2.

1 North: Punt, Dama’at , Aksum and Zagwe Punt: Punt was an ancient and historically known
state in the Horn of Africa. However, Punt's exact location and territorial limits are not well
known. Historians suggest that its territory falls in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean coastal parts
of present-day Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Somalia. According to an Egyptian hieroglyphic,
the land of Punt was located south of Egypt and had trade relations with Egypt since the third
millennium BC. The trade was conducted by land and sea routes. Egyptian inscriptions and
pictorial reliefs dating from early times indicate the objects that punt supplied to Egypt. The land
of Punt was commercially important for the goods it provided to Egypt. These exports originated
in the interior, which later became Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. Such goods include gold
undoubtedly from the Ethiopian interior mainly in western Ethiopia. Others such as ivory,
panther and other skins, myrrh and myrrh trees, ostrich feathers, etc. were which could have
come from anywhere in the Horn. The Egyptians sent hatchets, daggers, necklaces, etc. Other
pre-Aksumite states emerged since 1000BC. These include Yeha, Hawlti-Melazo, Addi
Seglemeni, Metera, Kaskase, Coloe, etc. Yeha: is located 30 kms to the northeast of Aksum and
was the oldest of these centers. It probably emerged around 1000BC as a small emporium
where South Arabian merchants and their agents bought and stored ivory, rhinoceros horn and
other commodities coming from the interior. The period of its prosperity (zenith) was from about
750 to 500BC. Remains of walls of some of its buildings and stone masonry and still standing
temple and inscriptions indicate Yeha’s glory. Hawulti Melazo: is situated to the southeast of
Aksum, where stone tablets inscribed in the rectangular temple surrounded by a wall decorated
with paintings representing herds of cattle have been excavated. Damat: Damat existed just
before the rise of Aksum. Its center was little to the south of the town of Aksum. Information
about this state comes from local archaeological sources. Some of Damat’s rulers used the
South Arabian political and religious title called Mukarib. This indicates that Damat had
established external relations with South Arabia. This can be understood from local inscriptions
left by one of its rulers around the fifth century BC. Damat used the port of Adulis on the Red
Sea coast. Aksumite Kingdom As discussed above, in the pre-Aksumite period, Aksum was not
the first state that emerged in Ethiopia. The term Aksum was derived from two terms, Ak/ku
means water in Agaw and sum/shum means chief in Semitic; hence ‘chief of water’. Aksum
emerged in the first century AD with its nucleus at Aksum. Therefore, the Aksumite civilisation
resulted from the fusion of Cushitic and Semitic cultures. The City of Aksum was its political and
religious center. The city was adorned by several temples and stone monuments like the
monolithic steles of Aksum. Economically, the Aksumites depended on plough agriculture.
Aksum as a kingdom was a powerful state with a well-demarcated social structure. The link
between the king and the people was the payment of tribute. The state also generated
considerable income from local and external trade conducted via the port of Adulis on the Red
Sea coast. To facilitate trade, coins of bronze, silver and gold were minted. In the first three
centuries, Ge’ez evolved as a written language. Inscriptions and coins show that Sabean and
Greek languages were used in Aksume before Ge’ez. The use of the Greek language possibly
resulted from trade contact with the Greco-Roman world. Greek was the lingua-franca of the
Red Sea and the Mediterranean region by then. The Aksumites had beliefs in indigenous
religions before the introduction of Christianity in the 4th century AD and Islam in the early 7th
Islam. Unlike many other centers of civilisations like Yeha, Mattara and Adulis, Aksum continued
to exist as the most important center of a highly developed civilisation for several centuries. This
can be attested from the ruins of Aksumite temples, iron tools, bricks, coins, tombs and obelisk.
In addition, shipbuilding technology was also well known in the port town of Adulis. As a result,
those ruins have become among the known tourism centres in Ethiopia today. Initially, Aksum
was a small state. Between the fourth and sixth centuries, Aksumite kings expanded the
kingdom significantly to include territories bounded in the east beyond the Red Sea (southern
Arabia), the River Abay in the west, the northern tip of Eritrea in the north and north Shewa in
the south. But gradually, Aksum deteriorated. The process of decline started when the Red Sea
had come under the control of Muslim Arabs and the subsequent destruction of the port of
Adulis in 702AD. The loss of trade led to the decline of its economic, political and military power.
