
light composite wood components

i. Add to fuel load

ii. Contribute to creation of toxic gases

during fire

d. Energy-efficient designs

i. Structures tend to contain fires for

longer time

ii. Create fuel-rich, ventilation-limited

environments

e. These problems magnified in large-

area residential structures

f. Commercial, institutional, educational,

and multifamily residential structures
also rely on energy conservation
measures

i. Increase intensity of fire

ii. Make tactical ventilation difficult

g. Open plan commercial structures

i. Such as warehouse-style stores

ii. High fuel loads

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iii. No physical barriers to prevent

spread of fire, smoke

h. Use of plastics, synthetic materials

i. Drastically increased fuel load in all

occupancy types

ii. Produce large quantities of toxic,

combustible gases

iii. Fires in these fuels can

(a) Escalate rapidly

(b) Reach high temperatures

(c) Consume structure's available

oxygen quickly

i. Knowledge of the building is great

asset when making decisions
concerning tactical ventilation

i. Can come from

(a) Preincident plans

(b) Inspection reports

(c) Observations of similar

structures

ii. Characteristics to consider

(a) Occupancy classification

(b) Construction type

(c) Square footage,

compartmentation

(d) Ceiling height

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(e) Number of stories above, below

ground level

(f) Number, size of exterior

windows, doors, wall openings

(g) Number, location of staircases,

elevator shafts, dumbwaiters,
ducts, roof openings

(h) External exposures

(i) Extent to which building

connects to adjoining
structures

(j) Type, design of roof

construction

(k) Type, location of fire protection

systems

(l) Contents

(m) Heating, ventilation, air

conditioning (HVAC) system

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5. Compartment volume and ceiling height

a. Fire in large compartment will normally

develop more slowly than one in small
compartment

b. Slower fire development due to

i. Greater volume of air

ii. Increased distance radiated heat

must travel from fire to contents
that must be heated

c. Large volume of air will support

development of a larger fire before
lack of ventilation becomes the limiting
factor

d. High ceiling can make determining

extent of fire development more
difficult

i. Large volume of hot smoke, fire

cases can accumulate at ceiling
level, while conditions at floor level
remain relatively unchanged

ii. Firefighters may mistake floor-level

conditions for actual state of fire
development

iii. If large hot gas layer ignites,

situation becomes immediately
hazardous

e. Large, open spaces in buildings

contribute to spread of fire throughout
— May be found in

i. Warehouses

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ii. Churches

iii. Large atriums

iv. Large-area mercantile buildings

v. Theaters

f. Large spaces may exist between roofs,

ceilings and under rain roofs — When
smoke appears through openings in
roof or around eaves, exact point of
origin may be deceiving

6. Thermal properties of the building

a. Can contribute to rapid fire

development

b. Can make extinguishment more

difficult and reignition possible

c. Insulation

i. Contains heat within the building

ii. Causes localized increase in

temperature, fire growth

iii. May introduce additional fuel source

d. Heat reflectivity — Increases fire

spread through transfer of radiant heat
from wall surfaces to adjacent fuel
sources

e. Retention — Maintains temperature by

slowly absorbing and releasing large
amounts of heat

7. Failure of lightweight trusses and joists

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a. Use of engineered or lightweight

construction and trussed support
systems pose danger to firefighters

i. Unprotected engineered steel and

wooden trusses can fail after 5 to
10 minutes of exposure

ii. Can fail from exposure to heat

without flame contact

iii. Critical temperature of steel

(a) 1,000°F (538°C)

