Module 5- Cultural Heritage and Performing Arts

Indian Architect, Engineering and Architecture in Ancient India, Sculptures, Seals, coins, Pottery,
Puppetry, Dance, Music, Theatre, drama, Painting, Martial Arts Traditions, Fairs and Festivals,
Current developments in Arts and Cultural, Indian’s Cultural Contribution to the World. Indian
Cinema
. What are the different types of architecture found in India ? Describe them in brief.
Caves, stupas, pillars, temples and Indo-Islamic architecture are variety of
architecture found in India which is a very important part in Indian art and architecture.
A. Cave architecture :
1. Cave architecture is often called as Rock-cut architecture. 2. Indian rock-cut architecture is one of the
main forms of architecture seen in caves. 3. It is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of
solid natural rock. 4. The earliest caves were natural caves used by people for a variety of npurposes such
as shrines and shelters.
5. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature. 6. There are more than 1,500 rock-cut
structures in India. 7. Some of the famous caves are : Ajanta Caves, Ellora Cave, Elephanta Cave, Sudama /
Nyagodh Cave etc.
B. Stupa architecture :
1. A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred burial mound of brick which was used to house Buddha’s relics or to
commemorate significant facts and events related to Buddhism.
2. The term stupa comes from Sanskrit and it means heap. 3. Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid
with blocks of stone or bricks. On this foundation, a hemispherical dome was raised.4. In India, Sanchi,
Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest known stupas.
C. Pillar architecture :
1. Erection of pillars is an age-old tradition in India. 2. Development in the field of pillar architecture in a
proper way commenced during the Mauryan age. 3. The Mauryan pillars were rock-cut. These had
proclamations inscribed on them and were used to spread the message of the Buddha by Emperor
Ashoka. 4. The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has animal figures like bull, lion,
elephant, etc. 5. These capital figures are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. The abacuses
are on the base which could be a stylised inverted lotus. 6. Example of pillars with capital figures:
Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira, Rampurva, Sankisa and Lauriya-Nandangarh.
D. Temple architecture :
1. A temple can be defined as an enclosed place of worship having a roof or
a covered structure. 2. The word ‘temple’ is derived from the Latin word ‘templum’. 3. Temple is the
dwelling place of God and is used for worship by devotees. 4. The basic elements that comprise a Hindu
Temple are :
i. Garbhagriha : It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main icon of the temple.
ii. Mandapa : The entrance to the temple.
iii. Shikhara/Vimana : It is a mountain-like spire on top.
iv. Amalaka : Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple.
v. Kalasha : It is the topmost part of the temple.
vi. Antarala : It is a vestibule between the Garbhagriha and the Mandapa.
vii. Jagati : This is a raised platform where devotees can sit and pray.
E. Indo-Islamic architecture :
1. After the Turkish conquest of North India in the 13th century building activity on a large scale began. 2.
Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions.3. A mix of many techniques, stylized
shapes, and surface decorations evolved through a continuous amalgamation of architectural elements
from various styles.
4. Such architectural entities that showcased multiple styles are known as Indo-Islamic architecture. 5.
Types of architectural buildings : mosques for daily prayers, Jama Masjids, dargahs, tombs, hammams,
minars, gardens, sarais or caravansarais,
madrasas, Kos minars, etc.
What are the major cave architectures in India ?
Following are the major cave architecture in India :
A. Ellora Cave :
1. It is locally known as ‘Verul Leni’. 2. It is located in Maharashtra.
3. This also a rock-cut monastery by the Buddhists. 4. It is famous for the largest monolithic excavation in
the world – the great Kailasa. 5. The hills in which the caves are carved forms part of the Sahyadri ranges
of the Deccan. 6. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
B. Ajanta Cave :
1. This cave is located in Aurangabad district of Maharashtra. 2. It comprises about 30 rock-cut Buddhist
cave monuments. 3. All three kinds of art: sculpture, architecture, and paintings (mural paintings) are
combined. 4. Famous fresco paintings of Ajanta are dying princess, flying apsara and preaching Buddha.
5. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
C. Elephanta Cave :
1. It is located on Elephanta Islands in Mumbai. 2. There are seven cave excavations in the Elephanta
group. 3. There is Trimurti of Shiva. 4. The caves are carved from solid basalt rock.
D. Karla Cave :
1. Ancient India Buddhist early rock-cut architecture. 2. It is located in Maharashtra.
3. Related with the Mahasamghika sect of Buddhism. 4. There is a pillar of the Asokan type with a huge
sixteen-sided shaft rising over a platform. 5. It has a great chaitya hall.
E. Lomasa Rishi Cave :
1. It represents the earliest example of rock-cut architecture in India.
2. It belongs to Maurya period. 3. This cave was carved out of a gigantic rounded granite rock. 4. It has an
arch-like shape frontage copying the contemporary timber
architecture. 5. It is located in Nagarjuni hills.
Stupa ? Classify stupa and explain different parts of stupa.
Stupa : A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred burial mound of brick which was
used to house Buddha’s relics or to commemorate significant facts and events related to Buddhism.
Classification of Stupa : The stupas are classified into 5 main categories on the basis of the purpose or
occasion associated with them. These are :
A. Relic Stupas :
1. These stupas were constructed on bodily remains of Buddha, his disciples and Bodhisattvas. 2. These
are the most sacred among all Buddhist stupas.
B. Object Stupas :
1. These stupas were built on personal belongings used by Buddha, his disciples and Bodhisattvas. 2.
Begging bowl, robes and Buddhist scriptures were kept in these stupas.
C. Commemorative Stupas : 1. These stupas were built in the memory of important events associated
with the life of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
D. Symbolic Stupas :
1. Stupas of this category were built to symbolize the invisible presence of
Mahatma Buddha. 2. These stupas reminded people that Buddha and his Dharma were there with them
always and everywhere. 3. Relics or objects were not used in these stupas.
E. Votive Stupas :
1. These stupas were built by devotees at important Buddhist centres and monasteries near the main
stupas where they went there for pilgrimage. 2. The construction of these stupas was carried out to earn
merit, i.e., to get the grace of God.
Parts of Stupa :
1. Anda : Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid with blocks of stone or bricks. On this foundation,
a hemispherical dome (anda) was raised. 2. Medhi : It is the wider base of a stupa. 3. Harmika : It is the
top portion of a stupa. On the truncated top of the
hemisphere, a harmika is placed, surrounded by a railing.
4. Vedika : It refers to the railing built around a stupa. The stupa is enclosed
by a vedika. The railing is provided with four gateways.
5. Pradakshina path : A path of circumambulation (pradakshina path) runs around the stupa at the
ground level within the railing.
6. Toranas : Toranas were ceremonial gateways around the stupas.
short note on structure of Ashokan pillars.
1. Erection of pillars is an age-old tradition in India. 2. Development in the field of pillar architecture in a
proper way commenced
during the Mauryan age. 3. Mauryan pillars can be divided into following two categories :i. Pillars which
were part of palaces. ii. Pillars which were erected by Ashoka independently. 4. A large number of stone
pillars were erected by Ashoka throughout his empire. 5. The height of Ashokan pillars was about 12 to
15 meters and their
weight was about 50 tons. 6. Ashokan pillars had following 4 parts :
A. Shaft :
i. The shaft of Ashokan pillars was generally monolithic. ii. The shaft was round in shape. It tapered from
bottom to top. iii. This shaft was used to inscribe Ashoka’s royal orders. iv. Contents of these orders deal
with Dhamma (righteousness) and its spread among the masses. B. Bell-shaped portion :
i. A bell-shaped portion was the second component of Ashokan pillars and was put over the shaft. ii. This
portion is often termed as 'inverted lotus'.
