CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1Conceptual Review
The digital era has redefined the way people consume and interact with news. Social media
platforms have emerged as primary sources of information for many, especially among the youth,
offering quick and easy access to real-time updates. However, alongside these benefits lies a
significant downside: the rapid and unfiltered spread of fake news. Fake news refers to deliberately
false or misleading information that mimics legitimate news content with the intent to deceive or
mislead (Lazer et al., 2018). It thrives in the unregulated environment of social media, where
algorithms prioritize engagement over accuracy (Tandoc, Lim, & Ling, 2018).
University undergraduates, as active social media users, are a key demographic both in the
consumption and dissemination of online news. Studies show that this group often lacks the critical
skills necessary to evaluate the credibility of online content (Guess, Nagler, & Tucker, 2019). This is
particularly concerning given that fake news has the potential to influence academic, social, and
even political decisions among young people. As such, the concept of news verification behavior—
the methods and practices used to assess the credibility and accuracy of news content—has gained
increased attention.
News verification behavior is influenced by several factors, including digital literacy, awareness of
misinformation, perceived credibility of news sources, and psychological tendencies such as
confirmation bias (Pennycook & Rand, 2019). Digital literacy—the ability to find, evaluate, and use
information effectively—is central to combating misinformation. Unfortunately, research suggests
that many young adults overestimate their digital literacy and are unaware of how easily they can
be manipulated by seemingly trustworthy sources (Kahne & Bowyer, 2017).
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991) provides a useful framework for
understanding how undergraduates approach news verification. According to this theory, behavior
is guided by intentions, which are shaped by attitudes (e.g., belief in the importance of verifying
news), subjective norms (e.g., peer influence), and perceived behavioral control (e.g., confidence in
their ability to verify information). This framework can help explain why some students engage in
verification practices while others do not.
Additionally, Inoculation Theory (McGuire, 1964) suggests that individuals can be "inoculated"
against misinformation if they are exposed to a weakened form of the misinformation along with
refutations. This theory has been applied in media literacy interventions that teach students how
fake news is created and spread, enhancing their resistance to future exposure (Basol, Roozenbeek,
& van der Linden, 2020).
Cultural and contextual factors also shape verification behavior. In the Nigerian context, for
instance, access to fact-checking tools and formal training in digital literacy is limited. Research by
Apuke and Omar (2020) found that Nigerian students often rely on peer-shared content and family
networks for news, and rarely verify information unless it appears highly suspicious. Moreover,
socio-political factors such as distrust in mainstream media and low confidence in government
institutions may also encourage reliance on alternative sources, which are often unchecked.
The role of media literacy education is increasingly recognized as a key strategy in combating fake
news. Media literacy involves teaching individuals how to critically assess media messages,
identify bias, and verify facts using credible sources. Studies have demonstrated that media literacy
programs improve students ’ ability to distinguish between real and fake news (Vraga & Tully,
2021). For undergraduates at institutions like Nnamdi Azikiwe University, integrating media
literacy into academic programs could significantly enhance news verification skills and promote
more responsible digital citizenship.
In sum, the conceptual understanding of fake news and news verification behavior highlights the
need for a multi-faceted approach — one that combines psychological theory, digital literacy,
educational intervention, and cultural awareness. For undergraduates in Nigeria and elsewhere,
building these competencies is crucial not just for personal information accuracy, but also for the
health of democratic discourse and academic integrity.
2.2Theoretical Framework
To investigate the news verification behavior of undergraduates in the context of fake news
proliferation on social media, this study is anchored on three key theoretical perspectives: the
Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), Inoculation Theory, and the Message Interpretation Process
(MIP) Model. These theories help illuminate the psychological, behavioral, and interpretative
processes involved in how individuals engage with and respond to misinformation online.
2.2.1 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)
The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), developed by Ajzen (1991), is a widely accepted
behavioral theory that explains how individuals ’ attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived
behavioral control influence their intentions and behaviors.
-Attitudes refer to the degree to which an individual has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation of a
behavior. In this context, it relates to how students perceive the importance of verifying news.
