Hi

ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

CHEMI
STRY
FORM TWOWORK
(
isabokemicah@gmail
.com)
(
0714497530)(
+254)
UNIT1:ATOMI CSTRUCTUREANDTHEPERI ODICTABLE.
Checklist
[Link] heat om
[Link] omi cpar t
icles;
 Pr otons
 Neut r ons
 El ect rons;
[Link] cnumberandmassnumber
4.I
sot opes;
[Link] gylevel sandel ectronar rangement
s.
[Link] i
odi ctable;
 Gr oups
 Per i
ods;
[Link] i
veat omi cmassandi sotopes;
8.I
onf ormat i
on;
 I on;
 Cat i
ons;
 Ani ons;
 I onizat ionener gy;
 El ect ronaf f
inity;
[Link] dat ionnumber s;
[Link] calf or mula;
[Link] calequat ions
[Link] ancingchemi calequat ions;
Theat om:
-Referst ot hesmal l
estpar t
icl
eofanel ementhatcantakepar
tinachemi
calr
eact
ion;
-
8 -
13
-I
thasanaver agedi amet erof10 cm wi t
hanucleusofabout10 cm;

Part
sofanat om
-Theatom i
smadeoft womai
npar
ts:
 Thenucleus
 Theenergylevel
s;

[Link]
eus:
-I
sthepositivel
ychar gedpartofanatom;
-Thenucl
euscont ainstwosubatomicparti
cles;neut
ronsandprotons;
-Theposi
tivechar geisduetopresenceofpr otons;
-Thenucl
ei ofallatomscontainneutronsexceptthehydrogenatom;
-Theprot
onsandt heneutronsaretogetherr
ef er
redtoasthenucleons;

[Link]
gyl
evel
s.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Theycont
aintheel
ectrons;
-El
ectr
onsaresosmal landmovesofastt
hattheirpat
hcannotbet
raceddi
rect
ly;
-Thustheener
gylevelsimpl
erepr
esent
stheregionwheretheel
ect
ronsar
emostl i
kel
ytobef
ound;

St
ruct
ureoft
heat
om.

Note:
-Theatom canst
il
lhoweverbespl
iti
ntosmal
lerpar
ti
clest
ermedt
hesub-
atomi
cpar
ti
cles;

Thesub-
atomicpart
icl
es.
-Ar
egenerall
ythr
ee:
 Protons;
 Neut r
ons;
 Protons;

[Link].
-Aretheposit
ivel
ychargedsub-at
omicparti
cles;
-Arefoundinthenucleusandthusfor
m partofthenucleons;
-Thenumberofpr ot
onsinthenucleusisequaltothenumberofel
ect
ronsi
ntheener
gyl
evel
s;

[Link]
ons.
-Areneutr
allychar
gedsub-
atomicparti
clesf
oundint
henucl
eusoft
heat
om;
-Theyaret houghttopr
obablypreventtheposi
ti
vel
ychar
gedprot
onsf
rom get
ti
ngt
oocl
oset
oeach
other
;

[Link]
ectr
ons.
-Arenegat
ivel
ychargedsub-atomicpart
icl
esfoundi
ntheenergyl
evel
s;
-Thenumberofelectr
onsintheenergylevel
sisequalt
othenumberofprot
onsi
nthenucl
eus;
-Thismakestheatom tobeelect
ri
call
yneutral
;

Atomicnumberandmassnumber .
Atomicnumber.
-Refer
stothenumberofprot
onsinthenucl
eusofanatom;
Examples.
 Sodium has11pr
otonsIt
henucleusandthussai
dtohaveat
omicnumber11;
 Chlori
nehas17prot
onsinthenucl
eusandthussaidt
ohaveatomi
cnumber17;

Massnumber ;
-Refer
stothesum ofthenumberofpr
otonsandneutr
onsi
nanatom ofanel
ement
;
Examples:
 Sodium has2neutr
onsand11protonshenceamassnumberof23;
 Chlori
nehas18neutronsand17prot
onshenceamassnumberof35.

Not
ati
onofat
omi
cnumberandmassnumber
;
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Bot
hatomi
cnumberandmassnumberofanel
ementcanbewr
it
tenal
ongwi
tht
hesymbolofan
el
ement
;

Massnumber ;
-I
sconventi
onall
yrepr
esent
edasasuper
scr
iptt
othel
eftoft
hesymbol
;
Exampl
es:
um;23Na;
Sodi
um 24Mg;
Magnesi

Atomicnumber ;
-I
sconvent i
onal
lyr
epr
esent
edasasuper
scr
iptt
othel
eftoft
hesymbol
;
Examples:
Sodium;11Na;
Magnesium 12Mg;

Thust
heel
ement
scanbeconvent
ional
lyr
epr
esent
edas:
Na
um 23
Sodi
um Mg 24
Magnesi
At
omi
cpr
oper
ti
esoft
hef
ir
st20el
ement
s.
El
ement Symbol Number Number Number Atomi
c Massnumber
ofel
ect
rons ofpr
otons Ofneut
rons number
Hydr ogen H
Helium He
Li
thi um Li
Beryl l
ium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Fl
uor i
ne F
Neon Ne
Sodi um Na
Magnesi um Mg
Alumi nium Al
Si
licon Si
Phosphor us P
Sulphur S
Chlor i
ne Cl
Argon Ar
Potassi um K
Calcium Ca

Isot
opes.
-Areatomsofthesameel
ementwi
thsameat
omi
cnumberbutdi
ff
erentmassnumberduet
odi
ff
erent
numberofneut
rons.

Exampl
esofi
sot
opes.
El
ement I
sot
ope At
omi
cNo. Numberof Numberof Mass I
sot
opi
c
pr
otons neut
rons number r
epr
esent
ati
on
Hydr
ogen
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Car
bon

Oxygen

Chl
ori
ne

Energylevelsandel ect
ronar
rangements.
 Ener gylevels:
-Aredefinit
eor bi
tsinanatom thatt
heelect
ronsoccupy.
-Theener gylevel
sar enumbered1,2,3……start
ingwit
ht heoneclosestt
othenucleus.
-El
ectronsoccupyi ngthesameener gyl
evelhaveapproximatel
ythesameamountofenergy.
-Eachener gylevelcanonlyaccommodat eagivenmaximum numberofel ect
rons.

Maxi
mum numberofel
ect
ronsperener
gyl
evel
Ener
gyl evel Maximum numberofel
ectr
ons
1st 2
2nd 8
3rd 8(onl
yforthef
ir
st20element
s)

Il
lust
rat
ions:
 Hydr ogen
-Ithasonlyoneelectr
onandt husthi
selectronoccupi
est
hefir
stenergyl
evel
.
-Sincethefir
stenergyleveli
snotyetful
l,
hydrogendoesnothavethesecondener
gyl
evel
;
-Theelectr
onar r
angementofhydrogenist hus1.

 Helium:
-Heli
um isatomicnumber2andhasonl ytwoelect
rons,
whichoccupyt
hefir
stener
gylevel
.
-Thefir
stenergyleveli
sthuscomplet
elyf
ull
,butsi
ncether
earenootherrel
ect
ronsli
thi
um al
sohas
onl
yoneener gylevel;
-Theelectr
onarrangementisthus2.

 Chlorine:
-Chlor
inehasat omicnumber17andt hushas17el ectrons;
-Thefir
sttwoel ectr
onsoccupyt hefi
stener gylevelwhichisthuscomplet
elyf
il
ledup;
-Theremaining15el ect
ronsoccupyt hesecondener gylevel
,whichcanhoweveraccommodateonl
y8
tobecompl etelyfi
ll
edup;
-Thustheremai ning7elect
ronsmovet othet hi
rdenergylevel;whi
chneeds8tobecompletel
yfi
ll
edup;
-Si
ncet hethirdenergyl
evelisnotyetfullchlori
nedoesnothaveaf our
thener
gylevel;
-Theelectr
onar rangementisthus2.8.7.

El
ect
ronarr
angement.
-Ref
erst
othedist
ri
buti
onofel
ect
ronsi
ntheener
gyl
evel
sofanat
om.

Exampl
e:el
ect
ronar
rangementf
ort
hef
ir
st20el
ement
s.
El
ement Symbol At
omi
cnumber [Link] El
ect
ronar
rangement
el
ectr
ons
Hydr
ogen
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Helium
Li
thi um
Beryl l
i
um
Boron
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Fl
uor i
ne
Neon
Sodi um
Magnesi um
Alumi nium
Si
licon
Phosphor us
Sulphur
Chlor i
ne
Argon
Potassi um
Calcium

Dotandcrossdiagrams.
-I
sadiagrammat i
cr epr
esentat
ionoft
heel ectr
onarr
angementsinanat
om inwhichtheener
gylevel
s
arer
epresentedbyconcentri
cli
neswhileelectr
onsarerepr
esent
edbydotsorcrosses.
-Howeverallel
ectr
onsar et
hesamer egardlessofwhet
hertheyarer
epr
esentedasdotsorcr
osses.