C. Abacus :
i. Abacus was the third component of Ashokan pillars.
ii. It was a platform on which the crowning animal was placed. iii. In earlier pillars it was square or
rectangular in shape. In later pillars it was circular in shape.
D. Capital :
i. The uppermost element of a pillar is known as capital. ii. The capital was carved with figures like a bull,
lion, elephant, etc. iii. Capital was the fourth component of Ashokan pillars.
Describe the basic features of Indian temples.
1. The form and meanings of architectural elements in a Hindu temple are designed to function as the
place where it is the link between man and the divine, to help his progress to spiritual knowledge and
truth. 2. The basic features that comprise a Hindu Temple are :
i. Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum) :
1. It literally means womb-house and is a cave like sanctum. 2. In the earliest temples, it was a small
cubical structure with a single entrance. Later it grew into larger chambers.
3. The Garbhagriha is made to house the main icon (main deity).
ii. Mandapa :
1. It is the entrance to the temple. 2. It may be a portico or colonnaded hall that incorporates space for a
large number of worshippers. 3. Some temples have multiple mandapas in different sizes.
iii. Shikhara or Vimana :
1. They are mountain like spire of a free standing temple. 2. Shikhara is found in North Indian temples
and Vimana is found in South Indian temples. 3. Shikhara has a curving shape while Vimana has a
pyramidal like structure.
iv. Vahana : It is the mount or vehicle of the temple’s main deity along with a standard pillar or Dhvaj
which is placed axially before the sanctum.
v. Amalaka : It is a stone disc like structure crowning the top of the North Indian style shikhara.
vi. Kalasha : Wide-mouthed pot or ornamental pot-design decorating the shikhara in North Indian
temples.
vii. Antarala (vestibule) : Antarala is a transition area between the Garbhagriha and the temple's main
hall (mandapa).
viii. Jagati : It is a raised platform for sitting and praying and is common in North Indian temples.
classification of structural/free standingtemple architecture.
Basically there are 3 kinds of structural/free standing temple architecture :
A. Nagara style temple architecture :
1. In Nagara style, it is common for an entire temple to be built on a stone platform with steps leading up
to it. 2. It does not usually have elaborate boundary walls or gateways.
3. The three main distinctive features of Nagar style is Shikhara (Curvilinear tower), Garbhagriha
(Sanctum Sanctorum), Mandapa (Entrance Hall).
4. While the earliest temples had just one tower or shikhara, later temples had multiple Shikharas. 5. The
garbhagriha is always located directly under the tallest tower.
6. Examples - Dashavatara temple (Deogarh), Vishwanatha temple (Khajuraho), Lakshman Temple
(Khajuraho), Jagannath Temple (Puri).
7. Following are the main subdivisions of Nagara temples depending on
the shape of the shikhara :
i. Rekha-Prasada type or Latina type.
ii. Phamsana type.
iii. Valabhi type.
B. Dravida style temple architecture :
1. The Dravida temple is enclosed within a compound wall. 2. The front wall has an entrance gateway in
its centre, which is known as a gopuram. 3. The shape of the main temple tower known as Vimana is like
a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically. 4. In the Dravida style temples, one will generally find
sculptures of fierce dvarapalas or the door-keepers guarding the temple. 5. The Dravida temple consists
of a large water reservoir, or a temple tank, enclosed within the complex. 6. Subsidiary shrines are either
incorporated within the main temple tower or located as distinct, separate small shrines beside the main
temple. 7. Examples - Shore temple (Mahabalipuram), Brihadesvara temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi
Temple (Madurai).
C. Vesara style temple architecture :
1. The Vesara style contains elements of both Dravida and Nagara styles. 2. The height of these temples
was reduced compared to its Nagara and Dravida counterparts. 3. The height of the temple tower over
the sanctum is usually shorter than the Vimanas in Dravida temples. The shape of these towers was
pyramidal in profile. 4. Vimana was crowned by a circular shikhara above the neck. 5. Examples - Badami
temple, Durga Temple (Aihole), Virupaksha Temple (Pattadkal), Keshava Temple (Somnathpur).
Write a short note on Indo-Islamic architecture.
1. After the Turkish conquest of North India in the 13th century building activity on a large scale began.
2. Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions. 3. Thus, in the field of architecture, a
mix of many structural techniques, stylised shapes, and surface decorations came about.
4. These architectural entities or categories showcasing multiple styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or
Indo-Islamic architecture. 5. Indo-Islamic architecture across India includes various types of the
structure constructed over a period of time. 6. Major Indo-Islamic architectural forms are :
A. Forts :
1. Building monumental forts with embattlements was a regular feature in medieval times, often
symbolising the seat of power of a king. 2. Commanding heights were utilised to great advantage to
construct forts. 3. Use of concentric circles of outer walls.
B. Minar :
1. Another important Indo-Islamic architectural form was the minar, similar to Stambha or tower.
2. They were typically built adjacent to mosques. 3. The everyday use of the minar was for the azaan or
call to prayer. 4. The basic form of a minaret includes a base, shaft, and gallery.
C. Tomb :
1. The tomb architecture is an important feature of the Islamic architecture.
2. The idea behind the tomb was eternal paradise as a reward for the true believer on the Day of
Judgment. 3. This led to the paradisiacal imagery for tomb construction, beginning with the introduction
of Quranic verses on the walls, subsequently
under the Mughals, the tomb was placed within paradisiacal elements such as a garden or near a body of
water or both.
D. Sarais :
1. A hugely interesting feature of medieval India was the sarais which ringed cities and dotted the vast
space of the Indian subcontinent. 2. Sarais were largely built on a simple square or rectangular plan.
3. They were meant to provide temporary accommodation to Indian and foreign travellers, pilgrims,
merchants, traders, etc. 4. Sarais were public domains which thronged with people of varied cultural
backgrounds. This led to cross-cultural interaction amongst the people.
. Write a short note on sculptures in India.
1. Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent essentially consists of sculpture of
stone, metal or terracotta. 2. The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus
Valley civilization, when small items of bronze sculpture and terracotta sculpture were produced.
3. After the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization there is little record of
sculpture until the Buddhist era. 4. Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone
appears to begin relatively late, with the reign of Asoka from 270 to 232 BCE,
and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around India. 5. Besides religious, secular elements were also
present in Indian sculptures. 6. Figures of gods and goddesses, kings, queens, birds, animals and trees
were made by Indian artists.
seals.
1. Seals were used for authentication of transactions by state as well as
private individuals and organizations. 2. Seals can be compared with stamps of present times.
3. The earliest seals found in Indian sub-continent belong to pre-Harappan phase. 4. Thousands of seals
have been discovered by archaeologists from the Harappan sites. Most of the seals were made of steatite.
A few of them were also made of terracotta, gold, agate, chert, ivory and faience.
5. The dimension of Harappan seals varied from 0.5 inch to 2.5 inch. 6. Most Harappan seals were
quadrilateral in shape. Square and rectangular shaped seals have been found most commonly.
7. Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script (which is yet to be deciphered).
8. Most of the seals have been written on both sides. The writings are in the Kharosthi style (right to left).
9. The seals throw light on relationship and interaction of the people of
Harappan civilization with outside world. 10. The seals throw light on the language and script of the
Harappan civilization.
coinage of India.