Internally, rebellion against king Kaleb (r.500 - 535AD) broke out. Kaleb had once controlled
South Arabia in 525AD. But the South Arabians finally expelled Aksumite governors and
soldiers from their region between 580 and 590AD. Thus, Aksum lost its control of the other side
of the Red Sea trade. The decline continued in the following centuries, with internal political
disturbances contributing as an additional factor. Finally, unable to check the rebellions of the
Beja people from the north, Aksumite state was pushed southward to Kubar in southern Tigray,
and by the late ninth century, it took refuge in the area predominantly inhabited by the Agaw
people. Zagwe Dynasty The Zagwe dynasty came from the local Agaw ruling class in Lasta,
part of the Aksumite Empire. The Zagwe dynasty was founded around 1150AD by Mera Tekle
Haymnot. He established a new capital at Adefa (Roha) in Lasta. The founding of the Zagwe
dynasty is not a new kingdom, but it is all about a political power shift. The economy of the
Zagwe dynasty was based on agriculture. Trade brought additional income to the state. The
Zeila port was the main outlet during the Zagwe time. The Dahlak Islands on the Red Sea coast
served as an outlet. The Zagwe dynasty is known in Ethiopian history for its remarkable
architectural achievement. This was the technology of building the monolithic rock-hewn
Churches at Roha; later, the capital was renamed Lalibela. The surviving pieces of evidence are
the eleven rock-hewn churches constructed during the reign of Emperor Lalibela in the first half
of the thirteenth century. The presence of these beautiful Churches made the town of Lalibela
one of the most important centers of learning and Christian culture in Ethiopia. Many factors
contributed to the downfall of the Zagwe dynasty. The first one was the problem of succession to
the throne among the Zagwe princes. Most of the time, they settled this issue by force of arms.
However, they could not be able to arrange a smooth succession to the throne. Secondly, there
had been strong opposition to the Zagwe kings throughout their rule. This opposition was from
the regions of Tigray and Amhara. Particularly in Tigrai, the leading clergy members of the
Churches of Aksum and Debre Damo spread anti-Zagwe propaganda related to the legend of
the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. Hence, the Zagwe kings were seen as
illegitimate successors of Aksum. The intention behind this legend was the restoration of the
ancient dynasty of Aksum. However, despite the strong opposition in Tigrai, the initiative to
overthrow the Zagwe came from the Amhara region. The Amhara region was located to the
south of Lasta, around southern Wollo and northern Shawa. An Amhara chief Yekuno Amlak
organised a movement against the Zagwe rule. He defeated Yetbarek, the last Zagwe king, on
the battlefield in 1270AD. Yekuno Amlak established a genealogy that made him a descendant
of the last Aksumite king, Dil Naod, who was deposed by the Zagwe dynasty around 1150AD.
Yekuno Amlak (r. 1270-1285) declared himself an Emperor and, at the same time, became the
restorer of the so-called "Solomonic dynasty". Yekuno Amlak and his successors used this
legend as an ideological arm to legitimise their political power. The tradition of identifying the
Christian kings of Ethiopia with ancient Israel continued until 1974. 2.2 South and southwest:
Bizamo, Damot , Enarya and Gafat The Kingdom of Bizamo The kingdom of Bizamo existed on
the southern bend of the Abbay river just opposite to the present district of Wambarma in
southern Gojjam. We do not know when the state of Bizamo came into existence. But it existed
until the end of the sixteenth century under the control of the Christian kingdom. The medieval
population of Bizamo consited of the speakers of the Omotic language family. Among them the
present day Shinasha ethnic group was one of the settlers of the kingdom. The population of
Bizamo was constantly harassed by the Christian kings who led occasional slave raids into the
kingdom. This reduced the population of Bizamo. On the arrival of the Mecha Oromo towards
the end of the sixteenth century, part of the remaining population fled across the Abbay into
Gojjam. Part of the population which remained behind retreated further west to the lowlands,
while the remaining part was assimilated by the Mecha Oromo. The Kingdom of Damot Damot