Examples:
Li
thi
um Magnesi
um Al
umi
nium Car
bon

[Link]
ectrons= [Link]
ectrons [Link]
ectrons [Link]
ectrons
[Link]
ons = [Link]
ons [Link]
ons [Link]
ons
[Link]
ons= [Link]
ons [Link]
ons [Link]
ons

Ber
yll
ium Ni
tr
ogen Chl
ori
ne Ar
gon

[Link]
ectrons= [Link]
ectrons= [Link]
ectrons= [Link]
ectrons=
[Link]
ons = [Link]
ons = [Link]
ons = [Link]
ons =
[Link]
ons= [Link]
ons= [Link]
ons= [Link]
ons=
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Pot
assi
um Bor
on Si
li
con Phosphor
us

[Link]
ons= [Link] r
ons= [Link]
ect r
ons= [Link] ectr
ons=
[Link] = [Link] ons = [Link] = [Link] otons =
[Link]= [Link] rons= [Link]= [Link] rons=
ThePeriodictabl
e
-Isatableshowingthearrangement sofel
ement
sinorderoft hei
rrelat
iveat omicmasses.
-Isbasedont heideasofDmi t
riIvanovichMedel
eev.
-Themoder nperiodict
ableisbasedonMenel eev’
speriodiclawwhi chst at
esthat:
“Thepropert
iesofel ementsareaperi
odi
cf uncti
onsoft heirrel
ati
veat omi
cmasses”
-Themoder nperiodicl
awi t
sel
fst atesthat
:
“Thepropert
iesofel ementsareaperi
odi
cf uncti
onsoft heiratomicnumbers”

Desi gnofthemoder nper iodict

able.
Ithasver ti
calcolumnscal ledgr
oupsandhor i
zont
alrowscall
edperiods.
 Gr oups:
-Aret heverticalcol
umnsofaper iodictabl
e.
-Areei ghtinnumber ;adnumber edi ncapitalRomannumer al
sIallthroughtoVII
I.
Not e:groupVI I
Iisal
socal ledgr
oupzer obecausetheelementshavelitt
let
endencytogai
nol
ose
electronsdur i
ngchemi calreact
ions
-Bet weengr oup2andgr oup3isagr oupofelementscall
edthetransiti
onmetal
s;

 Peri
ods:
-Arethehor
izont
alr
owsinaper
iodi
ctable.
-Theyare8innumberi
namodernperiodict
abl
e.

 Transit
ionmet als.
-Areel
ement sthatfor m ashal lowr ectangl
ebet weengr oupI Iandgr oupII
I.
-Theseelementsar egener allymet all
icandhencet hename“ transiti
onmet als”
-Theyarenotf i
tt
edi nanygr oupbecauset heyhavevar iableval encies.
-Aresometimescal ledt he“ d-block”element s.
-Theyaremuchl essr eactivet hant heelement singroupsIandI I
-Theyhavesomeuni quechar act er
isti
csthatmaket hem notf i
tint he8gr oupsoftheperi
odi
ctabl
e
-Thesei
nclude:
 Havevar i
ableval encies;henceshowdi ff
erentoxidati
onst atesintheircompounds;
 Theyfor m colour edcompoundsassol i
dsandi naqueoussol uti
ons;
 Havever yhighmel t
ingandboi l
ingpoints(thanmet alsingr oupsIandI I
).
 Theydonotr eactwi thwat er
;
 Havever yhighdensi t
ies( compar edtomet alsingroupsIadI I)

 Lanthani
desandAct inides.
-Theyfor
m abl ockofelement swithi
nthet r
ansit
ionmetals.
-Aresometimescalledtheinnertransit
ionmetals.
-Thelant
hanidesconsistof14el ementsf r
om Cerium (
Ce)toLutet
ium (
Lu).
-TheActi
nidesar et
he14el ement sfrom Thori
um (Tho)toLawrenci
um (Lr
).
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Placi
nganelementsi
ntheper
iodictabl
e
-Theposit
ionofanel
ementsi
nt heperi
odi
ctabl
eisgover
nedbyt
heat
omi
cnumberandhencet
he
el
ectronar
rangement
.

 Theperi
od:
-Theperi
odtowhichanelementbel
ongsi
sdetermi
nedbythenumberofenergylevel
s.
-Thenumberofenergyl
evel
sisequalt
otheperi
odtowhi
chanelementsbelongs.

Exampl
es:
Elements Symbol Atomic Electron Numberof Per
iod
number ar
rangement ener
gylevel
s
Lit
hium Li 3 2.1 2 2
Sodium Na 11 2.8.1 3 3
Cal ci
um Ca 20 2.8.8.
2 4 4
Ni t
rogen N 7 2.5 2 2
Hel i
um He 2 2 1 1

 Group:
-Thegrouptowhichanel ementbel
ongstoisgover
nedbythenumberofel
ect
ronsint
he
outer
mostenergylevel.
-Thenumberofelectronsint
heoutermostener
gyleveli
sequalt
othegr
ouptowhicht
heel
ement
bel
ongs.

Exampl
es:
Element s Symbol Atomic Electron Outer
most Gr
oup
number ar
rangement elect
rons
Pot assi
um K 19 2.8.8.
1 1 1
Alumi ni
um Al 13 2.8.3 3 3
Sili
con Si 14 2.8.4 4 4
Oxygen O 8 2.6 6 6
Chl ori
ne Cl 17 2.8.7 7 7

Di
agr
am ofaf
ullper
iodi
ctabl
e.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Not
e:Int
hemoder nperi
odictabl
eatomicmassesareusedinst
[Link]
omic
massesarepreferabl
ebecausetheytakecar
eofelementswit
hisot
opesunl
ikemassnumbers.
Di
agram:partoftheperi
odictabl
eshowingthefi
rst20el
ements

Relati
veAt omicMassandI sotopes.
 I ntroducti
on:
-Themassesofi ndividualat omsofel ementsareverynegl i
gibleandt husqui
tedif
fi
culttoweigh.
-
22
-Onaver aget hemassofanat om isapproxi
mately10 gwhi chcannotbedet er
minedbyan
ordinarylaboratorybal ance.
-Fort hi
sr easonthemassofat om hasbeenexpressedr elati
vet ot hatofachosenstandardelement
hencet het ermrelati
veat omicmass.
-Thei ni
tialref
erenceel ementwashydr ogenwhichwasl aterrepl acedwi t
hoxygen.
-Latertheoxygenscal ewasf oundunsuitabl
e;
Reason:
Oxygenexi st
sIsever ali sotopesandt husledtoproblemswhendeci dingthemassofanoxygenat om.
-Fort hi
sr easonoxygenwasr eplacedwithcarbonast her eferenceat om andtodaterelati
veatomic
massesofel ement sar ebasedonanat om ofcarbon-12( notet hatcarboni si
sot
opicandexi st
sas
Carbon- 12orcar bon-14) .

 Defi
nit
ion:
Rel
ati
veat
omicmass(
R.A.
M)ofanel
ementr
efer
stot
heaver
agemassofanat
om oft
heel
ement
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
compar
edwi
that
wel
ft
h(1/
12)ofanat
om ofcar
bon-
12.

RAM =Aver agemassofoneat om ofan

element
1
/12ma ssofanatom ofcar
bon-12
 MeasurementofRel ati
veatomicmass
-RAM ofelementsisdet
er minedbyaninstr
umentcall
edMassSpect rometer
.
-Thei
nstrumentcanalsobeusedt odet
erminetherel
ati
veabundanceofisotopes.
-Theuseofamassspect rometeri
ndeter
mi ni
ngtheRAM ofelementsiscall
edmassspect
romet
ry.

 Howmassspect r
ometryworks.
-I
nt hemassspectrometerat
omsandmol eculesar econvert
edint
oions.
-Theionsarethenseparat
edasaresultofthedef lect
ionwhichoccursinamagneti
cfiel
d.
-Eachion(fr
om anatom, i
sot
opeormol ecule)givesadef l
ecti
onwhichisampli
fi
edint
oat r
ace.
-Theheightofeachpeakmeasuresther el
ativeabundanceoft hei
onwhi chgi
vesri
setothatpeak.

Note:
-General
lytherel
ati
veat
omicmassofanel
ementi
scl
osesti
nval
uet
othemassoft
hemost
abundantisot
opeoftheel
ement
.

Exampl
e:Di
agr
am ofaspect
romet
ert
racef
orLi
thi
um

 Expl anati
ons:
-Thetracehast wopeaksi ndicat
ingthatther
earetwoisot
opesforl
it
hium.
-Thefistpeakoccursatar elati
veisotopicmassof6andthesecondat7;thesear
etheRAM oft
hetwo
i
sotopesr especti
vel
y.
6
-Theper centageabundanceoft heisotopewit
hRAM of6( Li
)is9whiletheRAM oft
heisot
opewit
h
7
RAM 7(Li )i
s91.

Cal
cul
ati
ngrelat
iveat
omicmassesofi
sotopi
celements.
-I
nfor
mati
onf or
m aspect
romet
ertr
aceisusual
l
yextract
edandusedi
ncal
cul
ati
ont
her
elat
iveat
omi
c
massofelements.

Workedexampl
es.
[Link]
rum bel
owshowst
hei
sot
opespr
esenti
nasampl
eofl
it
hium.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

(
i)
.Uset
hismassspect
rum t
ohel
pyoucompl
etet
het
abl
ebel
owf
oreachl
it
hium i
sotopei
nthesampl
e.
(3marks)

Percent
age Numberof
I
sot
ope
composit
ion Pr
otons Neut
rons
6
Li
7
Li

(i
i)
.Calcul
atetherel
ati
veat
omi
cmassoft
hisl
it
hium sampl
[Link]
dbegi
ventot
hree
si
gnif
icantfi
gures. (
3marks)

[Link]
ementXwi t
hatomicnumber16hast
woi opes.⅔of33Xand⅓[Link]
sot st herel
ati
veatomic
massofelementX? (
2mar ks)
[Link]
cul
atetherel
ati
veat
omicmassofanel
ementwhoseisotopi
cmassesandrel
ativeabundancesar
e
shownbel
ow. (
2mar ks)

[Link]
alat
om ofsi
li
concont
ains14elect
rons,
92%ofsi
li
con-28,
5%si
li
con–29and3%sil
icon–
30
(i
).Whati
stheat
omicnumberofsil
icon? (1mark)

(
ii
).Cal
cul
atet
her
elat
iveat
omi
cmassofsi
li
con. (
1mar
k)

[Link]
stsnat
ural
lyasi
sot
opesofmassnumber
s16,
17and18i
nther
ati
o96:
2:2r
espect
ivel
y.
Cal
culatei
tsR.
A.M (2marks)

[Link]
cul
atet
her
elat
iveat
omi
cmassofpot
assi
um f
rom t
hei
sot
opi
ccomposi
ti
ongi
venbel
ow.
Isot
ope Rel
ati
veabundance
39
K 93.
1
40
K 0.
01
41
K 6.
89

[Link]
phurcompoundsar ecommoni ntheenvi
ronment.
(a).Asampleofsul
phurfor
m avolcanocont ned88%bymassof32Sand12%bymassof34S.
ai
(i
).Completet
hetabl
ebelowtoshowt heatomicstr
uctur
eofeachisotopeofsul
phur
.