1. Coins issued by Indian rulers through the ages are important example
of human art belonging to the ancient age because these coins have
different types of symbols on them. 2. The coins throw light on the socio-economic, political and cultural
life of people belonging to that period. 3. Coinage of India began anywhere between early 1st millennium
BC to the 6th century BC. 4. These coins were popularly known as punch marked coins because
different symbols were inscribed on them using punches. 5. The earliest punch marked coins were
irregular pieces of metal. 6. Die-cast coins were issued in India in the Saurashtra region in the 5th
century BC. 7. These coins were called Karshapana because their weight was one
karsha (unit of measurement) each. 8. The English word ‘Cash’ has originated from the word karsha only.
9. Punched mark coins were generally made of silver, while some were made of copper too. 10. Some of
the most common symbols used on punch marked coins were
as follows :
i. Sun mark ii. Crescent
iii. Chakra iv. Swastika
v. Lingam vi. Snake
11. During the post-Mauryan period, the most remarkable progress was witnessed in the field of coinage.
Indo-Greeks and Kushana rulers made immense contribution to the development of coinage. 12. Indo-
Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.
significance of coinage as source of history.
1. A study of Indian coins enlightens us with a great deal about the history
of ancient India. 2. Coins give us the names of the kings who ruled at various times in
different parts of the country. 3. Information provided by coins helps in corroborating the evidence from
other sources such as the Puranas, etc. 4. Coins help us in determining chronology. Coins mention the
year in which they are issued. The existence of a large number of coins issued during the different years
of the reign of a king helps us to place the exact dates for the accession and the death of the king.
5. The place of discovery of coins helps us determine the extent of the
territory of a king. 6. Coins also throw light on trade and commercial relations. The discovery
of a large number of Roman coins in India confirms that there was trade between India and Roman
Empire. 7. Purity of coins indicates economic prosperity of people and the state.
Discovery of large number of gold and silver coins with high level of purity indicate that level of
prosperity was high. 8. The figures of the various kings appear on coins and from them we can
have an idea regarding the head-dress of those kings. 9. Coins give us genuine information regarding the
history of ancient India as there is no possibility of them being tampered with.
. pottery
1. Pottery refers to the creation of objects that are made up of hard brittle material produced from non-
metallic minerals by moulding them while the material is wet and then firing them at high temperatures.
2. Pottery is often made up of clay, porcelain, steatite, etc. 3. Pottery plays an important role in studying
culture and reconstructing the past. 4. It reflects the social, economic and environmental conditions a
culture thrived in, which helps the archaeologists and historians in understanding
our past. 5. It holds significant value in understanding cultures where script was
either absent or remains undeciphered.
6. Pottery is majorly of following two types :
i. Handmade
ii. Wheel turned
Evolution of pottery.

A. Neolithic Age : The origins of pottery date back to the Neolithic Era.
We find the first reference of pottery in this age. Naturally it is handmade pottery but during the later
period footwheel is also used.
Features of pottery in Neolithic age :
1. Unglazed/unburnished that is having rough surface. 2. Handmade coarse grey pottery.
3. Material - clay mixed with mica and sand. 4. Pottery is devoid of any painting.
5. In many cases twisted rice husk cords were impressed into wet clay for decoration.
6. Found throughout India.
B. Chalcolithic Age : Chalcolithic Era, the first metal age, is marked by the occurrence of distinct cultures
in various parts of our country. People of this age used following kinds of pottery :
i. Black and Red Ware (BRW) Pottery :
1. BRWs were among the oldest pottery forms used in India during the ancient age.
2. These pots were black from inside and near the rim, and their outer body was red in colour.
3. This typical colour combination was attained through the inverted firing method.
4. These pots were mostly made by wheel turn.
ii. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) :
1. This pottery was ochre or brownish red in colour. 2. These pots are quite weak. 3. The cultural phase
associated with this type of pottery has been named as the ochre coloured pottery culture.
4. OCP was used in Punjab, Haryana, UP and Rajasthan.
iii. Harappan Civilization :
1. Both polished and unpolished type of pottery existed. 2. Pottery generally has a red surface and is
wheel turned although handmade ones too exist. 3. Polished wares were well fired. 4. Most of the pottery
is polychrome meaning more than two colours are used to colour the pottery.
5. Most of the pottery is utilitarian.
iv. Vedic Era - Painted Grey Ware (PGW) :
1. The Vedic Era saw the emergence of Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture. 2. Characterized by a style of
fine, grey pottery painted with geometric
patterns in black. 3. Are confined to few geographical locations, namely - Punjab, Haryana
and upper Ganga Valley. 4. This culture is associated with village and town settlements (but without
large cities).
v. End of Vedic Era - Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) :
1. This era marked the beginning of the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). 2. Glossy, shining type
pottery. 3. Made of fine fabric and served as tableware for richer class. 4. Found in UP and Madhya
Pradesh. 5. Classified into two groups - bichrome and monochrome. 6. Monochrome pottery has a fine
and thin fabric. Potted on fast wheel and have a strikingly lustrous surface. 90 % of this type is jet black,
brownish black and bluish black and 10 % have colours like pink, golden, brown among others.
7. Bichrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features of monochrome except that it shows
combination of two colours.
What do you mean by puppet ? What is puppetry ? Why puppetry is art dying ?
Puppet :
1. A doll or a figure controlled by a person so that it appears to be moving on its own is called a puppet.
2. The word ‘puppet’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘pupa’ whose literal meaning is doll.
Puppetry : Puppetry is a performing art or a form of theatre that involves manipulation of puppets.
Puppetry a dying art : Following are the various reasons for it :
1. Lack of patronage in the modern age. 2. Competition from Electronic media which is a preferred mode
of entertainment.
3. Puppetry Art is usually confined to only devotional and mythological stories.
4. With changing times, Puppetry does not take up modern social issues.
5. Puppetry lacks modernization in terms of script, lighting, sound and other stage effects.
classification of puppetry.
Puppetry has been classified as :
A. String Puppets :
1. It has jointed body and limbs that allow movement. 2. Puppets are made of wood, or wire, or cloth
stuffed with cotton, rags or saw dust. 3. The puppet is suspended from a hand held control strings that
are attached to different parts of the puppet’s body. 4. The puppet is manipulated by operating the
control as well as by loosening or pulling the relevant string(s). 5. For the convenience of manipulation
and support, two rods are attached to the hands of the puppets.
Examples :
i. Kathputli (Rajasthan)
ii. Kundhei (Orissa)
B. Glove Puppets :
1. The glove puppets are worn on hands just like a glove. 2. The middle finger and thumb act as hands of
the puppet and the index finger acts as the head. 3. Head is made of either cloth or wood, with two hands
emerging from just below the neck.
Examples :
i. Pava-kathakali (Kerala)
ii. Kundhei nach (Orissa)
C. Rod Puppets :
1. These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck
and both hands attached to rods are
joined at the shoulders. 2. The main holding rod that supports the puppet may be hidden by a robe
or costume of the puppet. 3. The action rods are usually connected to the hands of the puppet and
manipulated by the puppeteer to show action. 4. The body and hands have a bamboo base covered and
plastered with hay and rice husk mixed and moulded into required shape. 5. Due to the absence of legs
the puppets are draped in a sari or dhoti as per the character.
Examples :
i. Putul Nautch (WB)
ii. Yampuri (Bihar)
D. Shadow Puppets :
1. Shadow puppets are flat puppets that are operated against the rear of a tightly stretched white cloth
screen.
2. They are cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent. 3. Shadow puppets are
pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it.
4. The manipulation between the light and the screen make colourful shadows for the viewers who sit in
front of the screen.
5. The puppet shapes or cutouts are perforated and split bamboo or cane sticks are attached vertically to
the puppet for handling and manipulation.