was one of the oldest and strongest states in the Ethiopian region. For most of its history Damot
roughly occupied the western and southwestern part of the Ethiopian region. The eastern part of
the state probably included what is now the territory of the Regional State of Beni Shangul-
Gumuz. The northern frontier of the kingdom stretched to the present day northern Shewa, and
Damot also included the central and southern parts of Shewa. A vast territory south of the
Abbay gorge was also part of the territory of Damot. We do not know when the kingdom of
Damot came into existence. However, the history of the kingdom goes back to the Aksumite
period. At that time Damot was known for its gold which reached the market of Aksum and the
ports of the Red Sea coast. During the southward political orientation of the Christian kingdom
of Aksum in the ninth and tenth centuries, it seems that the kingdom of Damot had put up a
strong challenge against the further expansion of the Christian state. The dominance of Damot
in the Ethiopian region continued during the Zagwe period. During the period, Muslim and
Christian trading communities depended on the kingdom of Damot for the sources of trade
items. From Damot trade items such as gold, ginger and slaves were exported to countries as
far as Arabia, Persia, India, Egypt and Greece. The communities served as middlemen between
the coast and the kingdom. Therefore, trade influenced the pattern of their relation with the
kingdom of Damot. In this respect, common interest promoted the maintenance of peaceful
relations for most of the time. But there were occasions when Damot interfered in the
commercial affairs of the communities. On such occasions the communities put pressure on the
Zagwe kings to interfere on their behalf. Under such a pressure, one Zagwe king led a military
expedition against Damot towards the end of the twelfth century. Unfortunately, the expedition
ended in complete defeat of the Zagwe king. This shows that Damot was a viable state even by
that time. Among the kings of Damot, Motalami is constantly mentioned in the records of the
period. Damot seems to have attained the peak of its power during the reign of this king. One
indication to this is a fierce struggle between Motalami and Yekuno-Amlak. The struggle was
over the control of Shewa. In the struggle Motalami was finally defeated. After this defeat
Motalami was converted to Christianity which marked the beginning of a growing Christian
influence in Damot. But Damot continued its resistance from lands to the south of the Gibe River
until 1316, when Amde Seyon finally annexed the kingdom. Subsequently, Damot became the
tributary of the Christiam kingdom and continued to exist up to the time of the expansion of the
Mecha Oromo in the area towards the end of the sixteenth century. On the arrival of the Mecha,
part of the population of Damot fled across the Abbay river to southern Gojiam. The district they
settled at the time is still called Damot. The Kingdom of Enarya The medieval kingdom of
Enarya was located immediately to the north of the Gojeb River and west of the upper course of
the Gibe river. We do not know when this state came into existence. But Enarya is mentioned
for the first time in the documents of the Christian kings towards the end of the Aksumite period.
Christian influence had reached Enarya as early as the middle of the thirteenth century.
Subsequently, the Christian influence grew strong and finally, Enarya became the tributary of the
Christian kingdom during the reign of Amde Seyon. Enarya was the main source of trade items
for the trade of the region. Above all, pure gold from Enarya was exported to the countries as far
as Egypt, Greece and Rome. Enarya continued to serve as an important source of trade items,
particularly for gold, up to the sixteenth century. The later history of Enarya was closely related
to the history of the Oromo people. Enarya was one of the kingdoms which strongly resisted the
expansion of the Mecha Oromo in the area beginning from the end of the sixteenth
[Link] resisted the Mecha Oromo for more than a century. Finally, it was defeated by
one of the clans of the Mecha called Limmu. Subsequently, the conquerors took the name
Limmu-Enarya, signifying a complete assimilation of the people of Enarya to the Mecha Oromo.