I
sot
ope Numberof
Pr
otons Neutr
ons El
ect
rons
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
32
S
34
S

(
ii
).Def
iner
elat
iveat
omi
cmass. (
2mar
ks)
(
ii
i)
.Cal
cul
atet
her
elat
iveat
omi
cmassoft
hevol
cani
csul
phur
. (
2mar
ks)
[Link]
dium,atomicnumber77,isaverydensemetal
.Scient
istsbel
ievethatmet eor
it
eshavedeposi
ted
vi
rtuall
yallthei
ri
dium pr
esentoneart
[Link] r
agmentofamet eori
tewasanal ysedusingamass
spectrometerandasecti
onoft hemassspectr
um showingtheisotopespresentinir
idi
um i
sshown
bel
ow.

(
a).Expl
aint
het
ermi
sot
opes. (
1mar
k)
(
b).Usethemassspect
rum t
ohel
pyoucompl
etet
het
abl
ebel
owf
oreachi
ri
dium i
sot
opei
nthe
meteor
it
e.

Percent
age Numberof
I
sot
ope
composit
ion Pr
otons Neut
rons
6
I
r
7
I
r

(
c)(
i)
.Def
inet
het
ermr
elat
iveat
omi
cmass. (
1mar
k)

(
ii
).Cal
cul
atet
her
elat
iveat
omi
cmassoft
hei
ri
dium i
nthi
smet
eor
it
e. (
3mar
ks)

Ionformat i
on.
 I ntroducti
on:
-Atomswhoseout ermostenergyl evelscontainthemaxi mum possiblenumberofel ectronsaresai
dto
best able.
-Thusat omswi t
hener gylevel
s2, 2.8and2. 8.
8ar esaidtobestable.
-Electronconf i
gurati
on2i ssaidtohaveast abledupletstat
ewhileelectronconfi
guration2.8and2.8.
8
i
ssai dt ohaveast ableoctetstat
e.
-Theseel ect
ronconfigurati
onsresembl ethoseofnobl egasesandassucht heyar
est ableanddonot
react.
-Atomswi t
houtthi
sst abil
it
yacquireitbyeitherelect
rongainorelectronloss.
-Whet heranat om losesorgainsel ect
ro(s)dependont henumberofel ectr
onsintheout ermostener
gy
l
evel.

 I
llust
rat
ion.
-Taket
hecaseofsodi um.
-Atomi
cnumberi s11wi t
hanel ect
ronconf
igurat
ionof2.8.
1.
-Thussodium hastwooptionsintobecomestable:
 toloset
hesingleelectr
onandacquir
east abl
eelectr
onconf
igur
ati
onof2.
8.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
 togain7electronsi
nitsoutermostenergylevelandacqui r
east abl
eelect
ronconfi
gurat
ionof
2.8.
8
-Gaini
ngasingleelectr
onsandlosingasingleelectr
onsr equi
resequalamount sofener
gy.
-Thusiti
scheaperandf ast
erintermsofenergyf orsodium tolosethesingleel
ectr
onintheouter
most
ener
gylevelthantogain7elect
ronsintoit
sout er
mostener gylevel.
-Thussodium acquir
esastableelect
ronconfigurat
ion2.8byl osi
ngt hesingl
eelect
roni
nitsouter
most
ener
gylevel.

Di
agr
am

Sodi
um at
om Sodi
um i
on.

Equat
ion:
Na→ Na++e-

Fur
therexampl
es:
El
ement El
ectr
onar
rangement Opti
onsforstabi
li
ty Best(cheapest
)opt
ion
Chlori
ne 2.
8.7 2.8or2.
8.8 2.8.
8
Potassium 2.
8.8.
1 2.8.
8or2.8.
8.8 2.8.
8
Aluminium 2.
8.3 2.8or2.
8.8 2.8
Magnesi um 2.
8.2 2.8or2.
8.8 2.8
Carbon 2.
4 2or2.8 2.or2.8
Oxygen 2.
6 2.or2.
8 2.8

 Ion:
Def
ini
ti
on:ani
onisachar
gedparti
cleofanel
ement.
-Ar
eformedwhenanatom ofanel
ementeit
herl
osesorgai
nsel
ect
rons.

 I l
lust r
ation:
-Foraneut r
alatom thenumberofel ect r
onsi ntheenergylevels(negati
vecharges)isequalandt hus
compl etelybal ancesthenumberofpr otonsinthenucleus( posit
ivecharges).
-Thust henetchar geinaneut ralatom i szero(0).
-Whenanat om gainselectr
on(s),thenumberofel ect
ronsbecomeshi gherthant henumberofprotons
resul
tingt oanetnegat ivechargehenceani on.
-Opposi telywhenanat om losesel ectron(s)thenumberofpr otonsbecomeshi gherthanthenumberof
elect
ronsr esulti
ngintoanetposi ti
vechar gehenceani on.
-Thechar geont heionisusuallyindicatedasasuper scripttother i
ghtofthechemi calsymbol.
-Thusi onsar eoftwot ypes:
 Cations
 Anions

 Cations:
-Ar
eposit
ivelychargedi
ons.
-Ar
eformedwhenat omsloseel
ect
ronsr
esul
ti
ngi
ntot
henumberofpr
otonsbei
nghi
ghert
hant
he
numberofelect
rons.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Ar
emost
lyi
onsofmet
all
icel
ement
ssi
ncemostmet
alsr
eactbyel
ect
ronl
oss.

Exampl es:
(i
).Magnesi um:
-I
thasat omicnumber12,wi t
helectr
onar r
angement2. 8.
2.
-I
thas12pr otonsand12el ect
ronshenceanetchar geof“ 0”hencetheat om iswrit
tensi
mpl
yasMg.
-I
twi l
lformi t
sionsbylosingthetwoel ect
ronsf
rom theout er
mostener gylevel.
-Thust henumberofelectronsdecreasesto10whi l
et henumberofpr ot
onsr emains12.
2+
-Thisleadst oanetchargeof+2, gi
vingtheionwit
hthef ormulaMg .

 Di
agr
ammat
ici
ll
ust
rat
ion:

(i
i)
.Phosphor us
-I
thasat omicnumber13, wi t
helectronar
rangement2.8.
3.
-I
thas13pr otonsand13el ect
ronshenceanetchar geof“0”hencet
heat om iswrit
tensi
mplyasAl
.
-I
twi l
lformitsionsbylosingthree(3)el
ectr
onsoutoftheoutermostenergylevel.
-Thust henumberofelectronsdecreasesbythr eet
o10whi l
ethenumberofpr otonsremai
ns13.
+3
-Thisleadstoanetchar geof+3, gi
vinWORKei onwitht
heformulaAl .

 Di
agr
ammat
ici
ll
ust
rat
ion:

 Anions:
-Ar
enegati
velychar
gedions.
-Ar
eformedwhenat omsgainelectr
onsresult
ingi
ntothenumberofelect
ronsbei
nghighert
hanthe
numberofprot
ons.
-Ar
emost l
yionsofnon-
metall
icelement
ssi ncemostnon-met
alsi
onize(react
)byel
ectr
ongain.

Exampl es.
(i
).Chlori
ne:
-I
thasat omi
cnumber17,wi t
helectronar r
angement2.
8.7.
-I
thas17pr ot
onsand17el ect
ronshenceanetchar geof“0”hencetheatom iswri
tt
ensi
mpl
yasCl
.
-I
twi l
lformitsi
onsbygainingasingl eelect
roni
ntotheouter
mostenergylevel
.
-Thust henumberofel
ectronsincreasest o18whil
ethenumberofpr ot
onsremains17.
-
-Thisleadstoanetchar
geof- 1,gi
vingt heionwit
htheformulaCl.

 Di
agr
ammat
ici
ll
ust
rat
ion:
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Note:t
heelectr
osgainedmustber epresentedbyadif
fer
entnot
ationf
rom t
heini
ti
alelect
ronsi
nthe
atom.E.g.i
ftheini
ti
alelect
ronsarerepresent
edwit
hcrosses(
x)thenthegai
nedelect
ronsshoul
dbe
repr
esentedbydots(.)andviseversa.

(i
i)
.Phosphorus
-I
thasat omicnumber15,wit
helectronar
rangement2.
8.5.
-I
thas15pr otonsand15elect
ronshenceanetchargeof“0”hencetheatom i
swr i
tt
ensi
mplyasP.
-I
twi l
lformit
sionsbygai
ningthree(3)el
ectr
onsint
otheoutermostener
gylevel.
-Thust heumberofel
ect
ronsincreasesbythreet
o18whi l
ethenumberofprotonsremai
ns15.
-
3
-Thisleadst
oanetchargeof-2,givi
ngtheionwit
htheformulaP .

 Di
agr
ammat
ici
ll
ust
rat
ion:

El
ectrontransf
erduringchemicalr
eacti
ons.
-Atomsreacteitherbyelect
rongainorel
ect
ronloss.
-General
lymetalsreactbyelect
rongainwhi
lenon-metal
sreactbyel
ect
ronl
oss.