Examples :
i. Ravanachhaya (Orissa)
ii. Tholu Bommalata (AP)
PART-3
Dance, Music, Theatre, Drama, Painting, Martial Arts Traditions,
Fairs and Festivals.
What are the various dance forms in India ?
1. The two major dance forms in India are classical and folk dance. The major difference between
classical and folk dance is the origin. 2. Classical dance has a deep-rooted relationship with the Natya
Shastra where the specific features of each of the classical dance forms have
been mentioned. 3. Folk dance, on the other hand, emerged from the local tradition of the
respective state, ethnic or geographic regions.
What are the aspects and basic elements of classical dance ? What are the basic technicalities that
are expressed in the classical dance ?
1. The Natya Shastra written by Bharat Muni is the most prominent source for establishing the
characteristics of the dances. 2. There are two basic aspects of classical dance :
i. Lasya : It denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya. It is symbolic to the feminine features of dance as an
art form.
ii. Tandava : This is symbolic to the male aspects of dance and has more emphasis on rhythm and
movement. 3. There are three basic elements classical dance :
i. Nritta : These are the basic dance steps and are performed rhythmically but devoid of any expression
or mood.
ii. Natya : It means dramatic representations and refers to the story that is elaborated through the dance
recital.
iii. Nritya : It refers to the sentiment and the emotions evoked through dance. It includes the mime and
the different methods of expression including mudras in the dance. 4. The Guru-Shishya paramapara
forms the core of the Indian classical dance forms. The basic meaning is that each dance form is related to
a Guru (Teacher) and he/she transfers that knowledge of dance to a
Shishya (Student.) 5. The 8 basic technicalities that are expressed in the classical dance are
given below :
i. Shringar : Love ii. Hasya : Humorous iii. Karuna : Sorrow iv. Raudra : Anger v. Veer : Heroism
vi. Bhayanak : Fear vii. Bibhats : Disgust [Link] : Wonder
What are the classical dances of India ?
The classical dances in India are given below :
A. Bharatnatyam (Tamil Nadu) : 1. Bharatanatyam is an important classical dance form in India. It
originated in the temples of South India, particularly, Tamil Nadu. 2. Bharatnatyam dance is known to be
ekaharya, where one dancer takes on many roles in a single performance. 3. This dance form is
performed by both men and women. 4. The costumes worn are bright coloured. Women wear saris and
men wear dhotis. 5. There is a lot of make-up and bright ornaments used, which accentuate the facial
expressions and gestures of the performers. 6. The music used is Carnatic classical music, accompanied
by instruments such as flute, violin and the Mridangam. 7. Gestures used in Bharatanatyam are called
Hastas or Mudras.
B. Kathak (Uttar Pradesh) :
1. The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which means a story. 2. It was primarily a
temple or village performance wherein the dancers narrated stories from ancient scriptures.
3. Usually a solo performance, the dancer often pauses to recite verses followed by their execution
through movement. 4. The focus is more on footwork; the movements are skillfully controlled and
performed straight legged by dancers wearing ankle-bells. 5. Kathak is the only form of classical dance
wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music.
C. Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh) :
1. Kuchipudi was originally performed by the group of actors going from village to village known as
‘Kusselavas’. 2. Lasya and tandava elements are important in Kuchipudi dance form.
3. The dance style is a manifestation of earthly elements in the human body. 4. The dancer may
undertake the role of the singer as well becoming a dance-drama performance.
5. The music of dance is Carnatic.
D. Odissi (Odisha) :
1. Odissi is a classical India dance form and it originates from the state of Odisha. It is a sensuous and
lyrical dance form. 2. It touches on the human and the divine aspects of life. It also touches on
the subtleties of life, as well as the mundane. 3. It is a soft dance backed by soothing lyrics and is similar
to Bharatanatyam in terms of the mudras and expressions. 4. It incorporates two major postures -
Tribhanga and Chowk.
E. Kathakali (Kerala) :
1. Kathakali is the most popular dance form of Kerala. The word translates as Story-Play. It is popular for
its make-up and costumes. 2. Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories,
which are mostly adapted from the Indian epics. 3. The dancers enact the roles of the stories with
particular make-up and costume. 4. Different facial colours indicate different mental stages and
character, e.g., green - nobility, black - wicked, red patches - combining royalty and
evil. 5. Hand gestures, facial expressions and eye movements are important.
F. Sattriya (Assam) :
1. The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the Vaishnava saint and reformer
of Assam, Sankaradeva as a medium for propagation of the Vaishnava faith. 2. The dance form evolved
and expanded as a distinctive style of dance
later on. 3. Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras (Vaishnava monasteries),
this dance style has been named Sattriya. 4. Sattriya dance tradition is governed by strictly laid down
principles in respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc.
G. Manipuri (Manipur) :
1. The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that go beyond recorded history.
2. The dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional festivals, there are legendary
references to the dances of Shiva and Parvati and other gods and goddesses who created the universe.
3. Manipur dance has a large repertoire, however, the most popular forms are the Ras, the Sankirtana.
4. There are essentially two divisions in the classical Manipuri dance : i. Jagoi : Predominant in Ras Leela,
this steam represents the Lasya element described in Bharata's Natya Shastra.
ii. Cholom : This represents the Tandava form of classical dance. 5. Chief instruments used are the drum
and the flute.
H. Mohiniyattam (Kerala) :
1. Mohiniyattam or dance of Mohini is the classical solo dance form of Kerala. 2. Mohiniyattam is based
on Natya Shastra’s lasya style. 3. It has delicate movements and more feminine facial expressions.
4. The movements are gentle and glide-like. They do not have terse
rhythmic steps. 5. More emphasis is on the facial expressions and hand gestures. 6. It is traditionally
performed only by women.
the fundamental elements of Indian Music.
Following are the fundamental elements of Indian Music :
A. Sruti :
1. Commonly refers to musical pitch. 2. It is the shortest interval of pitch that human ears can detect and
a musical instrument or a singer can produce. 3. According to Natya Shastra, there are 22 srutis.
B. Swara :
1. It refers to type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative position of a note, rather
than a defined frequency. 2. There are 7 swaras in the form of Sa, Ri or Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni.
3. These 7 swaras are related to sounds of certain birds and animals.
C. Raga :
1. A raga prescribes a set of rules for building a melody. 2. It is characterized by a combination of notes
picked out of the total 22 srutis.
3. Ragas involve arrangement of swaras in different sequences. 4. All the ragas are categorized in such a
way that there will be an increasing and decreasing order of swaras. 5. Following are some important
ragas :
i. Raga Bhairav : It is a morning raga.
ii. Raga Marwa : It is sung during late afternoon hours till sunset.
iii. Raga Pahadi : It is an evening raga.
iv. Raga Yaman : It is an evening raga. It is sung from sunset till late
evening.
v. Raga Jog : It is sung after midnight in the wee hours of morning.
vi. Raga Malhar : It is associated with rain.
vii. Raga Deepak : It is associated with fire.
D. Tala :
1. Tala refers to the beat set for a particular composition (a measure of
time). 2. It is a sequence of beats performed by singers using hands and fingers at fixed time cycles.
3. These rhythmical cycles vary from 3 to 128 beats. 4. Tala is intricately related to ‘Laya’ which refers to
repetitive nature of any activity.

Indian Classical Music.

1. The Indian classical music has two distinct varieties : Hindustani music and Carnatic music. 2.
Hindustani music belongs to the Northern part of the country, and the
Carnatic music is south Indian. 3. Hindustani music became popular during the Mughal Empire. Some
Persian and Arabic elements have been assimilated in this music system. 4. Following are the styles of
singing and composition in Hindustani music :
i. Dhrupad :
1. This is the oldest and grandest form of Hindustani music. 2. It is essentially poetic and it is presented in
a style marked with precise and orderly elaboration of Raga.