Gafat The original homeland of the Gafat lies south of Abay (Blue Nile) River adjoining Damot. It
is not clear from the scanty records in Ethiopian chronicles whether the Gafat formed a “state” or
“kingdom,” or not, but Gafat mountains provided a rich source of gold. 2.3 Muslim Sultanates:
Shoa, Hadya, Fatagar, Bali, Ifat and Dawaro The Sultanate of Shewa The introduction of Islam
to the Horn was followed by the emergence of a series of Muslim states since the ninth century
AD. The northern Ethiopian trade declined due to the Arab control of the Red Sea and the
destruction of Adulis. Thus, Zeila, on the coast of the Gulf of Aden, emerged as a primary port
for south-eastern Ethiopian trade. This port became the most crucial gateway for Islam into the
Horn of Africa. Several Muslim states were formed along the Zeila trade route, which linked the
port with the rich interior. After the spread of Islam since the beginning of the eighth century,
viable Muslim communities and states had been established at many locations, especially along
the main trade routes from Zeila and its many branches penetrating the interior. The first to be
established was the sultanate of Shawa in 896AD. Since the founders of this sultanate claimed
descent from the Makhzunmite clan of southern Arabia, the dynasty became known as the
Makhzunmite dynasty. Its location was in the hot lowland region on the left of the Awash River.
The ruling family of this state had an internal power struggle which later led to itsfinal decline.
Ifat Ifat emerged to the south of Shewa, founded by Umar Walasma (hence the Walasma
dynasty) in 1285AD, it would have destroyed the older Makhzumite dynasty. Instead, it became
the strongest Muslim sultanate in the region. Ifat controlled a vast territory through which the
long distance trade routes of Zeila passed. Therefore, most of the profitable Zeila trade came
under the control of Ifat. Eventually, Ifat became the strongest rival of the Christian highland
state. Since 1270 the Christian highland state had also developed a great interest in the Zeila
trade and trade routes. Therefore, the need to control the Zeila trade became the main source
of conflict between the two states The Sultanate of Hadiya Hadiya was one of the medieval
Muslim sultanates of the Ethiopian region. We do not know when the sultanate came to power.
However, the sultanate is mentioned for the first time during the reign of Amde Seyon. At the
time the sultanate was one of the tributaries of the Christian Kingdom. Among the Muslim
sultanates, Hadya occupied the most westerly territory of the Ethiopian region. The western
frontiers of Hadya touched the Gibe River. In the south the territory of the sultanate seems to
have stretched up to Lake Awasa, while in the north it extended a little to the north of Lake
Zway. One problem in the history of the medieval Muslim sultanates is lack of information on the
ethnic identity of their population. In the case of Hadiya, it is known that the ancestors of the
present Hadiya ethnic group were among the original settlers of the sultanate. It is also
suggested that the ancestors of the present ethnic groups like Burji, Kambatta, Tambaro, and
part of the Halaba people constituted the medieval population of [Link] economy of
Haddiya sultanate was mainly depended on mixed farming, while some part of the population
led a purely pastoral life. Trade also contributed to the economy of the state. Hadya was the
main source of slaves for the region. The sultanate of Hadya possessed rich natural resources
and mainly it was known for its wealth in human resource. Because of this the Christian kings
gave much attention to Hadiya and defeated it in the early 1330s reducing it to a tributary status.
Nevertheless, Hadiya had always caused problem to the Christian kings. The rulers had the title
of garad. The garads rebelled now and then against the Christians kings. As a result, the
Christian kings occasionally led punitive expeditions to retain the tributary status of Hadiya.
They even went to the extent of securing the loyalty of the rulers of Hadiya by means of political
marriage. The daughter of a well-known Hadiya garad was married to Emperor Zar’a Ya’eqob
and became Queen Elleni, famous women in the politics of the Christian Kingdom. Baide
Mariyam and Libne Dengel were also officially married to Hadiya princesses. This policy was
followed by the other members of the Christian ruling class. Yet, this dynastic marriage did not
moderate the militancy of Hadiya. The last rebellion of Hadiya was during the reign of Sarsa
Dengel (r.1563-1597) who totally abandoned the sultanate because of the increasing pressure
from the expanding Mecha Oromo. The Sultanate of Bali Bali was another Muslim sultanate of
the Ethiopian region. Its rulers also used the title of garad. We do not know when Bali emerged
as a state. The sultanate is mentioned in the chronicles of the Christian kings beginning from
the fourteenth century, when the sultanate came under the control of Amde Seyon. Since then
the garad of Bali paid tribute to the Christian Kingdom up to the sixteenth century. Bali occupied
the most southerly territory of the Ethiopian region. Except on the southern frontier, Bali was
surrounded by various Muslim sultanates. North of Bali existed the sultanates of Dawaro and
Sharka. In the west existed Hadiya, while the eastern frontier was occupied by the sultanate of
Adal. The southern limit of the territory of Bali is not clearly known The medieval population of
Bali seems to have consisted of different ethnic groups. The ancestors of the present Sidama
ethnic group were one of the settlers of the sultanate. Some groups of the Oromo people also
occupied the highlands of Bali. The Sultanate of Dawaro Dawaro was situated South of Shoa,
bordering on Ifat on the right bank of the Awash, stretching Southwards as far as the river Webi