-Subjective norms involve the perceived social pressure to perform or not perform a behavior. For
instance, if a student believes their peers consider it important to fact-check content before sharing,
they may be more inclined to do the same.
-Perceived behavioral control denotes an individual’s perception of their ability to perform a given
behavior. This could reflect a student’s confidence in using tools like Google reverse image search
or fact-checking websites.
This theory is useful in understanding why students may or may not engage in news verification. If
the intention to verify is strong (shaped by positive attitude, supportive norms, and self-efficacy),
the actual verification behavior is more likely to occur (Ajzen, 1991). Empirical studies, such as that
of Apuke and Omar (2020), confirm that attitudes and perceived behavioral control significantly
affect social media users' decisions to share or question news content.
2. Inoculation Theory
Inoculation Theory, introduced by McGuire (1964), is a persuasion theory based on the metaphor of
medical inoculation. It posits that exposing individuals to a weakened version of a persuasive
argument, along with refutations, helps build resistance to future misinformation.
This theory is highly relevant in today’s digital information ecosystem, where fake news spreads
rapidly. By educating students on the tactics used in disinformation—such as misleading headlines,
clickbait, deepfakes, and emotional appeals — they can build "cognitive immunity" that enables
them to recognize and resist deceptive content (Basol, Roozenbeek, & van der Linden, 2020).
Gamified interventions, such as the "Bad News" game developed by researchers, have been shown
to improve misinformation resistance by applying inoculation theory in practice.
In the context of Nnamdi Azikiwe University undergraduates, implementing media literacy training
grounded in inoculation theory could preemptively strengthen students’ ability to detect and reject
fake news.
3. Message Interpretation Process (MIP) Model
The Message Interpretation Process (MIP) Model, developed by Austin (2007), explores how
individuals process media messages based on three key dimensions:
- Perceived realism: How realistic or believable the individual thinks the message is.
- Perceived similarity: The degree to which the content aligns with one’s values or experiences.
- Perceived desirability: Whether the message aligns with what the individual wants to be true.
This model emphasizes the dual role of logic and emotion in how messages are interpreted. For
example, students may share a news item because it aligns with their opinions or values, even if it is
false. The MIP model explains why emotionally charged misinformation tends to spread more than
factually accurate but emotionally neutral information (Austin, 2007; Vraga & Tully, 2021).
In educational settings, enhancing students’ critical thinking and emotional awareness can improve
their ability to apply logic over emotion when assessing news content. By learning to question
source credibility, examine motives, and identify bias, students can more effectively verify news
before engaging with or sharing it.
Synthesis of the Theoretical Framework
Together, these three theories provide a multi-dimensional lens through which to examine news
verification behavior:
- TPB outlines the motivational and social predictors of verification behavior.
- Inoculation Theory offers a preventive strategy for developing resistance to fake news.
-MIP Model provides a cognitive and emotional framework for how students interpret news
messages.
By integrating these perspectives, the study aims to understand not only whether students verify
news but also why they choose to do so, how they do it, and what factors support or hinder this
behavior.
This framework also has practical implications: it suggests that improving news verification among
undergraduates requires both psychological empowerment (confidence and skills), educational
interventions (media literacy training), and social reinforcement (encouraging verification norms
among peers).
Empirical Review
The growing prevalence of fake news on social media has led to a surge in empirical research
exploring its spread and the behavioral responses of social media users, particularly among youths
and students. University undergraduates, due to their high engagement with digital platforms, are
often both victims and vectors of misinformation. The following empirical studies provide insight
into patterns of fake news exposure, verification behavior, and the effectiveness of interventions
aimed at improving digital discernment.
Fake News and Youth Social Media Use
A study by Tandoc, Lim, and Ling (2018) emphasized that the viral nature of fake news is largely
attributed to how users interact with content on social media. Their study revealed that younger
users are less likely to critically evaluate news content and more likely to share information based
on emotional appeal or peer influence. This underscores the vulnerability of undergraduates to
misinformation, especially when they rely on social media as their primary news source.
In the Nigerian context, Apuke and Omar (2020) conducted a survey-based study among university
students and social media users during the COVID-19 pandemic. Their research found that while a
significant proportion of students encountered fake news regularly, only a small fraction actively
verified the information before sharing it. The study identified key predictors of fake news sharing,
such as entertainment motives, altruism, and lack of media literacy.