3. Its rhythm is mostly of 12 beats. 4. Greater significance is given to music rather than words.
ii. Khayal :
1. Khayal means imagination. 2. This is the most prominent style in Hindustani depicting romantic style
of singing. 3. It largely depends on the imagination and improvisation of the performer.
4. It is also composed of particular raga and tala. 5. It ranges from praise of kings description of seasons
and pranks of Lord
Sri Krishna.
iii. Thumri :
1. Thumri originated in the eastern part of Uttar Pradesh. 2. It is influenced by hori, kajri, Dadra.
3. Tumhri is supposed to be romantic and erotic style of singing and is also called “lyric of Indian classical
music”. 4. The song composition mainly on love and devotion.
iv. Tarana :
1. Tarana are medium to fast paced songs that are usually performed towards the end of the concert.
2. They consist of a few lines of poetry with rhythmic syllables. 3. It is characterized by the use of
meaningless syllables in a very fast rendition.
v. Tappa :
1. Tappa is a form of Indian semi-classical vocal music. 2. Tappa developed around the 18th century. It
means jump in Persian. 3. It originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and was
developed as a form of classical music by Mian Ghulam Nabi Shori.
vi. Ghazal :
1. Ghazal is an originally Persian form of Poetry. 2. In India, Ghazal became the most common form of
poetry in the Urdu language.
vii. Qawwali :
1. Qawwali is a fusion of Persian and Indian musical traditions. 2. It is devotional in nature.
3. It is sung in a group with a solo voice against a chorus.
[Link]/Bhajan :
1. Kirtan was originated by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. 2. Kirtan involves chanting hymns or mantras.
3. Musical instruments such as Harmonium, Tablas, Mridang and Cymbals are used.
ix. Carnatic Music :
1. Carnatic sangeet is the South Indian system of classical music. 2. Carnatic Sangeet is found in the south
Indian states of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. 3. Purandardas is considered as the
father of Carnatic Music. 4. Carnatic music is based upon a system of ragam (rag) and thalam (tal).
5. Musical instruments used are veena (vina), violin, mridangam, nadaswaram, and the tavil.
What are traditional theatre forms in India ? List the main elements of theatre. Name some of the
traditional art forms of India.
1. Traditional theatre is a combination of acting, singing, dance, music,
dialogue, narration. 2. It started as a narrative form of art where recitations, dance, and music played a
central role in depicting the local history, societal ethos etc. 3. It is based on spontaneous creativity
emerging from circumstances.
4. Traditional theatre is often a key feature of cultural promotion.
5. The main elements of theatre are :
i. Plot
ii. Character
iii. Thought
iv. Diction
v. Music
vi. Spectacle
Following are the traditional art forms of India :
i. Bhavai :
1. It is a traditional theatre form of Gujarat and Rajasthan. 2. It is a synthesis of devotional and romantic
sentiments. 3. It consists of dance to narrate series of small plays known as Vesha or
Swanga. 4. It is accompanied by semi-classical music.
ii. Nautanki :
1. Nautanki is popular in the state of Uttar Pradesh. 2. The theme is based on historical, social and folk
tales, delivered through dance and music. 3. Dialogues are delivered in a lyrical fashion accompanied by
drum beats called Nagara.
iii. Rasleela :
1. It is a theatre form popular in Uttar Pradesh. 2. It depicts the legends of Lord Krishna.
3. In this theatre form, dialogues are in pros combined with songs and scenes from the pranks of Krishna.
iv. Bhand Pather :
1. It is a traditional theatre form of Kashmir. 2. It consists of unique combinations of dance, drama, and
acting. 3. Surnai, Nagara, and dhol are the instruments used in this theatre form. 4. It is mainly performed
by the farming community, reflecting their ideas and way of living.
v. Swang :
1. It is a popular theatre form of Punjab and Haryana. 2. It is mainly a musical drama sung through verses.
3. Ektara, Harmonium, Sarangi, Dholak, and Kharta are the instruments used in it.
vi. Maach :
1. Maach is a theatre form of the region of Malwa in Madhya Pradesh. 2. The term Maach is used for the
stage as well as the play. 3. It is based on mythological themes and later romantic folk tales were
also included. 4. Songs are given importance between the dialogues in this theatre form. 5. Dialogues in
this form are called Bol.
vii. Ankia Naat :
1. It is a theatre form present in the state of Assam. 2. Cultural glimpses of Assam, West Bengal, Odisha,
Mathura, and Brindavan can be seen this theatre form. 3. The narration begins with a story in Sanskrit
and later switch to Brajboli or Assamese.
4. Use of Masks to depict special expression is one of the unique features of this theatre form.
[Link] :
1. It is the most developed theatre form of Konkan and Goa. 2. The ten incarnation of Lord Vishnu-the god
of preservation and creativity are personified by the performers.
3. Apart from makeup, performers wear a mask of wood and papier mache.
Write a short note on modern theatre in India ?
1. The medieval period witnessed the emergence of regional language literatures. But it did not produce
dramatic works comparable to ancient classics. 2. Some innovations happened in religious drama due to
socio-religious reform. 3. Indian drama was reborn during British colonial interregnum in 18th
and 19th centuries. 4. The impetus came from two sources : the rich heritage of Indian drama
and the exposure to Western dramatic classics through English. 5. Translations started appearing
simultaneously of Sanskrit classics and Western classics, particularly Shakespeare. 7. An unprecedented
development in theatre was the rise of urban entertainment theatre. 8. This arose in order to provide
entertainment to the increasing population of big cities consequent upon industrialization.
9. The new urban theatre is popularly known as Parsi theatre. 10. This genre was an interesting mixture
of Western Naturalistic drama, opera and several local elements.
short note on drama ?
1. Bharata’s Natya Shastra was the earliest and most elaborate treatise on
drama written anywhere in the world. 2. India has the longest and richest tradition in theatre going back
to at least 5000 years. 3. The origin of drama in India is closely related to ancient rituals and
seasonal festivities. 4. The growth in drama took place with the introduction of “curtain” in the
kushanas era. 5. Traditionally the theatre consisted of the auditorium, stage and the
backstage which is behind the stage. Curtain separates the stage and backstage.
6. The drama was performed without scenery and decorations. It was
more of acting and gestures by the actors. 7. Costume and make-up was regulated by convention so that
roles were
immediately recognizable.
8. Most type of drama had a hero, a heroine, a villain and a “vidushaka” as a comedian. Themes were
mainly based on love. 9. The drama generally opened with a benediction song followed by a
prologue in the form of a dialogue/discussion between the chief actor and his actress giving the title,
nature and occasion of the play. 10. Violence and death were forbidden to be performed in the stage.
11. At the end of the play came a concluding verse - a virtual vote of thanks.
Explain the evolution of Indian paintings. Give classification of Indian paintings. Evolution of
Indian paintings :
1. The tradition of paintings has been carried on in the Indian subcontinent
since the ancient times. 2. With time, Indian classical paintings evolved to become a sort of blend of
the various traditions influencing them. 3. Indian paintings provide on aesthetic continuum that extends
from the early civilization to the present day.
4. In the beginning Indian painting was essentially religious in purpose. 5. But as year passed by Indian
painting became a fusion of various culture and traditions. 6. During the colonial era, Western influences
started to make an impact on Indian art.
7. By the time of Independence in 1947, several schools of art in India provided access to modern
techniques and ideas. 8. Galleries were established to showcase these artists. 9. Indian art got a boost
with the economic liberalization of the country since early 1990s.