which marked the border with the neighbouring state of Bali. Dawaro therefore, corresponded
roughly to present Arsi region. The ancestors of the present Sidama ethnic group are known to
have settled in the territory of Dawaro. The present-day Dawro people also trace their origin to
Dawaro. According to their tradition, they were forced to move to their present territory around
the Omo River because of the wars of Imam Ahmad Ibrahim. The Sultanate of Fatagar The
sultanate of Fatagar emerged around the middle of the thirteenth century. The sultanate was
located between Lake Zway in the south and the present town of Bishoftu (Debre Zeit) in the
north. The territory of Fatagar included more or less the present districts of Minjar, Shenkora
and Ada'a in Shewa. Fatagar also became the tributary of the Christian Kingdom during the
reign of Amde Seyon. It was later reduced to a province directly ruled by the Christian Kingdom.
Since then, the province became the center of the kingdom for almost a century.

2.4 Interstate relations: causes of the conflict Relationship Between the Christian Kingdom and
the Sultanate of Adal, 1520s-1559 The primary source of conflict among peoples and states in
Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa was the desire to monopolize long-distance trade. Long-distance
trade was a source of great wealth. It also served as a link among the peoples of Ethiopia. The
desire for territorial expansion was also another source of rivalry among the peoples and states
of the Ethiopian region. Therefore, the desire for the monopoly of long-distance trade and
territorial expansion proved to be sources for inter-state conflicts. The revival of long-distance
trade caused competition and struggle for control over the trade routes between the Christian
kingdoms and the Muslim principalities. This was followed by a series of wars, depicted as wars
for religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics. While
maladministration and exploitation of the periphery made military mobilization possible, religion
provided ideological justification for the wars. However, the interest in controlling trade routes
lay at the heart of the conflict that continued for two centuries. The war culminated in the years
from 1529 to 1543. In the beginning, the Zeila trade route was under the control of the Muslim
states, mainly Ifat. However, in 1332 Ifat was defeated by the Christian kingdom and lost its
independence. Thus monopoly over the route went to Amde Seyon. To regain their
independence and control over the Zeila trade route Haqadin II and Sa'adadin retreated to the
Harar plateau and set up a new Muslim resistance base in the late fourteenth century. As a
prelude to this conflict among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy
were intensified, and new leadership was urgently called for. Such leadership came from Imam
Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origin of Imam Ahmed, also named as “the left-handed” is
obscure. He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and raised by his devout
Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila. After Imam Ahmad came to power, the
battles were not just fought to control the long-distance trade route going through Zeila but
mainly because there was a demographic pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists
pushing to approach Harar and the Christian Kingdom. It was one of the Imam's remarkable
achievements in leadership that he mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Argoba,
the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He convinced them not to fight
amongst them but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom. It was to resolve their pressing
material needs while at the same time keeping Islamic beliefs and practices from the infiltration
of any alien religious doctrine. As a result, he was able to gain an audience as Imam. He
consolidated his army to fight the Christian Kingdom. Meanwhile, Lebne Dengel was enthroned
when he was only eleven. Nevertheless, assisted by the elderly Elleni and due to internal
conflicts in Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest and even advanced into Muslim
territory scoring significant victories in the early sixteenth century. As a result, most Muslim
Sultanates, including Adal, were tributaries to the Christian Kingdom. However, shortly, Adal fell
to Imam Ahmed's army. By the time Imam Ahmed was strong enough for military confrontation
in 1520. He refused to pay tribute, which was followed by a campaign against the Christian
Kingdom in 1527. The Imam's army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali,
Dawaro, Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata, and the Christian Kingdom was at risk. In
1528, realizing the upcoming threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force. However, there was
a logistics problem, and the leadership of the army of the Christian Kingdom failed to adopt a
common strategy to defeat Adal’s force. On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army
managed logistics problems with its small-sized army. The Imam’s army also had an excellent
leadership characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified command. As a
result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in one of the most decisive
engagements at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near present-day Mojo. After the victory, the
Imam's army made a large-scale control of the territories of the Christian Kingdom, including
Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash. By 1535, Imam Ahmed's
empire stretched from Zeila to Massawa on the coast, including the Ethiopian interior. As he
penetrated deep into the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a civil, administrative
bureaucracy constituted by his men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian territories.