(b) Temperature at which steel

begins to weaken

iv. Metal gusset plates in wooden

trusses can fail quickly when
exposed to heat

v. Fire-retardant treatments

(a) Can enhance fire resistance

(b) Most trusses lack this

b. Traditional wood-joist roof uses solid

wood joists that tend to lose strength
gradually when exposed to fire

i. Causes roof to become soft or

"spongy" before failure, especially
with wood plank roof deck

ii. Soft or sagging roof

(a) Obvious indication of structural

failure

(b) Should not be considered only

sign of imminent collapse

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c. Modern homes may use engineered

joists

i. Burn more quickly

ii. Fail before fire affects roof decking

iii. Plywood or OSB roof sheathing may

not show signs of sagging during
fire

iv. When trusses fail first

(a) Entire pieces of decking may

fall into fire

(b) May be no indication that

firefighter is in danger of falling
through from "sounding" the
roof or standing on the roof

d. Observations are key to establishing

the safety of the roof

i. Fire's location

ii. Fire's behavior, activity

iii. Location of generated smoke

e. Visual observations of roof's exterior

may not be enough

f. Exterior, interior, and roof crews should

communicate observations to one
another throughout incident to monitor
roof safety

NOTE: Floor joists used to support floors in

multilevel structures may react to fire much
the same way as roof trusses. Floors above

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basement fires are especially prone to joist

failures.

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WARNING: Entire pieces of decking may fall

into the fire when lightweight trusses fail.
There may be no indications from the exterior
that the trusses no longer support the roof
decking.

g. Bowstring truss roof

i. Often indicated by arched or curved

outline

ii. One of most common designs for

large commercial, industrial
structures before 1960

iii. Commonly used in facilities where

large open floor spaces with limited
interior supports were needed, such
as

(a) Automobile dealerships, repair

facilities

(b) Bowling alleys

(c) Grocery stores

(d) Industrial complexes

iv. Principles are similar to other

trusses

v. Web members form series of

triangles that transfer tension from
bottom chord and compression
from top chord to load-bearing walls

vi. Differences

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(a) Compressional forces within

top chord act to force load-
bearing walls outward,
downward

(b) Space between trusses is

greater

vii. Bowstring truss systems

constructed before late 1960s have
common code deficiency — Bottom
chord members may have
inadequate tensile strength to
support code-prescribed roof loads

viii. Some construction

features such as parapets obstruct
ability to easily identify bowstring
truss systems

ix. Preincident surveys should

(a) Provide information on hidden

construction features

(b) Be consulted during size-up,

operations

x. Aerial mapping or photographs can

help identify bowstring truss
structures

F. Construction, Renovation, and

Demolition Hazards

1. Risk of fire rises sharply when structure is

a. Under construction

b. Being renovated

c. Awaiting demolition

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2. Contributing factors include

a. Additional fuel loads

b. Ignition sources such as

i. Open flames from cutting torches

ii. Sparks from grinding or welding

operations

3. Some local fire codes mandate that

standpipe systems remain in operation
during demolition of multistory buildings

a. Contractors do not always adhere to

these requirements

b. Result — Inoperative standpipes,

sprinkler systems have become
contributing factor in fires in buildings
under demolition

4. Buildings under construction

a. Subject to rapid fire spread when

partially completed because many
protective features are not in place,
such as

i. Gypsum wallboard

ii. Automatic fire suppression systems

b. With exposed wooden framing — Often

thought of as equivalent of vertical
lumberyard

c. Lack of doors or other barriers that

would normally slow fire spread
contribute to rapid fire growth

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5. Abandoned buildings or structures

undergoing renovation or demolition

a. Subject to faster-than-normal fire

growth — Potential contributors

i. Breached walls

ii. Open stairwells

iii. Missing doors

iv. Deactivated fire suppression

systems

b. May have missing or altered

components

c. May be in deteriorated state

d. May be more susceptible to structural

collapse

e. Arson a factor because of easy access

into building

6. Hazardous situations may arise during

renovation

a. Occupants, their belongings may

remain in one part of building while
work continues in another

b. Fire detection or alarm systems may

be taken out of service or damaged

c. Accumulations of debris, construction

materials

i. Can block exits

ii. May impede occupants trying to

escape

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iii. Can make firefighter entry more

difficult

d. Contractors or owner/occupants
performing renovations do not always
follow building codes

Review Question: How does the

construction or configuration of a building
impact fire development within it?
See pp. 165-176 of the manual for answers.

Discussion Question: Make a list of five

buildings in your jurisdiction. How will the
building construction features of those
structures impact fire development within
them?

Instructor Note: This is the end of this

lesson. Ask students if they have any
questions; address their questions.

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