10. Artists from various fields started bringing in varied styles of work post liberalization.
11. Indian art thus works not only within the confines to academic traditions but also outside it.
Classification of Indian paintings :
1. Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals and miniatures. 2. Murals are large works
executed on the walls of solid structures directly. 3. Miniature paintings are executed on a very small
scale for books or albums on perishable material such as paper and cloth.
Describe mural paintings with some examples.
1. Mural is inherently different from all other forms of pictorial art and is organically connected with
architecture. 2. Mural is the only form of painting that is three-dimensional, since it
modifies and partakes of a given space.
3. Mural paintings are applied on dry wall with the major use of egg yolk,
oil, etc. 4. A mural artist must conceive pictorially a theme on the appropriate
scale with reference to the structural exigencies of the wall and to the idea expressed.
5. The history of Indian murals starts from 2nd century BC to 8th - 10th
century AD.
Notable examples of mural paintings :
i. Ajanta Murals Paintings :
1. Depict a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales). 2. Exclusively Buddhist,
excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars.
3. Prominent feature => Half closed drooping eyes.
ii. Ellora Murals Paintings :
1. Painted in rectangular panels with thick borders.
2. Prominent features => Sharp twist of the head + painted angular bents of the arms + sharp projected
nose + long drawn open eyes + concave curve of the close limbs.
iii. Badami Mural Paintings :
1. A cave site in Karnataka, patronized by chalukya king, Manglesha. 2. Depictions in the caves show
Vaishnava affiliation, therefore, the cave is popularly known as Vishnu cave. 3. Only a fragment of
painting has survived on the vaulted roof of the front mandapa.
4. Badami cave painting represents an extension of the tradition of mural
painting from Ajanta to Badami in south India.
Describe miniature paintings with some examples.
1. In these paintings, very fine details were portrayed by the painter. 2. If a miniature painting is
observed under a magnifying glass, more details become visible. 3. In a miniature painting the objects are
depicted at the most 1/6th of their original size.
4. The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers of miniature painting in India.
5. The art of miniature painting reached its glory during the Mughal period.
Notable examples of miniature paintings :
i. The Pala School (11th - 12th century) :
1. Earliest examples of miniature painting in India. 2. Exist in the form of illustrations to the religious
texts on Buddhism.
3. A large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf relating to the Buddhist
themes were written, illustrated with the images of Buddhist deities at the center. 4. The Pala painting is
characterized by sinuous line and subdued tones of colour.
ii. Western Indian School of Painting (12th - 16th century) :
1. Also called Jain Painting, largely devoted to the illustration of Jain
religious texts. 2. Notable sites => Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Central India & Orissa. 3. Characterized by
simple, bright colours, highly conventionalized figures, and wiry, angular drawing.
4. The earliest manuscripts are on palm leaves with the figures shown from a frontal view.
5. The facial type, with its pointed nose, resembles to wall paintings at Ellora.
6. Prominent feature => Projecting “further eye,” which extends beyond the outline of the face in profile.
iii. Mughal Paintings (16th - 19th century) :
1. Mainly confined to miniature illustrations on the books or as single works to be kept in an album.
2. Mughal paintings were a unique blend of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles.
3. Marked by supple naturalism => Primarily aristocratic and secular. 4. Tried to paint the classical ragas
and Seasons or baramasa. 5. Akbar’s reign ushered a new era in Indian miniature painting.
iv. Rajput Painting (16th - 19th century) :
1. Unlike Mughal paintings which were contemporary in style, Rajput paintings were traditional &
romantic.
2. Rajput painting is further divided into Rajasthani painting and Pahari painting (art of the Himalayan
kingdom’s).
Explain the term ‘martial art’. Also mention different,martial art forms of India.
1. India is famous for its martial arts that have developed since ancient
times. 2. The term ‘martial art’ refers to creativity exhibited by warriors while
fighting against their opponents. 3. These warriors use different gestures, postures and techniques to
overcome their opponents. 4. Nowadays these art forms are used in rituals, celebrations, in sports,
means of physical fitness, as a self defence.
5. Many of the arts are related to dance, yoga etc.

Different martial art forms of India :

i. Kalaripayattu (Kerala specially) & rest of south :
1. Weapon based type. 2. “Kalari” means arena. “Payattu” means combat/fighting. 3. Involves strikes,
kicks, grappling, preset forms, weaponry and healing methods, the footwork movement.
4. Kerala’s “Kathakali” incorporates greatly of this in their routines.
ii. Silambam (Tamil Nadu) :
1. Weapon based type. 2. Variety of weapons used. 3. Majorly used “Silambam staff” as a weapon.
4. Foot movements play a key role. 5. Movements of animals like snake, tiger, elephant and eagle used.
iii. Gatka (Punjab) :
1. Weapon based. 2. Used by Sikhs mainly. 3. Gatka means - “One whose freedom belongs to grace”.
4. Stick, Sword, kirpan or kataar used as weapon.
iv. Musti Yuddha (Varanasi) :
1. Unarmed type. 2. Punches, kicks, knees and elbow strikes used.
v. Thang Ta (Manipur) :
1. Weapon Based. 2. “Thang” means sword. “Ta” means spear. 3. Anything from sword or spear can be
used. 4. Other weapons used are shield and axe. 5. Used in three different ways: as ritual, as spectacular
performance and as fighting technique.
vi. Lathi (Punjab & Bengal) :
1. Weapon Based. 2. Cane Sticks used. 3. Popular more in villages.
vii. Mardani Khel (Kolhapur, Maharashtra) :
1. Weapon Based. 2. Created by Marathas. 3. Suitable for hilly regions. 4. Uses sword mainly & needs
rapid movements.
[Link]-Khanda (Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha) :
1. Weapon Based. 2. Created by Rajputs. 3. “Pari” means shield & “Khanda” means sword.
ix. Inbuan Wrestling (Mizoram) :
1. Unarmed Type.
2. Has strict rules prohibiting kicking, stepping out of the circle and bending
of the knees. 3. Aim is to lift the opponent off his feet while strictly adhering to the rules.
4. Catching hold of the belt worn by the wrestlers around the waist; it has to remain tight all through the
game.
x. Thoda (Himachal Pradesh) :
1. Weapon Based. 2. Originated from the times of Mahabharata. 3. Generally based on archery skills. 4.
“Thoda” is the round piece of wood fixed to the head of the arrow.
. Write a short note on fairs and festivals.
1. People in India celebrate their religious and cultural occasions by organizing cultural activities in the
form of fairs and festivals. 2. Every Indian state and socio-cultural group has its unique traditions
which reflect in their celebrations. 3. People use folk music, dances and other forms of entertainment to
enjoy these important occasions. 4. Vibrant, fascinating and beautiful Indian fairs and festivals reflect the
cultural strength and diversity of India. 5. Indian festivals can be broadly divided into 3 categories,
namely national or political, religious and economic.
6. Most Indian festivals are connected to seasons and economic activities. 7. Fairs and festivals help in
breaking the monotony of life. 8. Cultural activities organized on these occasions invigorate everyone.
9. Economic activities get a boost because artisans and craftsmen set up their stalls to sell their products
at fairs. 10. These occasions also give boost to tourism because they attract millions
of tourists every year. 11. The voice of Indian heritage and culture is carried by these celebrations
beyond Indian boundaries. 12. Festivals are secular as well as religious in nature.
13. Festivals such as Independence Day and Republic Day are examples of secular festivals.
14. Holi, Diwali, Chhath, and Onam, etc. are examples of religious festivals.
Discuss the major religious festivals of India.