 Ill
ustrati
on:
-Considerther eactionbetweensodi
um andchl or
ine.
-Sodium attai
nsst abili
ty//r
eactsbylosingthesi
ngleelectr
onf ormitsoutermostenergylevel
.
-Chlori
neattainsst abil
it
y//react
sbygai ni
ngasingleelectr
onint oi
tsoutermostenergylevel.
-Thusdur i
ngt her eacti
onbetweenthetwoel ementsthesingleelect
ronlostbythesodium atom t
o
for
mt hesodi um ioni sthesameonegai nedbythechlori
neat om toformthechlori
deion.

Somebasicconcept
s.
 Val
enceelect
rons:
-Refer
stothenumberelect
ronsi
ntheout
ermostener
gyl
evel
.

Examples:
-Cal
cium,withelect
ronarrangement2.8.
8.2has2valenceelect
rons.
-Oxygenwithelectr
onarrangement2.6has6valenceelect
rons.
-Phosphor
uswi thelect
ronarrangement2.8.
5has5valenceelectr
ons.

 Val
ency:
-Refer
stothenumberofel
ect
ronsanat
om l
osesorgai
nsdur
ingachemi
calr
eact
ion.
-Val
encyisalsoknownast
hecombini
ngpowerofanel
ement
.

Exampl
es:
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Calci
um,withelect
ronarrangement2.8.
8.2loses2el ectr
onsdur i
ngchemi calreactionsandhencehas
avalencyof2.
-Oxygenwithelectr
onarrangement2.6gains2el ect
ronsdur i
ngchemi calr
eact i
onsandt hushasa
val
encyof2.
-Phosphoruswithelect
ronarrangement2.8.
5hasgai ns3el ectr
onsdur i
ngchemi calreacti
onsand
hencehasavalencyof3.
-Alumini
um, wi
thelectr
onar r
angement2.8.3loses3el ect
ronsduringchemi calreactionsandhence
hasavalencyof2.

Not
e:Someel
ement
shavevar
iabl
eval
enci
esandar
eusual
lyt
ermedt
het
ransi
ti
onalel
ement
s(met
als)

Examples:
-Ir
oncanhavevalency2or3;
-Coppercanhavevalency1or2
-Leadcanhavevalency2or4.

Summar
yonval
enci
esofcommonel
ement
s.
Val
ency1 Valency2 Val
ency3
Met
als Sodium Calcium Al
umini
um
Potassi
um Barium I
ron
Magnesi um
Zinc
Ir
on
Lead
Copper
Non-
met
als Nit
rogen Nitr
ogen Nit
rogen
Chl
orine Oxygen Phosphorus
Fl
uorine Sulphur
Hydrogen

Radical
s.
-Aregroupsofatomswit
hanetchargethatexi
standreactasauni
tduri
ngchemi
calr
eact
ions.
-Radical
salsohaveaval
ency,
whichisequival
entt
othevalueofi
tschar
ge.

Summar
yonval
enci
esofsomecommonr
adi
cal
s.
Val
ency1 Val
ency2 Val
ency3
Radi
cal
s Ammoni um (NH4+) Car
bonate(CO32-) Phosphat
e(PO43-)
Hydroxi
de(OH-) Sul
phate(SO42-)
Nit
rate(NO3-) Sul
phit
e(SO32-)
Hydrogencarbonate(HCO3
-
)
Hydrogensulphate(HSO4-)
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Oxi
dati
onnumber .
-Ref
erstothenumberofelect
ronsanat om l
osesorgai
nsduri
ngachemi
calreacti
on.
-I
nwr i
ti
ngtheoxidat
ionnumberthesign(+or-)toshowgai
norlossi
swr
itt
enf ol
lowedbyt
he
numberofelect
ronsl
ostorgainedrespect
ivel
y.

Il
lustr
ati
on.
-Atomsar eelect
ri
call
yneutralandarethusassignedanoxi dat
ionstat
eof0si ncethenumberof
protonsinthenucleusisequaltothenumberofel ect
ronsintheenergylevel
s.
-Howeverwhenat omsreacttheyeit
herloseorgainelectr
onsandt husacquir
eanewst ate.
-Thisnewst atei
sanewoxi dationstat
eandtheat om thusacquir
esanewoxi dationnumber

Exampl
es:
Atom [Link]
rangement I
onformul
a Val
ency Oxi
dat
ionnumber
+
Sodium 2.
8.1 Na 1 +1
Magnesi um 2.
8.2 Mg2+ 2 +2
3+
Aluminium 2.
8.3 Al 3 +3
Nitr
ogen 2.
5 N3- 3 -3
Sulphur 2.
8.6 S2- 2 -2
-
Chlori
ne 2.
8.7 Cl 1 -1

Fur
therexampl
es:
Parti
cle Oxi
dat
ionnumber
Coppermet al
,Cu 0
Lead(II
)i on,Pb2+ +2
-
Bromidei on,Br -1
2+
Aluminium ion,Al +2
2-
Sulphi
dei on,S -2
Magnesi um met al, 0
Mg

 Note:oxidat ionnumber( stat

e)andchargeofanelement.
-Oxi
dationstatei swr i
tt
enwi ththeposi
ti
veorthenegat
ivesigncomi
ngbefor
etheel
ement
.
Examples:-2,3,+1, -1etc.
-Char
geonanel ementi swriteasasuperscr
iptoft
heelementwitht
henumbercomi
ngbefor
ethe
posi
ti
vert henegat ivesign
es:Mg2+, 3+
Na+, -
Exampl Al , Cl etc.

Chemicalf
ormulae.
-Ref
erstoarepresentat
ionofachemi cal
substanceusi
ngchemi calsymbol
s.
-I
nasi ngl
eatom iti
sequival
entt
othechemi calsymboloftheelement.
-I
nacompoundi tshowstheconsti
tuentelementsandtheproport
ionsi
nwhicht
heyar
ecombi
ned.

 Deri
vingthechemi
calformulaofcompounds.
-I
nordertowrit
ethecorr
ectformulaofacompoundt hefol
lowi
ngmustbeknown:
 Thesymbol softheconsti
tuentel
ement
sorradi
cals.
 Thevalenci
esoft heelementsorr
adi
cals
-Thechemicalf
ormulashouldstar
twi t
htheelementwhi
chismorel
ikelyt
oloseel
ect
ron(
s)f
oll
owed
bytheel
ementthatismoreli
kelytogain.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Wor
kedexampl
es.

[Link]
ivi
ngt
hef
ormul
aofsodi
um chl
ori
de.
Elements Sodium Chl
orine
Formula Na Cl
valenci
es 1 1
balanci
ng x1 x1

Bal
anci
ngrati
osassubscr
ipt
s:Na1Cl
1
For
mula:NaCl

Expl
anati
on:
-Forsodi
um tocombinewi t
hchlor
inetof
orm sodium chl
ori
de,sodi
um l
osesanelect
ronwhi
le
chl
ori
negainsanelect
ron.
-Thuseverysodi
um atom needsonlyasi
ngl
echl ori
neatom f
orbothtbeful
lyst
able

Note:
-Whent hebalancingr at
io/
/subscripti
s1,itisusual
lynotwr
it
tensi
ncet
hesymboloft
he
el
ementi t
selfrepresentsasingl
eatom.
[Link]
vingthef or
mul aofmagnesium chlor
ide.
Elements Magnesi
um Chl
orine
Formula Mg Cl
valenci
es 2 1
balanci
ng X1 X2

Bal
anci
ngrat
iosassubscr
ipt
s:Mg1Cl
2
For
mula:MgCl2

[Link]
ivi
ngt
hef
ormul
aofmagnesi
um oxi
de.
Elements Magnesi
um Oxygen
Formula Mg O
valenci
es 2 2
balanci
ng X1 X1

Bal
anci
ngrat
iosassubscr
ipt
s:Mg1O1
For
mula:MgO

Furt
herworkedexampl es.
[Link]
vethechemicalformulaofeachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngcompounds.
 Calci
um fl
uoride
 Carbon(I
I)oxide
 Carbon(I
V)oxi de
 Alumini
um nitrat
e
 Calci
um hydrogencarbonate

[Link]
etet
het
abl
ebel
owf
orel
ement
sA,
BandC
Chemi
calf
ormulaofvar
iouscompounds
El
ement Val
ency
hydr
oxi
des Sul
phat
es car bonat
es ni t
rates phosphat
es Hydr
ogen
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
car
bonat
es
A 1
B 2
B 3

Chemicalequati
ons.
-Ref
erstorepresent
ati
onsofachemi
calr
eact
ionbymeansofchemi
calsymbol
sandf
ormul
a.

 Keyf eatur
esofachemi calequation.
-Thecorrectformulaeofthereactantsar eontheleftoft
heequati
on.
-Thecorrectformulaeofthepr oduct
sar eont heri
ghtoftheequat
ion.
-Thereactantsandpr oduct
sar eseparatedbyanar rowpoint
ingtotheri
ght
.
-Thestatesymbol softhereactantsandpr oductsmustbestatedassubscr
ipt
stotheri
ghtoft
he
symbols
-Thenumberofeachat om ont hereactantssidemustbeequaltothenumberofthesameatom ont
he
product
ssi de.

Example.
React
ionbet
weenhotcoppermetalsandoxygengas.
 Wordequat
ion:Copper+oxygen→ Copper(
II
)oxi
de.

 Chemi
calequat
ion:2Cu(s)+O2(g)→ 2CuO(s).

Balanci
ngchemi calequat
ions.
-Achemi calequati
onisonlyvali
difi
tisbalanced.
-Achemi calequati
onissaidtobebalancedifthenumberofeachat
om ont hereactant
ssi
dei
sequalt
o
thatontheproductsside.
-Thisisbecauseatomsar eneit
hercr
eatednordestroyeddur
ingachemicalreact
ion.

