2.7.1.

2 Block Coding
 Block coding changes m bits into a block of
n bits (n > m)
 Referred as mB/nB encoding technique
 Block coding normally involves 3 steps :
 Division – a sequence of bits is divided into
groups of m bits (ex : in 4B/5B encoding, the
original bit sequence is divided into 4-bit
groups).
 Substitution – substitute an m-bit group for
an n-bit group (ex : in 4B/5B encoding, a 4-
bit code is substituted for a 5-bit group.
 Combination – n-bit groups are combined
together to form a stream.
 The new stream has more bits than the
original bits

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 1

[Link] Block Coding
 4B/5B
 was designed to be used in combination with NRZ-I
 to overcome a long 0s synchronization problem, 4B/5B technique is used prior
to encoding with NRZ-I to prevent a long stream of 0s.

 In 4B/5B, the 5-bit output that replaces the 4-bit input has no more than 1
leading (zero and 2 trailing zeros).
 when different groups are combined to make a new sequence, there are never
more than 3 consecutive 0s.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 2

[Link] Block Coding

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 3

[Link] Scrambling
 modified part of bipolar AMI technique
 Narrow bandwidth and does not create a DC component problem.
 However long 0s upset the synchronization and not suitable for long distance.
 Looking for a solution – a technique that does not increase the number of bits
and providing synchronization.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 4

[Link] Scrambling
 B8ZS
 Commonly used in North America
 Updated version of AMI with synchronization
 Substitutes eight consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB
 V denotes “violation”, B denotes “bipolar”

 Letter V (violation) : same polarity as the polarity of the previous nonzero pulse.
 Letter B (bipolar) : polarity opposite to the polarity of the previous nonzero
pulse.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 5

[Link] Scrambling
 HDB3
 High-density bipolar 3-zero
 Commonly used outside of North America
 HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or B00V depending on the
number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution
 If the number of the nonzero pulses after the last substitution is odd, the
substitution pattern I 000V, which makes the number of nonzero pulses even.
 If the number of the nonzero pulses after the last substitution is even, the
substitution pattern is B00V, which make the total number of nonzero pulses
even

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 6

2.7.2 Analog-To-Digital Conversion
 Analog information (e.g., voice)  digital signal (e.g., 10001011…)

 Two techniques :
 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Delta Modulation

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 7

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Three processes :
 The analog signal is sampled
 The sampled signal is quantized
 The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 8

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Sampling (PAM – Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
 According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least 2 times the
highest frequency contained in the signal.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 9

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates :

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 10

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Ex : telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a maximum frequency of
4000 Hz. The sampling rate therefore is 8000 samples per second.

 Ex : a complex low-pass signal as a bandwidth of 200 kHz. What is the

minimum sampling rate for this signal ?

 Ex : a complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.

What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal ?

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 11

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Quantization
 The result of sampling is a series of pulses with amplitude values between the
maximum and minimum amplitude of the signal.
 The set of amplitudes can be infinite with nonintegral values between the two limits
and the values cannot be used in the encoding process.
 Steps in Quantization
 Assume that the original analog signal has instantaneous amplitudes between Vmin
and Vmax.
 The range is divided into L zones, each of height Δ (delta).

V max  V min

L
 Assign quantized values of 0 to L-1 to the midpoint of each zone.
 Approximate the value of the sample amplitude to the quantized values

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 12

 [Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Quantization (Examples)
 Assume a sampled signal and the sample amplitudes are between -20 and +20V. We
decide to have eight levels (L = 8). This means that Δ = 5V.

Normalized PAM values

= actual amplitude/Δ

Normalized quantized
values = mid value of the
zone

Normalized error =
different between
normalized values and
normalized quantized
values

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 13

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Quantization Levels
 Depends on the range of the amplitudes of the analog signal and how accurately we
want to recover the signal.
 Quantization error
 If the input value is at the middle of the zone = no quantization error
 Otherwise there is an error
 The value of the error for any sample is less than Δ/2.
 Range of error : -Δ/2 ≤ error ≥ Δ/2
 Contribution of the quantization error to the SNRdB of the signal depends on the
number of quantization levels L, or the bits per sample nb as follow :

SNRdB  6.02nb  1.76dB

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 14

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Ex : what is the SNRdB in the previous example ?

 Ex : A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB above 40. What is the
minimum number of bits per sample ?

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 15

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Encoding
 After each sample is quantized and the number of bits per sample is decided, each
sample is changed to an nb-bit codeword.
 If the number of quantization levels is L, the number of bits is nb = log2L.
 The bit rate can be found as

Bit rate  sampling rate  number of bits per sample  f s  n b

 Ex : we want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits per
sample ?