Following are major religious festivals celebrated in India :
1. Holi :
i. Holi is celebrated at the end of the winter season on the last full moon day of the lunar month phalguna
which usually falls in the later part of February or March. ii. Holi is celebrated by people throwing
coloured powder and coloured water at each other. iii. The bonfires are lit in memory of the escape of
Prahlad when Demoness Holika, sister of Hiranyakashipu carried him into the
fire.
2. Maha Shivaratri :
i. Maha Shivaratri is a Hindu festival celebrated every year on the 13th night in the Krishna Paksha of the
month of Phalguna. ii. The festival is celebrated by going to Shiva Temple, all day fasting and all night
long vigil.
3. Diwali :
i. Diwali popularly known as the festival of lights. ii. Diwali involves the lighting of small clay lamps to
signify the triumph of good over evil. iii. Diwali commemorates the return of Lord Rama along with Sita
and Lakshmana from his fourteen year long exile and vanquishing the demon King Ravana.
4. Navaratri :
i. Navaratri is a Hindu festival of worship of Shakti and dance and festivities. ii. The word Navaratri
means nine nights. During these nine nights, nine forms of Shakti or Devi are worshipped.
5. Vinayaka Chaturthi :
i. Vinayaka Chaturthi is the Hindu festival of Ganesha, who is believed to bestow his presence on earth for
all his devotees in the duration of this festival. ii. It is the birthday of Ganesha who is widely worshipped
as the God of wisdom, prosperity and good fortune.
6. Guru Purnima :
i. Guru Purnima is a festival traditionally celebrated by Hindus and
Buddhists. ii. Traditionally the festival is celebrated by Buddhists in the honor of the lord Buddha who
gave his first sermon on this day at Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, while Hindus on this day offer Puja or pay
respect to their Guru.
7. Thai Pongal :
i. Thai Pongal is harvest festival celebrated in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and Sri Lanka.
ii. Thai Pongal is celebrated at harvest time to thank the Sun God and farmstead livestock that helped to
create the material abundance. iii. The boiling over of milk in the clay pot symbolizes material
abundance for the household.
8. Raksha Bandhan or Rakhi :
i. Raksha Bandhan or Rakhi is a festival primarily observed in North India by Hindus and Sikhs.
ii. The central ceremony involves the tying of rakhi by a sister on her brother’s wrist.
iii. This symbolizes the sister's love and prayers for her brother’s well being, and the brother’s lifelong
vow to protect her.
9. Vasant Panchami :
i. Vasant Panchami is a Hindu festival celebrating Saraswati, the goddess of knowledge, music and art.
ii. Traditionally during this festival children are taught to write their first words; Brahmins are fed;
ancestor worship is performed. iii. The colour yellow plays an important role in this festival, in that
people usually wear yellow garments.
10. Karva Chauth :
i. Karva Chauth is an annual one-day festival celebrated by Hindu and Sikh women in North India in
which married women fast from sunrise to moonrise for the safety and longevity of their husbands.
ii. Sometimes unmarried women observe the fast for their fiancés or
desire one.
11. Buddha Poornima :
i. Commemorates the birth anniversary of Lord Buddha. ii. Pilgrims come from all over the world to Bodh
Gaya to attend the Buddha Poornima celebrations. iii. The day is marked with prayer meets, sermons on
the life of Gautam Buddha, religious discourses, continuous recitation of Buddhist scriptures, group
meditation, processions, worship of the statue of
Buddha.
iv. The Mahabodhi Temple wears a festive look and is decorated with colourful flags and flowers.
12. Janmashtami :
i. Krishna Janmashtami is an annual Hindu festival. ii. It is celebrated to mark birth anniversary of Lord
Krishna, the 8th incarnation of Vishnu. iii. It is celebrated with greatest devotion and fervor in Mathura
and Vrindavan and throughout India.
iv. People keep fast and sing devotional songs of Krishna on the day of Janmashtami.
13. Christmas :
i. Christmas is observed on December 25 to commemorate the birth of Jesus.
ii. On this day gifts are given, Christmas cards are exchanged, Christmas trees are decorated.
iii. There are special prayer and celebrations in Church on this day. iv. Santa Claus brings gifts to children
on Christmas.
14. Ramzan :
i. It is the Islamic month of fasting in which participating Muslims refrain from, eating drinking and
sexual relations from dawn until sunset. ii. Fasting is intended to teach Muslims about patience, humility
and spirituality. iii. It is a time for Muslims to fast for the sake of God and to offer more
prayer than usual.
15. Muharram :
i. Muharram is the first month of the Islamic calendar. ii. The pre-Islamic period in the Arabian Peninsula
was the era of warring tribes. In the absence of a strong leadership, there were conflicts and battles on
minor issues. iii. But fighting was prohibited in four months of the year. iv. These months, of which
Muharram was one, were considered
sacred.
16. Easter :
i. Easter is the oldest and holiest Christian festival. ii. Easter is the day when Jesus Christ was crucified
and the Christians offer prayers and services in the Churches. iii. On this day Jesus Christ rose from the
dead and ascended into
heaven. iv. Easter eggs and Easter bunnies are a major attraction during Easter, the festival of
rejuvenation of life and living.
brief account of the important fairs of India.

1. Kumbha Mela :
i. Kumbha mela is a mass Hindu pilgrimage. ii. Kumbh mela is unique in the respect that it does not
exhibit the features associated with a traditional Indian fair.
iii. It is basically a religious congregation which is held once every 12 years (Maha Kumbha) at one of the
four holy places (Allahabad, Ujjain, Nasik, Haridwar) in turn. iv. An “ardha” or half Kumbha occurs every
6 years.
2. Pushkar Mela :
i. Pushkar, near Ajmer, in Rajasthan is famous place of Hindu pilgrimage. ii. Pushkar is famous for its
large natural lake and its temple dedicated to Lord Brahma. iii. On Kartik poornima, or any of the four
days preceding it, an annual festival is held here. iv. During this fair animal from all parts of North India
are brought here for sale.
3. Kulu Mela :
i. To the north, Dussehra, brings with it a fair in Kulu Valley. ii. It is time for gods and goddess to forsake
their temples and adore the fields amidst the sun. iii. Each village has its god. They are led in a noisy
procession by musicians and minstrels from their various high perches in the hills to the fields of Kulu
below.
4. Rath Yatra of Puri :
i. Puri, which is the abode of Lord Jagannath is one of the seven most sacred places of Hindu Pilgrimage.
ii. During Shravan (July/August) the presiding deities Krishna, his brother Balabhadra and Sister
Subhadra are taken in three colossal chariots, built in the shape of temple to Gundichi Bati, near Puri. iii.
Every year thousands of devotees come to Puri to tug the ropes of the Chariot, to take Jagannath from the
temple at Puri to his suburban home at Gundichi Bari.
5. Hola Mohalla :
i. It is a Sikh festival held every year on Holi at Anandpur Sahib. ii. This festival is held in the form of a fair
to commemorate the militarisation of the Sikhs into the order of Nihangs (Warriormendicants)
by the last Sikh Guru Shri Govind Singh. iii. The main focus of this fair is the display of martial arts like
archery, sword fencing, horse-riding etc.
6. Urs at Ajmer Sharif :
i. Urs is the birth or death anniversary celebrations at a dargah. Urs are held annually at the dargah of
famous Sufi saints. ii. Unique character of these celebrations is that people visit in large number to take
the blessings of the revered saints irrespective of caste and creed. iii. Ajmer Sharif is the dargah of Shaikh
Muinuddin Chishti, the founder of Chishti sufi order in India. iv. Annual Urs celebrations continue here
for seven days. The chief attraction here are the sessions of qawwali.