Rulesandguidel
inesinbalancingchemi calequati
ons.
 Step1:Wr i
tethechemi calequat
ioninwor ds.
Example:Coppermet al+oxygengas.

 StepII
:Wr
it
ethecor
rectf
ormul
aeofbot
hreact
ant
sandpr
oduct
s
Example:Cu+O2→ CuO

 St epII
I:Checkwhethert
henumberofat
omsofeachel
ementont
her
eact
ant
ssi
dei
sequalt
o
t
hatont heproduct
sside.
-I
fequalproceedtostep(
V);
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-I
fnotequalpr
oceedt
ost
ep(
IV)
.

Example:Cu+O2→ CuO
-I
nt hi
scasetherear
etwooxygenat
omsont
her
eact
ant
ssi
deyett
her
eisonl
yoneoxygenat
om ont
he
product
[Link]
oceedtost
epI
V

 StepIV:Mult
ipl
ythechemi calf
ormul
acontai
ningt
heunbal
ancedat
omswiththel
owestcommon
multi
ple.
Example:Cu+O2→ CuO
-I
nthiscasethechemicalformul
awi t
htheunbal
ancedatom i
sCuOonthepr
oduct
[Link]
multi
plyi
tby2.
-Thenewequat i
onnowr eads:Cu+O2→ 2CuO

 St epV:checkagai ntoensur ethatallatomsar ebal

anced.
-I
fallatomsar ebalancedpr oceedtost epVI .
-I
fnott henrepeatst epI Vuntilal
latomsar ebal anced.
Example:Cu+O2→ 2CuO
-I
nthiscasemul t
iplyingCuOby2of fsetsthebal ancingofCu;whichisnowunbalanced!
-Wet heref
orerepeatst epIVinordert obalanceCu.
-Thereisonly1Cuat om ont hereactantssideyett hereare2Cuat omsontheproductsside.
-Wet husmul t
ipl
yt hef ormul awit
ht heunbal ancedat om (
s)bythelowestcommonmul t
ipl
e,i
nthi
scase
2.
-Thenewequat i
onatt hisstepthusbecomes:2Cu+O2→ 2CuO
-Wet henrepeatstepV;i nthiscaseal lat
omsar enowbal anced.

 StepVI:Thephysi
calstatesoft
hereact
ant
sandt
heproductsar
etheni
ndi
cat
ed.
-I
fthi
sisnotdonet
hechemi calequat
ioni
sconsi
der
edi
ncor
rect.

 Typesofst atesymbol s.
-Therefourmai nstatesymbol s.
 Solid;denotedas( s)
 Liquid;denotedas( l
)
 Aqueous( i
nsol ut
ioni
nwat er
);denotedas(aq)
 Gaseous;denot edas(g)
-Inachemi calequationthestatesymbol sarewri
ttenwi
tht
hei
rdenot
ati
onsassubscr
ipt
stot
her
ightof
thechemicalformulae.
Example:2Cu(s)+O2(g)→ 2CuO(s)

Thusthebal
ancedchemi calequat
ionf
ort
her
eact
ionbet
weencoppermet
aladoxygeni
s:
 2Cu(s)+O2(g)→ 2CuO(s)

Workedexamples:
[Link]
anceequationsforeachoft
hefoll
owingreact
ions.
 Sodium hydroxi
deanddil
utehydr
ochlor
icaci
d

 Zi
ncoxi
deanddi
lut
esul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d

 Zi
ncmet
alanddi
lut
eni
tr
ic(
V)aci
d
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
 Cal
cium car
bonat
eanddi
lut
esul
phur
ic(
VI)aci
d

 Sodi
um andwat
er

[Link]
anceeachofthef
oll
owingequat i
ons.
 Mg(s)+HCl
aq)→Mg
( Cl aq)+H2(
2( g)

 Na(s)+H2O(l)→ NaOH(aq)+H2(g)

 NaOH(aq)+H2SO4(aq)→Na2SO4(aq)+H2O(l)

 CuCO3(s)+HNO3(aq)→ Cu(
NO3)aq)+C
2( O2(g)+H2O(l)

 H2S(g)+O2(g)→ O2(g)+H2O(l)

 C2H6(g)+O2(g)→ CO2(g)+H2O(l)

 Pb(
NO3)s)→ P
2( bO(s)+NO2(g)+O2(g)

 Fe(s)+Clg)→ F
2( eCl
3(
s)

 Al
s)+H2S
( O4(aq)→ Al
2(
SO4)aq)+H2(
3( g).

UNIT2:CHEMI
CALFAMI
LIES;PATTERNSANDPROPERTI
ES.
Checkl
ist
.
-Meani
ngofchemi calf
amil
ies.
-Mai
nchemicalfamili
es;
 Alkal
imet al
s
 Meani ngandmember s
 Trendsdownt hegr oup
 At omi cradi us
 I onicradius
 Ener gyl evel s
 Physicalproperties
 Appear ance
 Easeofcut t
ing
 Mel t
ingandboi l
ing[ poi
nts
 El ectri
calconduct i
vit
y
 1stionizat ionener gy
 Chemi calproperties
 Bur ningi nai r
 Exposur et oair
 React i
onwi thwat er
 React i
onwi thchl ori
ne
 Similari
tyofionsandf or
mul aofcompoundsofal
kal
imet
als
 Usesofal kalimet als.
 Alkal
ineearthmetal
s
 Meani ngandmember s
 Trendsdownt hegr oup
 At omi cradi us
 I onicradius
 Ener gyl evel s
 Physicalproperties
 Mel t
ingandboi l
ing[ poi
nts
 El ectri
calconduct i
vit
y
 1stionizat ionener gy
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
 2ndi oni zationener gy
 Chemi calproper ties
 React ionwi t
hairandwat er
 React ionwi t
hsteam
 React ionwi t
hchl ori
ne
 React ionwi t
hdiluteaci ds
 Si mil
ar i
tyofionsandf ormul aofcompoundsofal kal
ineear
thmet
als
 Usesofal kalineear thmet al
s.
 TheHalogens
 Meani ngandmember s
 Tr endsdownt hegr oup
 At omi cr adi us
 I onicr adius
 Ener gyl evel s
 Physi calproper ties
 Pr epar ationandpr oper t
iesofchl
ori
ne
 Appear anceandphysi calstat
esofhal
ogensatroom t
emper
atur
e
 Mel t
ingandboi l
ingpoi nts
 El ectricalconduct i
vit
y
 Chemi calproper ties
 I onfor mat ion
 El ectronaf finit
y
 React ionwi t
hmet al
s
 React ionwi t
hwat er
 React ivityt rendofhal ogens.
 Si mil
ar i
tyofionsandf ormul aofcompoundsofal kal
imetal
s
 Usesofal kalimet als.
 Thenoblegases
 Meani ngandmember s
 Tr endsdownt hegr oup
 At omi cr adi us
 I onicr adius
 Ener gyl evel s
 Physi calproper ties
 Mel t
ingandboi l
ing[ points
 El ectricalconduct i
vit
y
 1stioni zat ionener gy
 Chemi calproper ties
 Usesoft henobl egases
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Intr
oducti
on:
-Elementsareclassi
fi
edandhenceposi t
ionedintheperi
odictabl
ebasedont henumberofval
ence
elect
ronsandt henumberofenergylevel
s.
-Thenumberofval enceelect
ronsi
sequalt othegrouptowhichtheelementbelongs;whi
l
ethenumber
ofenergylevel
sisequaltotheperi
odt owhichtheelementbel
ongs.
-Elementsinthesamegr ouparesaidtobelongtothesamechemi calfami
ly.

-Thusachemicalf
ami l
yref
erst
oagroupofel
ement
sint
hesame
numberofval
enceelectr
onsadhencei
nthesamegr
oupoft
he

Charact
eri
sti
csofachemi calfami l
y:
-havesamenumberofval enceelectrons;
-Showauni f
orm gr
adationinphysi calproper
ti
es;
-havesimi
larchemicalpropert
ies;

Mainchemicalfamili
es.
-Fourmai
nchemi calf
amil
ieswi
llbest
udi
esi
nthi
ssect
ion.
 TheAlkalimetals
 TheAlkalineeart
hmetal
s
 Thehalogens
 Thenoblegases

[Link] al
s.
-Aretheelement swithoneval
enceelect
ronandhenceingroupIoft
heper
iodi
ctabl
e.
-Allar
emet all
ici
nnature.
-Themember softhefami
lyi
norderdownthegroupisasfoll
ows:
 Lit
hium
 Sodium
 Potassi um
 Rubi dium
 Caesi um
 Franci um

El
ect
ronar
rangementoft
hef
ir
stt
hreeal
kal
imet
als.
El
ement s El
ectr
onar
rangement
Li
thium 2.
1
Sodium 2.
8.1
Potassi
um 2.
8.81

Di
agr
am:Par
tofper
iodi
ctabl
eshowi
ngt
heal
kal
imet
als

Gradat
ioninpr
operti
esofal
kal
imet
als.
[Link]
onicradi
us.
 Atomicradi
us:
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Refer
stothedist
ancebet
weent
hecent
reoft
henucl
eusofanat
om andt
heouter
mostenergylevel
occupi
edbyelectr
on(s)
 Ioni
cradi
us:
-Refer
stothedist
ancebet
weent
hecent
reoft
henucl
eusofani
onandtheout
ermostener
gylevel
occupi
edbyelectr
on(s)

Trend:
-Theionicr
adiusandt
heatomi
cradiusofalkal
imetal
sincr
easedownthegroup.
Reason:
-Thereisanincr
easei
nthenumberofenergylevel
sdownthegroupf
rom l
it
hium t
oFr
anci
um.