Verification Behavior Among Students
Empirical findings have consistently shown that while many students are aware of fake news, their
verification behavior is often limited. For instance, a study by Barfar (2021) on digital natives ’
engagement with fake news found that although students frequently encounter misinformation,
their verification methods are often superficial—such as checking the comments section or relying
on a news outlet’s popularity rather than conducting deeper fact-checking.
Similarly, Ugwu and Ekwe (2021), in their study of Nigerian university students, discovered that
only about 35% of respondents consistently verified online news. The barriers to verification
included lack of time, unawareness of verification tools, and overreliance on personal judgment.
These findings suggest that despite high exposure to fake news, effective verification remains a
challenge among undergraduates.
Effectiveness of Media Literacy Interventions
In recent years, several empirical studies have evaluated the impact of media literacy training on
improving news verification behavior. A quasi-experimental study by Basol, Roozenbeek, and van
der Linden (2020) tested the effectiveness of a gamified intervention called "Bad News," which
aimed to inoculate users against misinformation by exposing them to common fake news tactics.
The study found that participants who played the game demonstrated increased resistance to fake
news and greater confidence in identifying misinformation.
In Nigeria, Apuke, Omar, and Tunca (2023) tested a fake news awareness intervention among social
media users. Their findings indicated a statistically significant increase in news verification
behavior among those who received the intervention compared to a control group. The study
further highlighted the importance of combining digital literacy training with behavioral nudges,
such as encouraging users to pause before sharing content.
Social and Cultural Influences on Verification.
Cultural norms and peer influence also play a role in students ’ news verification behavior.
According to Guess, Nagler, and Tucker (2019), social reinforcement — such as seeing peers
question or debunk content—can encourage more critical news consumption practices. In Nigeria,
where communal trust plays a major role in information dissemination, students often rely on
WhatsApp groups, family circles, and class networks for news, making peer influence a powerful
factor (Okon, 2022).
These findings suggest that media literacy strategies need to account for social and cultural contexts,
especially in university environments where group-based communication is common.
Empirical evidence highlights a clear pattern: while undergraduates are regularly exposed to fake
news, their verification practices are often lacking or ineffective. Although some awareness exists,
genuine behavior change requires targeted interventions, such as media literacy education and
exposure to misinformation inoculation strategies. Studies also emphasize the role of social
influence and digital culture in shaping verification behavior. For undergraduates at Nnamdi
Azikiwe University, this evidence supports the need for institution-specific interventions to foster a
more skeptical, critical approach to online news.
Summary of Literature Review
The reviewed literature underscores the growing concern over the spread of fake news on social
media platforms and its impact on users, particularly university undergraduates. Scholars agree that
the accessibility and participatory nature of social media have accelerated the dissemination of
misinformation, often making it difficult for users to distinguish between credible and false content.
Research shows that undergraduates, despite being digitally literate, often lack adequate media
literacy skills required for effective news verification. Several studies (e.g., Apuke & Omar, 2020;
Barfar, 2021) highlight that emotional appeal, peer influence, and cognitive biases play significant
roles in how students interact with fake news. Furthermore, verification behavior tends to be limited
due to a lack of awareness of fact-checking tools, time constraints, and overconfidence in personal
judgment.
The literature also indicates that intervention strategies, such as media literacy training and
inoculation theory-based approaches, can significantly improve students' critical thinking and
resistance to fake news. Studies like those by Basol et al. (2020) and Apuke et al. (2023) demonstrate
the effectiveness of gamified and educational approaches in enhancing users ’ verification
behaviors.
Moreover, theoretical models such as the Theory of Planned Behavior, Inoculation Theory, and the
Message Interpretation Process Model offer useful frameworks for understanding the cognitive,
psychological, and social dynamics influencing news verification behavior among undergraduates.
In sum, the literature points to a clear need for improved media literacy and structured interventions
within university environments to empower students with the skills necessary to identify and resist
fake news. These insights provide a strong foundation for exploring the specific case of Nnamdi
Azikiwe University undergraduates.