7. Goa Carnival :
i. In the month of February the residents of Goa, especially of Panaji, celebrate a carnival that lasts for a
week.
. Explain various modes through which Indian culture spread abroad.
A. Spread of Indian culture through traders :
1. In ancient times, traders from India went to distant lands in search of new opportunities in business.
2. They went to Rome in the west and China in the east. 3. As early as the first century BC, they travelled
to countries like Indonesia and Cambodia in search of gold. 4. These traders travelled from many
flourishing cities like Kashi, Mathura, Ujjain, Prayag and Pataliputra. 5. Wherever the traders went, they
established cultural links with those places.
6. In this way, the traders served as cultural ambassadors and established trade relations with the
outside world.
B. Spread of Indian culture through teachers :
1. The universities were the most important centres of cultural interaction. 2. They attracted large
numbers of students and scholars. The scholars coming from abroad often visited the library of Nalanda
University. 3. Students and teachers from such universities carried Indian culture abroad along with its
knowledge and religion.
C. Spread of Indian culture through other modes :
1. Romas or Gypsies some groups of Indians went abroad as wanderers. 2. They went towards the West,
crossing the present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan.
3. From there, their caravans went through Iran and Iraq to Turkey. Travelling through Persia, Taurus
Mountains and Constantinople, they spread to many countries of Europe. 4. It took them almost four
hundred years to spread to these countries in Europe.
5. By that time, though they had forgotten their original home, they did retain their language, customs,
ways of living, and their professions.
. What was the contribution of India in the field of mathematics, astronomy and medical science ?

1. India’s links with West Asia, by land as well as sea routes, goes back to
very ancient times. 2. An important contribution of India to Arab civilization was mathematics.
3. The Arabs acknowledged their debt to India by calling mathematics
‘hindisa’ (pertaining to India). 4. Indian mathematics became their favourite field of study and discussion,
its popularity being enhanced by the works of Alkindi among others. 5. They were quick to appreciate the
revolutionary character of the Indian decimal system with its concept of zero. 6. In the field of astronomy,
two important works namely the Brahmasphuta- siddhanta better known to the Arab world as Sindhin
and Khandakhadyaka (known as Arkand) were brought to Baghdad by embassies from Sindh. 7. With the
help of Indian scholars of these embassies, they were translated into Arabic by Alfazari. m8. Several
Indian works on medicine and therapeutics that were rendered into Arabic at the behest of the Caliph
Harun al-Rashid, the ruler of Baghdad. 9. Indian scholars were also involved in these translations. For
instance, the Sushruta Samhita was translated by an Indian called Mankh in Arabic.
10. All these knowledge in the field of mathematics, astronomy and medical science learned by Arabs
from India were passed on to Europe.
What do you mean by the term 'cinema' ? Explain the various era's of Indian Cinema.
The word ‘cinema’ is a short form of ‘cinematography’. It refers to the art of
filmmaking.
Various era of Indian Cinema : Following are the era’s of Indian cinema :
A. Early Indian cinema (1898 to 1945) :
1. Age of Silent Films :
i. The earliest of films were silent films. ii. The dialogues delivered by actors were not audible to viewers
because technology was not advanced enough to record both visuals and audio simultaneously.
iii. The plot used to be told through writings using title cards. iv. These silent films were not completely
silent. They were accompanied by live sounds. A small orchestra used to play music during the films as
per the nature of scene.
2. Age of Talking Films or Talkies :
i. With the start of 1930s, a new era of talkies commenced in Indian cinema.
ii. Talkie was a sound film or a motion picture having synchronized sound.
iii. The first talkie in India was ‘Alam Ara’. iv. This release set a new trend in India and regional talkies
also started after ‘Alam Ara’.
B. Golden era of Indian Cinema (1940 to 1960) :
i. In the late 1940s, Indian cinema picked up the new ‘masala’ themed films depicting music, dance and
romance. ii. This era was led by directors like Guru Dutt, Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy and
Mehboob Khan. iii. They brought new depth to the themes prevalent in India. iv. This era laid the
foundation stone of Indian cinema inspiring generations of film makers. v. With the independence of
India in 1947, a statutory body was created by enacting the Cinematograph Act in 1952 with the name of
Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC).
vi. It was placed under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
C. Classic decades of Indian Cinema (1970s and 1980s) :
i. The films of this phase were characterized by a mixture of genre of romance and action.
ii. This phase was dominated by film makers like Ramesh Sippy, Hrishikesh Mukherjee and Vijay Anand.
iii. Iconic films like ‘Zanjeer’ and ‘Sholay’ became huge commercial success and went on to become
trendsetters in Indian cinema. iv. The term ‘Bollywood’ was coined during the 1970s with the
establishment of Conventions of Commercial Bollywood Films (CCBF).
D. New Bollywood phase of Indian Cinema (1990s to Present) :
i. During the late 1980s, Indian cinema faced a phase of stagnation because of increasing use of violence,
issues related to quality of music and rise in cases of video theft. ii. With the release of Yash Chopra’s epic
film ‘Chandni’, Indian cinema rejuvenated itself and an era of romance started. iii. The beginning of the
21st century marked commencement of an era of technological evolution. iv. The new technology,
advancements in terms of animation, special effects, digital projectors, latest production techniques, etc.
improved the quality of Indian films and increased its popularity among the masses.
: The Cinematograph Act, 1952.
1. The Cinematograph Act, 1952 is an Act to make provision for the certification of cinematograph films
for exhibition and for regulating exhibitions by means of cinematographs.
2. The Act gives power to the government to establish a Board to assess the film’s suitability for the
audience. 3. Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC) (Censor Board) was created under the provisions
of this Act. 4. A film is judged based on the overall impact and is evaluated in light of
the film's period depicted and contemporary standards in the country. 5. While certifying films for
unrestricted public exhibition, the CBFC shall ensure that the movie is suitable for family viewing.
6. The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting drafted the Cinematograph Amendment Bill, 2019 to
amend Cinematograph Act, 1952.
7. This Bill contains provisions to tackle film piracy by making unapproved cam-recording and
duplication of films a penal offence.
Write a short note on: Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC).
1. The Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC), commonly known as the Censor Board, is an important
body that handles film certification in India. 2. It is a statutory body under the Information and
Broadcasting Ministry. 3. It regulates the public exhibition of films under the provisions of the
Cinematograph Act 1952. 4. Films can be exhibited to the public only after they have been certified
by the CBFC.
–5. Films are certified into four categories in India. They are :
i. U – unrestricted ii. UA - unrestricted but with a parental discretion advisory for children under 12 years
iii. A – adult iv. S - only for a special class of persons 6. The main aim of establishing CBFC is to promote a
healthy entertainment industry. 7. Certification by CBFC is necessary for international and dubbed films
too.
: Films Division of India.
1. Films Division of India was established in 1948 to articulate the energy of a newly independent nation.
2. The main purpose behind establishing this division was to extend support
towards the cultural aspects of India. 3. The main functions and responsibilities of Films Division are as
follows : i. It focuses on national perspectives by educating the people in implementation of national
development programmes. ii. It is responsible for presenting a positive image and heritage of our
country to Indian as well as foreign audiences. iii. It fosters growth of documentary films in the areas of
information, communication and integration. iv. It produces news magazines, short films, animation films
and documentaries.
4. It is the main film-medium organization of the Government of India. 5. It is well equipped with trained
film personnel, cameras, recording and editing facilities. 6. This infrastructure is put to use to assist in-
house as well as independent film makers and producers.