Il
lustr
ation:
-Lithi
um (2.1)hasonl
y2energylevel
s;sodi
um (
2.8.
1)has3ener
gylevel
swhi
lepotassi
um (
2.8.
8.1)has
4ener gylevel
s.
-Thust heoutermostel
ect
roninpotassi
um i
sfurt
herfr
om t
henucl
eusthant
heoutermostel
ectr
onin
sodium andl i
thi
um.

[Link]
usofthesameel ement.
-Forthesamealkalimetal
stheatomicradiusi
slargert
hantheioni
cradius.
Reason:
-Alkal
imetalsf
ormi onsbylosi
ngthevalenceel
ectron,
ladi
ngtothelossofanenti
reout
ermostener
gy
l
[Link] eenergylevel
sthanthecorr
espondi
ngi onhencealar
gerr
adi
usinthe
atom t
hanItheion.

Il
lustr
ation
-Potassium atom hasel
ectr
onarrangementof2.8.
8.1hence4ener
gylevels.
-Dur i
ngi onf
ormationpot
assium r
eactsbylosi
ngthesingl
eval
enceel
ectrontoacqui
reanewel
ect
ron
arrangementof2.8.8hence3energylevel
s.
-Thust heionhasasmal l
erradi
usthantheatom.

Di
agr
ammat
ical
ly:Pot
assi
um at
om andpot
assi
um i
on

Summar
y:changesi
nat
omi
candi
oni
cradi
usamongal
kal
imet
als.
Element Symbol At omi cnumber At omicradi
us(nm) I oni
cradius(
nm)
Lithium Li 3 0.
133 0.
060
Sodi um Na 11 0.
157 0.
095
Potassium K 19 0.
203 0.
133
Physicalpropert
iesofal
kalimet als.
[Link] ance.
-Alkalimetalshavemetal
liclusterwhenfreshlycut
.Thi
sref
erst
oashinyappearanceont
hcutsur
face.
-Thissur f
acehowevertarnishesduet or
eactiononexposur
etoai
r.

[Link]
ti
ng.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Theyar esof tandeasyt ocut .
-Thesof t
nessandeaseofcut t
ingincreasedownt hegr oup.
Reason:
-Alkalimet alshavegi antmet al
licstruct
uresheldtogetherbymet all
icbonds.
-Met all
icbondi sduet oattr
actionbet weenthepositi
velychargednucleusofoneat om andt
he
el
ectronsi nt heout er
mostener gyl evelofthenextatom.
-Thust heforceofat tr
actionisst r
ongerissmalleratomst haninlargerat
oms.
-Thei ncreasei nat omicradiusdownt hegroupimpliesthatthestrengt
hofmet al
li
cbondsalsodecr
ease
downt hegr oup( henceeaseofcut t
ingandsof t
ness).

[Link] el
ati
vel
ylowmel t
ingandboi l
ingpoints(incompari
sont oot
hermet
als)
.
Reason:theyhaverel
ati
velyweakermet all
icbonds.
-Themeltingandboil
ingpoint
sdecr easedownt hegroup.
Reason:-Thesizeoftheatomsi ncreasedownt hegroupduetoincreasi
ngnumberofener
gyl
evel
s
hencedecreaseinthestr
engthoft hemetalli
cbonds( downthegroup).

[Link]
calconduct ivit
y.
-Alkalimet alsaregoodconduct orsofheatadel ectr
icit
y.
Reason:t heyhavedel ocali
zedelectronsint heout er
mostener gylevel
.
-Theel ectri
calconduct ivi
tyissimilarforallal
kalimet al
s.
Reason:al lalkalimetalshavet hesamenumberofdel ocal
izedelectr
on( asi
ngl eel
ect
ron)i
nthe
outermostener gylevel.
Note:
-Inmet alst heelectr
onsi ntheout ermostener gyleveldonotremai ninonef ixedposi
ti
[Link]
randoml ythr oughoutthemet alli
cst r
uctureandar ethussai dtobedel ocal
sised.

5.I
oni
zat
ionener
gy.
Ionizati
onener
gyist
heminimum energyrequi
redt
oremovean
electronfr
om t
heout
ermostener
gylevelofanatom i
nit
s
-Thenumberofi onizat
ionener giesanel ementmayhavei sequival
entt
othenumberofval ence
el
ectrons.
-Thef i
rstionizationenergyist hemi ni
mum ener gyrequiredtoremovethefi
rstel
ectr
onfrom the
outer
mostener gyl evel
ofanat om initsgaseousstate.
-Thef i
rstionizationamongal kalimet alsdecr
easesdownt hegroup.
Reason:
-Theef fecti
vef orceofattr
actionofont heouter
mostel ectr
onbyt heposi
ti
venucleusdecreaseswith
i
ncreasingat omi csizeanddist ancef r
om thenucleus.
-Notethatt heat omicradiusincreasesdownt hegroupduet oincreasei
nthenumberofener gylevel
s.

Summar
yonphysi
calpr
oper
ti
esofAl
kal
imet
als.
El
ement Appear
ance Easeof Melt
ing Boi
li
ng Elect
ri
cal Atomic I
oni
c
o o
cutt
ing poi
nt( C) poi
nt( C) conducti
vit
y radi
us r
adi
us
(
nm) (
nm)
Li
thi
um Si
lver Sli
ghtl
y 180 1330 Good 0.
133 520
white hard
Sodium Shiny Easy 98 890 Good 0.
157 496
white
Potassi
um Shiny Easy 64 774 Good 0.
203 419
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
gr
ey

Chemicalpr
opert
iesofalkalimetals.
[Link]
onwit
hai r
.
-Whenexposedtoai ral
kalimetalsreactwi
that
mospher
icmoi
stur
etof
ormt
hecor
respondi
ngmet
al
hydr
oxideandhydrogengas.

 Generalequat
ion:
Met
al+Water→ Met alhydr
oxi
de+hydr
ogengas.

-Themet al
hydr
oxi
def
urt
herr
eact
swi
that
mospher
iccar
bon(
IV)oxi
det
ofor
m hydr
atedmet
al
carbonat
e.

 Generalequat
ion:
Met
alhydr
oxide+carbon(I
V)oxi
de→ Hydr
atedmet
alcar
bonat
e.

Examples:
 Lit
hium
Withmoistur
e:2Li
s)+2
( H2O(l)→ 2LiOH(aq)+H2(g);
Thenwithcarbon(
IV)oxi
de:2LiOH(aq)+CO2(g)→ Li 2CO3.
H2O(s);

 Sodi
um
Withmoist
ure:2Na(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)+H2(g);
Thenwit
hcar bon(I
V)oxide:2NaOH(aq)+CO2(g)→ Na2CO3.
H2O(s);

 Potassium
Withmoistur
e:2K(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2KOH(aq)+H2(g);
Thenwit
hcar bon( I
V)oxi
de:2KOH(aq)+CO2(g)→ K2CO3.
H2O(s);

[Link]
ngi
nair.
-Alkal
imet
alsbur
ninai
rwi
thchar
act
eri
sti
cfl
amecol
our
stof
orm cor
respondi
ngmet
aloxi
des.

Examples:
 Lithi
um.
-Burnsinairt
ofor
mli
thi
um oxi
deast
heonl
ypr
oduct
.

Equation:
4Li
(s)+O2(g)→ 2Li
2O(
s)

 Sodi um.
-Burnsinai rt
owi t
hayel l
owf
lamet
ofor
m sodi
um oxi
deast
heonl
ypr
oduct
.
Equation:
4Na(s)+O2(g)→ 2Na2O(s)

Note:
-Whenbur nedinairenr i
chedwi thoxygenorpur
eoxygensodi
um bur
nswi
thayel
lowf
lamet
ofom
sodium per
oxide(i
nst eadofsodi um oxi
de)
.
Equati
on:2Na(s)+O2(g)→ Na2O2(s)

 Potassi
um.
-Burnsi
nairwithal
il
acf
lamet
ofor
m pot
assi
um oxi
deast
heonl
ypr
oduct
.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Equation:
4K(s)+O2(g)→ 2K2O(s)

[Link]
onwithwater
.
-Alkal
imetal
sreactwi
thwat
ert
ofor
mthecor
respondi
nghydr
oxi
desandhydr
ogengas.

Examples:
 Pot assi
um.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpieceofpot
assium met
ali
scutanddroppedi
ntoat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresultantsol
uti
onistest
edwit
hli
tmuspaper;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observat i
onsandexpl anations:
-Themet alfl
oatsont hewat ersurf
ace;becauseiti
slessdenset hanwat er
;
-Ahissi ngsoundi spr oduced;duet oproducti
onofhydrogengas;
-Itexplosivelymel t
sintoasi l
veryballt
hendisappearsbecauser eact
ionbetweenwaterandpotassi
um
i
sexot hermi c(producesheat )
.Theresult
antheatmeltsthepotassium duetoit
slowmelti
ngpoint.
-I
tdar tsont hesur f
ace;duet opropul
sionbyhydrogen;
-Themet alburstsintoal i
lacf l
ame;becausehydrogenexplodesi nt
oaf l
amewhi cht
henburnsthesmall
quantiti
espot assium vapourpr oducedduringthereact
ion;
-Ther esultantsoluti
ont ur
nsbl ue;becausepotassi
um hydroxi
desol ut
ionformedisastr
ongbase;

(b)
.Reactionequat i
ons.
EquationI
2K(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2KOH(aq)+H2(g);

Equat i
onII
4K(s)+O2(g)→ 2K2O(s);
Equat i
onIII:
K2O(s)+H2O(l)→ 2KOH(aq)

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsol
uti
ononl i
tmuspaper ;
-Li
tmuspaperturnsbl
ue;sodium hydroxi
deformedi
shi
ghl
ysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
argenumber
ofhydr
oxyli
onswhichresul
tintoalkal
inecondi
ti
ons/
/hi
ghpH;