One of the most helpful figures during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She
was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal known as Mahfuz. She accompanied
her husband throughout his expeditions. She is said to have marched even in a state of
pregnancy during which she was unable to use mules. Indeed, she delivered her two sons
during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533 in Ifat and present-day Tigray, respectively. On the part
of the Christian Kingdom, the military setback forced the reigning king, Lebne Dengel, to retreat,
who finally died in 1540 being fugitive. His son Gelawdewos (r. 1540 1559) ascended to the
throne and continued to face the wars with more intensity.

2.6 Population Movements, Expansion, and Integration in Ethiopia The lowland in Ethiopia and
the Horn of Africa is inhabited by Afar, Oromo, Somali, Saho, and other Cushitic language family
speakers. In the late fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, the military conflict between the
Christian kingdoms and the Sultanate of Adal was partly responsible for the Argoba, Afar and
Somali population movement. In addition, the demographic pressure on the environment gave
the background for the population movement. Their territories lay in the region where trade
routes passed and were affected by the consequences of the military conflict. Therefore, these
people moved back and forth in response to the ongoing military conflict. Argoba: The Argoba
were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and Muslim state formation in the Horn. For
instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat was established by the Makhzumite and Walasma
Dynasties, respectively. Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the sultanate of Shewa
moved further to the east due to the pressure from the Christian Kingdom. The sultanate of Ifat,
where the Argoba were dominant, became the center of Muslim resistance. On the eve of the
wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, the Argoba joined the Afar and the Somali against the Christian
Kingdom. The area inhabited by the Argoba was also a target of the expanding Christian
Kingdom. It was the major center of the conflict. This was because the major caravan trade
routes passed through Argoba territory. As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts
thereof led to the destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the people. The enduring effect of
the conflict can be observed from the fragmented settlement patterns of the people. Afar: Due to
drought, the Afar moved towards the east until they reached the middle Awash. Trade routes
linking the ports in the Horn passed through the Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the
centre of competition between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslim sultanates to control the
trade routes. Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurised the Afar to
move in different directions to avoid the risk of disputes. In the sixteenth century, their pastoral
economy helped them survive the destructive effects of the wars. Somali: Their territory lay in
the medieval competition to control trade routes. Likewise, before the wars of Imam Ahmed
al-Ghazi, there was strong demographic pressure from the Somali. The population movement of
the Somali was a strong force behind the military strength of the Imam. However, the population
movement of the Somali did not last for long as they returned to their home base following the
defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543. Oromo: The Oromos are an indigenous Cushitic people of
Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. When Aksum came into history, it was quite clear that the
Oromo also occupied a considerable part of the land in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa.
According to Oromo oral traditions, the original homeland of the Oromo before the sixteenth
century was the south-central part of Ethiopia's highlands. The political and religious centre of
the Oromo settlement area was Madda Walabu, located on the Bale- Sidama borderlands. A
combination of natural and manmade factors caused the movement of Oromo population in the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. These are: • Demographic pressure and the subsequent
need for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population. • The conflict
between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates was the other factor that forced the
Oromo to leave the lands they inhabited and move to other areas. Long before their expansion,
the Oromo people were divided into two major confederacies: the Barentu and the Borana
confederacies. Each confederacy comprised smaller divisions and clans. The Borana
confederacy consisted of Mecha, Tulama, southern Borana and Guji clans. The Barentu was
composed of the Karayu, Marawa, Ittu, Humbana, Akachu, Wollo and Arsi clans. The movement
and expansion took place from around 1522 to 1618. The movement was set in two major
directions in the Ethiopian region. The Barentu moved out in a northeast direction. The Borana
followed a north-westerly direction. They also moved out in the directions of Kenya and Somalia
outside the Ethiopian region. The movement took place in two stages. • The first stage was the
period of a small and slow movement in the first half of the sixteenth century. • The second
stage started around the mid-sixteenth century and lasted up to 1618. This was a large-scale
movement carried out using force. • In 1522, when the population movement began, the Oromo
were already organised under Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo forces took
northern direction and passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu and Lake Abaya.