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 16

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Original Signal Recovery
 The recovery of the original signal requires the PCM decoder.
 The decoder first uses circuitry to convert the code words into a pulse that holds the
amplitude until the next pulse.
 Then the complete staircase signal is passed through a low pass filter to smooth the
staircase signal into an analog signal.
 The filter has the same cutoff frequency as the original signal at the sender.
 If the signal has been sampled at (or greater than) the Nyquist sampling rate and
enough quantization levels, the original signal will be recreated.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 17

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 PCM bandwidth
 Supposed we are given an analog signal with a given bandwidth, then digitized the
signal, what is the new minimum bandwidth of the channel that can pass this digital
signal ?
 Previously, the minimum bandwidth of a line-encoded signal is
1
B min  c  N 
r
 Substitute the value of N (data rate) = fs x nb
1 1 1
B min  c  N   c  f s  nb  c  2  Banalog  nb 
r r r

 When 1/r =1 (for a NRZ or bipolar signal) and c = ½ (average situation), the
minimum bandwidth is
B min  nb  Banalog

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 18

[Link] Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Maximum data rate of a channel

N max  2  B  log 2 L bps

 Minimum required bandwidth

N
Bmin  Hz
2  log 2 L

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 19

[Link] Delta Modulation
 Developed to reduce the complexity of PCM.
 PCM finds the value of the signal amplitude for each sample; Delta
Modulation finds the changes from the previous sample
 No code words; bits are sent one after another.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 20

[Link] Delta Modulation
 Modulator
 Modulator is used at the sender to create a stream of bits from an analog signal.
 The process records the small positive or negative changes, called delta δ.
 If the δis positive, the process records 1. If the δis negative, the process records 0.

 The modulator builds a second signal that resembles a staircase.

 The modulator at each sampling intervals, compares the input analog signal with the
last value of the staircase.
 If the amplitude of the analog signal is larger, the next bit in the digital data is 1;
otherwise 0.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 21

[Link] Delta Modulation
 Modulator
 The output of the comparator also makes the staircase itself; if the next bit is 1, the
staircase maker moves the last point of the staircase signal δup, otherwise moves the
δdown.
 A delay unit is used to hold the staircase function for a period between two
comparisons.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 22

[Link] Delta Modulation
 Demodulator
 The demodulator takes the digital data, and using the staircase maker and the delay
unit, creates the analog signal.
 A low-pass filter is used to smoothen the signal.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 23

2.7.3 Transmission Modes
 A transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either
parallel or serial mode.
 In parallel mode – multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
 In serial mode – 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 24

2.7.3 Transmission Modes
 A transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either
parallel or serial mode.
 In parallel mode – multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
 In serial mode – 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 25

2.7.3 Transmission Modes
 Parallel Transmission
 Use n wires to send n bits at one time synchronously
 Advantage: speed
 Disadvantage: cost  Limited to short distances

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 26

2.7.3 Transmission Modes
 Serial Transmission
 On communication channel
 Advantage: reduced cost
 Parallel/serial converter is required
 Three ways: asynchronous, synchronous, or isochronous

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 27

2.7.3 Transmission Modes
 Serial Transmission – Asynchronous transmission
 so named because the timing of a signal is unimportant.
 In asynchronous transmission, a sender send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or
more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
 There may be a gap between each byte.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 28

2.7.3 Transmission Modes
 Serial Transmission – Synchronous transmission
 Bit stream is combined into “frames”
 In synchronous transmission, bits are sent after another without start or stop bits or
gaps. It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
 Advantage: speed  high-speed transmission
 Accuracy of the received information depends on the ability of the receiver to keep
an accurate count of the bits as they come in.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 29

2.7.3 Transmission Modes
 Serial Transmission – Isochronous transmission
 In real time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are not
acceptable, synchronous transmission fails.
 Ex: TV images are broadcasted at the rate of 30 images per second ; and they must
be viewed at the same rate.
 The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.
 Isochronous = occurring at the same time

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 30

2.8 Data Flow
 A communication between two devices can be simplex, half duplex or full
duplex.

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 31

2.8 Data Flow
 Simplex
 Unidirectional
 As on a one-way street
 Ex : TV broadcasting
 Half-duplex
 Both transmit and receive possible, but not at the same time
 Like a one-lane road with two-directional traffic
 Ex : Walkie-talkie
 Full-duplex
 Transmit and receive simultaneously
 Like a two-way street, telephone network
 Channel capacity must be divided between two directions
 Ex : computer network

Chapter 2 : Data Communications 32