 Sodium.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpi
eceofsodi
um met
ali
scutanddr
oppedint
oat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresult
antsol
uti
onist
est
edwit
hli
tmuspaper
;
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser vati
onsandexpl anati
ons:
-Themet alfloat
sont hewat ersurface;becauseiti
slessdensethanwat er;
-Ahi ssingsoundi spr oduced;duet oproducti
onofhydrogengas;
-Itvigorousl ymeltsintoasi l
veryballthendisappearsbecauser eact
ionbetweenwaterandsodi
um i
s
exothermi c(producesheat )
.Ther esult
antheatmeltsthesodium duetoitsl
owmel t
ingpoint
.
-Itdartsont hesur f
ace;duet opropulsionbyhydrogen;
-Themet almaybur sti nt
oagol denyel l
ow fl
ame;becausehydr ogenmayexpl odeintoaflamewhi
ch
thenbur nst hesodium;
-Ther esultantsoluti
ont ur
nsblue;becausesodi um hydr
oxidesoluti
onformedisastrongbase;

(b)
.Reacti
onequat i
ons.
EquationI
2Na(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)+H2(g);

EquationI
I
4Na(s)+O2(g)→ 2Na2O(s);

EquationI
II:
Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsol
uti
ononl i
tmuspaper ;
-Li
tmuspaperturnsbl
ue;sodium hydroxi
deformedi
shi
ghl
ysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
argenumber
ofhydr
oxyli
onswhichresul
tintoalkal
inecondi
ti
ons/
/hi
ghpH;

 Lithi
um.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpi
eceofl
it
hium metali
scutanddroppedint
oat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresult
antsol
uti
onistest
edwithl
itmuspaper;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser
vat
ionsandexpl
anat
ions:
-Themet
al f
loat
sonthewatersur
face;becausei
tisl
essdenset
hanwat
er;
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Ahissingsoundisproduced;duet oproduct
ionofhydrogengas;
-Itr
eactslessvigorousl
yt hansodium anddesnotmel tsi
ncethemelt
ingpointofli
thi
um isr
elat
ivel
y
hi
gher.
-I
tdartsonthesur f
ace;duet opropul
sionbyhydrogen;
-Thegasdoesnoti gnit
espont aneousl
y;
-Theresult
antsolut
ionturnsblue;becauseli
thi
um hydr
oxidesol
uti
onfor
medi sastrongbase;

(b)
.Reacti
onequat i
ons.
EquationI
2Li
(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2Li
OH(aq)+H2(g);

EquationI
I
4Li
(s)+O2(
g)→ 2Li
2O(
s);

EquationI
II
:
Li
2O(s)+H2O(
l)→ 2Li
OH(aq)

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsol
uti
ononl i
tmuspaper ;
-Li
tmuspaperturnsbl
ue;sodium hydroxi
deformedi
shi
ghl
ysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
argenumber
ofhydr
oxyli
onswhichresul
tintoalkal
inecondi
ti
ons/
/hi
ghpH;

Summar
yonr
eact
ionr
ate.
Metal Reactionrate
Li
thium Vigorous
Sodium Mor evigorous
Potassi
um Explosive

[Link]
onwi
thchl
ori
ne
-Allal
kal
imet
alsr
eactwi
thchl
ori
net
ofor
m cor
respondi
ngmet
alchl
ori
des.

 Generalpr
ocedure:
-Asmallpi
eceoftheal
kal
i metali
scutandpl
acedinadeflagrat
ingspoon;
-I
tist
henwarmedandqui ckl
yloweredi
ntoagasjarcont
ainingchlor
ine.

 Precauti
ons.
-Theexperi
mentshouldbedonei nawor ki
ngf umechamberorint
heopen
Reason:Chlori
negasispoisonous.
-Thi
sexperimentshouldnotbeattemptedinthelabor
ator
ywit
hpotassi
um
Reason:t
her eact
ioni
stooexplosiveandverydangerous.

 Observat i
ons:
Sodium:
-Themet al
bur stsi
ntoayell
owf lame.
-Whitefumesofsodi um chl
ori
dear ef
ormed.
Equati
on:2Na(s)+Cl2(
g)→ 2NaCl
(s)

Li
thi
um:
-Themetalreactsl
essvi gorouslyt
hansodi
um wi
thoutbur
sti
ngi
ntoaf
lame.
-Whit
efumesofl it
hium chlori
dearefor
med.
Equat
ion:2Li
(s)+Cl
2(g)→ 2LiCl(
s)
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Potassi
um:
-Themet al
bur st
sint oali
lacfl
ame.
-Whitefumesofpot assium chlor
idear
efor
med.
Equati
on:2K(s)+Cl g)→ 2
2( KCl(
s)

Thegener alt
rendinreactivityofalkalimetal
s.
-Ther eact
ivi
tyofalkalimet alsincr
easedownt hegr oup.
Reason:
-Alkalimetal
sreactbyl osingt hesingleval
[Link]
ossoftheval
enceelectron
i
ncreasesdownt hegr oupduet odecreaseinat
tracti
onoft heval
enceel
ectr
ontowardsthepositi
ve
[Link]
urni sduet otheincreaseinat
omi cradiusdownthegroupasaresultofi
ncreasein
numberofener gylevels.

Similari
tyofi
onsandf ormulaeofsomecompoundsofAl kal
imet al
s.
-Alkalimetal
shaveasi mil
archargeonthei
rionssincetheyallhaveasi
ngl
eval
enceel
ect
ron.
-Thust heyhavethesamegener alf
ormulai
nt hei
rionsandcompounds.

Exampl
es.
OH-) Oxi O2-) -
Al
kal
imet
ali
on Hydr
oxi
de( des( Chl
ori
de(
Cl) Sul
phat SO42
es(
-
)
+
Li
Na+
K+

Note:
-Alkal
imet
alsareusuall
ynotfoundasf
reeel
ement
s;butr
atheri
nthei
rcombi
nedst
atesi
ntheear
th’
s
crust.
Reason:
-Theyhavehighreact
ivi
ti
es.

UsesofAl kal
imet alsandtheircompounds.
[Link] i susedi nthemanuf actur eofsodium cyanideforgoldext ract
ion.
[Link]
hium i susedi nthemanuf actur eofspecialhighstr
engt hglassesadcer amics.
[Link]
hium compoundsar eusedi nt hemanuf actureofdrycellsforusei nmobilephones,
laptops,
stopwat ches,andzer oemissionel ectr
icvehicles.
[Link] tenmi xt
ureofsodium andpot assium isusedasacool antinnucl earr
eactor
s.
[Link] vapouri susedt opr oducet heyellowglowi nstreetadadver ti
sementlight
s.
[Link] um i
susedasar educingagenti ntheextr
act i
onoft i
tanium.
Equation:Na(l)+TiCl g)→ T
4( i
(s)+4 NaCl(l
)
[Link] chl ori
dei susedasaf oodaddi ti
ve.
[Link] xtureofsodium hydroxide( causticsoda)andcar bondisulphideisusedi nthemanufactur
eof
arti
fi
cialsilkcall
edr ayon.

TheAlkal
ineEar t
hmet al
s.
-Aretheelementswithtwovalenceelect
ronsandhencei
ngroupIIoft
heper
iodi
ctabl
e.
-Allar
emet all
ici
nnature.
-Themember softhefamil
yinorderdownt hegr
oupisasfol
lows:
 Beryll
ium
 Magnesi um
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
 Calcium
 Str
ont i
um
 Barium
 Radium

El
ect
ronar
rangementoft
hef
ir
stt
hreeal
kal
ineear
thmet
als.
El
ement s El
ectr
onar
rangement
Ber
ylli
um 2.
2
Magnesium 2.
8.2
Cal
cium 2.
8.8.
2

Di
agr
am:Par
tofper
iodi
ctabl
eshowi
ngt
heal
kal
ineear
thmet
als

Dotandcr
ossdi
agr
amsf
ort
hef
ir
stt
hreeAl
kal
ineEar
thmet
als

Gradat
ioninpropert
iesofalkal
imetal
s.
[Link]
us.
 Atomicradius:
-Refer
stothedistancebetweenthecent
reoft
henucl
eusofanat
om andt
heouter
mostenergylevel
occupi
edbyelectron(s)
 Ioni
cradius:
-Refer
stothedistancebetweenthecent
reoft
henucl
eusofani
onandtheout
ermostener
gylevel
occupi
edbyelectron(s)

Trend:
-Theionicr
adiusandt
heatomi
cradiusofalkal
ineear
thmetal
sincr
easedownthegroup.
Reason:
-Thereisanincr
easei
nthenumberofenergylevel
sdownthegroupfr
om Ber
yll
ium t
oradi
um.

Il
lust
rat
ion:
-Beryl
li
um (2.
2)hasonly2energyl
evel
s;Magnesium (
2.8.
2)has3ener
gylevel
swhil
ecal
cium (
2.8.
8.2)
has4ener gyl
evel
s.
-Thustheoutermostel
ect
ronincal
cium i
sfur
therfr
om thenucl
eust
hantheouter
mostel
ectr
onin
magnesium andberyl
li
um.

[Link]
oni
cradi
usofthesameel
ement
.
-Forthesameal
kal
ineear
thmetalt
heat
omi
cradi
usi
slar
gert
hant
hei
oni
cradi
us.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Reason:
-Alkal
ineeart
hmet alsfor
mionsbylosi
ngt
heval
enceel
ect
rons,l
eadi
ngtothelossofanent
ir
e
outermostenergylevel
.Thust
heatomshavemor
eenergyl
evelst
hanthecorr
espondingi
onhencea
l
argerradi
usint heatom t
hanIthei
on.

Il
lust
ration
-Calcium atom haselect
ronarr
angementof2.8.
8.2hence4ener
gyl
evel
s.
-Duringi onfor
mationitr
eactsbylosi
ngthe2valenceel
ect
ronst
oacqui
reanewel
ect
ronar
rangement
of2.8.8hence3ener gylevel
s.
-Thust heionhasasmal l
err
adiusthant
heatom.