When they reached halfway between Lakes Abaya and Hawassa, they took westward. First,
they penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest. Then they headed northwards to the
lake's region of the Rift Valley. From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars.
Accordingly, • The first Gadaa, i.e. Melba (1522-1530), fought and defeated the Christian
regiment Batra Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali. • Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the
edge of Awash River. • The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian
regiment Adal Mabraq • Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer. • The Michille (1554-62)
scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, Jan Amora forces, and Adal led by Emir Nur
Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo. • The Harmufa (1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and
Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc. • In 1574, Sartsa Dingil's (r.1563-97) cavalry led
by Azzaj Halibo defeated Robale Gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga. However, Robale recovered
by defeating Zara'a Yohannis' force. • The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in Waj, crossed
Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment. • The Mul’ata (1586-94) seized
Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray. In the early seventeenth century, the Dulo
(1594-1602), Melba (1603-10), and Mudena (1610-18) expanded to the West and Northern
parts of the Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia. In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim
Sultanates, the organisation of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played a crucial role in the
success of the Oromo population movement. In their movement into various regions, different
Oromo branches established Gadaa centres. These centers were: • Oda Nabee of Tulama (East
Shewa), Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando (Arsi), Oda Bultum of Itu Humbenna (Hararge), Oda Bisil of
Mecha (West Shewa) and Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha (Horro-Guduru). Other places, which
became Gadaa centres, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda
Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garad of Wallo, etc. Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna
Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others established Gadaa
centres. They laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas. However, various Oromo groups
kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda (the father of anointment) seated at Madda
Walabu and formed alliances during times of difficulty. Besides, they obeyed similar culture and
law (Seera) by sending their delegates to Madda Walabu, the central chaffe, until the
pan-Oromo assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the political influence Ethiopian state. The
Oromo population movement and expansion was successful for several reasons: • In the first
place, the Gadaa system provided training and military organisation, which contributed much to
the movement's success. Besides, almost all members of society participated in wars. So, it was
a large-scale expansion so difficult to stop. • The Oromo made wide and good use of the horse
at the time of the expansion. • One important Oromo institution which seems to have facilitated
the expansion was adaptation. Moreover, the movement took place when the Sultanate of Adal-
was exhausted and weakened due to the wars of the first half of the sixteenth century. The
Oromo population movement and expansion brought about fundamental changes in the
Ethiopian region. Ethnic and cultural intermixing took place between the Oromo and other
peoples of the region. The expanding Oromo destroyed the old states of the kingdoms of
Damot, Bizamo and Ennarya. The peoples of Damot and Gafat were either assimilated with the
Oromo or forced to move out from the south to the north and intermingle with the Christian
community of the area. The Christian kingdom was greatly disturbed by the Oromo population
movement. The territorial and financial strengths of the kingdom were highly weakened. It was
forced to shift its political centre from Shewa in the south to the Lake Tana area north and
Gondar. The Sultanate of Adal was reduced to the walled town of Harar as the result of the
Oromo expansion. This was mainly because after the death of Iman Ahmed, the Muslims of
Adal was reorganised under Emir Nur Mujahid. The Emir launched an offensive war against the
Christian kingdom. In 1559 Nur Mujahid defeated and killed Gelawdewos in the Awash valley.
Nevertheless, he could not pursue his victory over the Christian forces because the Oromo
forces had already reached the Harar area at the time. So, he returned to Adal to defend it from
falling to the Oromo. However, since most of Harar was occupied by the Oromo, he just built a
wall around the town of Harar, which is known as the Jegol Gimb. This led to the end of an
age-old conflict between Adal and the Christian kingdom. Following their movement and
expansion, the Oromo became largely sedentary agriculturists. In time, the great majority of
them also adopted Christianity and Islam. Still, later on, they were able to form kingdoms of their
own in the Ethiopian region