Di
agr
ammat
ical
ly:cal
cium at
om andcal
cium i
on

Summar
y:changesi
nat
omi
candi
oni
cradi
usamongal
kal
imet
als.
El
ement Symbol Atomi c Electron Atomi c I
onicr adi
us
number arr
angement r adi us( nm) ( nm)
Beryll
ium Be 4 2.2 0.089 0. 031
Magnesi um Mg 12 2.8.2 0.136 0. 065
Calcium Ca 20 2.8.8.
2 0.174 0. 099
Physicalpr oper t
iesofal kalimet al
s.
[Link] ance.
-Alkal
ineear t
hmet alsacqui reamet al l
iclusterwhenpol [Link] srefer
stoashi nyappearanceont
he
cutsurface.
-Theyhoweverl oset hi
smet al
liclusterwhenexposedt oai rduet ooxidati
on.
 Not e:
-Thepur poseofpol i
shingal kalineear thmet alsbef oreusingt hem i nexperimenti storemovetheoxi
de
coati
ngt hatsl owsdownandpr eventst hem from react i
ng.
[Link] ting.
-Magnesi um i shar dtocutwi t
hakni fe;butishowevermal leableandduct i
le.
-Calci
um cannotal sobecutwi thakni f
ebecausei tisbri
ttle.
Note:
 Mal leabili
ty:
-Ref erst otheabi li
tyofamat erialtobehammer edint osheet s.
Exampl e:Ironsheet sarepossi bletobemadebecausei r
onmet alismal l
eabl e.

 Duct i
li
ty:
-Theabil
ityofamat er
ialt
oberol
ledi
ntowir
es.
Example:electr
iccabl
esaremadeofal
uminium becauseal
umi
nium met
ali
sduct
il
e.

 Bri
tt
le:
-Refer
stoasubst
ancewhi
chi
shar
dandl
ikel
ytobr
eak.

[Link]
elat
ivel
yhighmel
tingandboi
li
ngpoint
sincompari
sontoalkal
imet
als.
Reason:t
heyhaverel
ati
vel
ystr
ongermetal
li
cbonds(thanal
kal
imet
als)
.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Themel t
ingandboi l
ingpointsdecr
easedownt hegroup.
Reason:-
-Thesizeoft heatomsi ncreasedownt hegroupduetoincreasi
ngnumberofener gylevel
[Link]
atomicradiusincreasethef or
ceofattr
acti
onbetweentheposi t
ivenucleusandthedelocal
ized
el
ectr
onsdecr [Link]
eadst oadecreaseinthest
rengthofthemet all
icbonds(downthegroup)
.

[Link]
calconduct i
vit
y.
-Alkali
neear thmet al
sar egoodconduct orsofheatandelectr
ici
ty.
Reason:t heyhavedel ocalizedelectr
onsintheouter
mostener gylevel
.
-Theel ectri
calconductivit
yi ssimil
arforal
ltheal
kali
neearthmet al
s.
Reason:al lalkal
ineearthmet al
shavethesamenumberofdel ocali
zedel
ect
ron(
twoval
enceel
ect
rons)
i
nt heout ermostenergyl evel.

5.I
oni
zat
ionener
gy.
Ionizati
onener
gyist
heminimum energyrequi
redt
oremovean
electronfr
om t
heout
ermostener
gylevelofanatom i
nit
s
-Thenumberofi onizationener giesanel ementmayhavei sequival
enttothenumberofval ence
el
ectrons.
-Thusal kali
neear t
hmet al
shavet woi oni zat
ionener gi
es.
-Thef i
rstionizationener gyi st hemi nimum ener gyrequiredtoremovet hefir
stelectr
onfrom the
outer
mostener gyl evelofanat om ini t
sgaseousst ate.
-Thesecondi onizationener gyi sthemi nimum ener gyrequir
edt oremovethesecondel ectronfrom t
he
outer
mostener gyl evelofanat om ini t
sgaseousst ate.
-Thef i
rstandsecondi oni zationener giesamongal kali
neear t
hmet alsdecreasesdownt hegr oup.
Reason:
-Theef fecti
vef orceofat tractionofont heout er
mostel ectr
onbyt hepositi
venucl eusdecreaseswith
i
ncreasingat omi csizeanddi st ancef rom t henucleus.
-Notethatt heat omicr adiusi ncr easesdownt hegroupduet oincreaseinthenumberofener gylevel
s.

 Variationbetween1stand2ndIoni
zati
onenergi
es.
-Thefi
rstionizati
onenergyisalwayslowerthanthesecondionizati
onenergyf orthesameel ement .
Reason:
-Aft
erlosi
ngt hefi
rstel
ectr
onfrom anatom,theover
allposi
ti
vechar geholdsther emainingelectr
ons
morefir
ml [Link] emovingasecondelectr
onfrom t
heionrequiresmor eenergyt hanthefir
stelectr
on
Note:
-Thethir
di onizat
ionenergywil
lal
sobehi gherthat
hesecondi onizat
ionenergyf orthesamer eason.

Example:
Magnesium.
 Firsti
oni
zat
i gy:Mg(g)→ Mg+(g)+e-(
onener 1stI
.E=736kJpermole)
+ 2+ nd
 Secondioni
zati
onenergy:Mg(g)→ Mg (g)+e-(2 I .
E=1450kJpermol
e)

Summar
yonphysi
calpr
oper
ti
esofal
kal
ineear
thmet
als.
El
ement Atomi
c Mel
ti
ngpoint Boi
li
ngpoint Atomi
c 1stI
.E 2ndI
.E
o o
number ( C) ( C) r
adi
us(nm) (
kJmol-1) (
kJmol-1)
Berylli
um 4 1280 2450 0.
089 900 1800
Magnesi um 12 650 1110 0.
136 736 1450
Cal
ci um 20 850 1140 0.
174 590 1150
Str
ont i
um 38 789 1330 0.
210 550 1060
Barium 56 725 1140 0.
220 503 970
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Chemi calpropertiesofAlkal
ineeart
hmet als.
[Link] ningal kal
ineeart
hmet alsi
nair.
-Alkalineearthmet al
sreactburninairt
of orm cor
respondi
ngoxi
des.
-Mor er eact
ivealkali
neearthmetalsmayal soreactwit
hatmospher
icni
tr
ogent
ofor
m cor
respondi
ng
ni
trides.

Examples:
 Magnesium.
-Burnsinai
rwithabl
indi
ngbri
ll
iantf
lameformingawhi
tesol
id.
-Thewhitesol
idisamixt
ureofmagnesium oxi
deadmagnesi
um ni
tr
ide.

Equat
ions:
React
ingwithoxygen:2Mg(s)+O2(g)→ 2MgO(s)
React
ingwithni
trogen:3Mg(s)+N2(g)→ Mg3N2(s)

 Calci
um.
-Burnsi
nairwi
thafai
ntorangef
lameformingawhi
tesolid.
-Thewhit
esoli
disamixt
ureofcalci
um oxi
deadcal
cium nit
ri
de.

Equat
ions:
React
ingwithoxygen:2Ca(s)+O2(g)→ 2CaO(s)
React
ingwithni
trogen:3Ca(s)+N2(g)→ Ca3N2(s)

Note:
-Thetrendinthereact
ivit
yofalkal
ineearthmet
alswhenbur ningi
nai ri
snotclear;duet
otheoxide
coati
ngont hecal
cium thattendstoslowdownthereact
ionofcalcium inai
r.
-Forthisr
easonitisimportanttopol
ishthesur
facesofalkal
ineearthmetal
sbef oreusi
ngthem i
n
experi
ments.

[Link]
onofal
kal
ineearthmetal
swi
thcol
dwater
.
-Alkal
ineear
thmet
alsreactsl
owlywi
thcol
dwat
ertof
orm cor
respondi
nghydr
oxi
desandhydr
ogengas.

Examples
 Magnesium:
-Reactssl
owlywithwat ertofor
m magnesium hydroxi
deandhydrogengas.
-Thereact
ionisveryslowandt heamountfhydr ogengasevol
vedisver
ylowhencethehydrogengas
bubbl
esstickonthesur faceoft
hemet al
.
-Themagnesium hydroxi def
ormeddissol
vessli
ghtlyi
nwatertofor
m magnesi
um hydr
oxide.
-Thustheresul
tantsol
ut ioni
ssli
ght
lyalkal
ine.

Equati
on:
Mg(s)+2H2O(l)→ Mg(
OH)aq)+H2(
2( g).

 Calci
um:
Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Observati
onsandexpl anati
ons:
-Cal
cium sinkstot hebott
om ofthebeaker;becausei
tisdensert hanwater;
-Sl
owef fervescenceofacolourl
essgas;duet oslowevol ut
ionofhydrogengas;
-Soapysolutionformed;duetoformationofalkali
necalcium hydroxi
de;
-Awhi t
esuspensi onisformed;becausecalci
um hydroxideissli
ghtlysol
ubl
einwat
er;

Reactionequation:
Ca(s)+H2O(l)→ Ca(OH)2(aq)+H2(g);

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsoluti
ononlit
muspaper ;
-Li
tmuspaperslowlyturnsbl
ue;cal
cium hydroxi
deformedissl
ightl
ysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngasmal
l
numberofhydroxyli
onswhichresul
tint
oal kal
inecondi
ti
ons//highpH;

[Link]
onwi t
hsteam.
-Alkal
ineeart
hmet al
sreactwi
thsteam t
opr
oducecor
respondi
ngmetaloxi
deandhydrogengas.
-Ther eact
ivi
tywithstem isf
asteradmorevigor
ousforeachalkal
ineeart
hmetalsascompar edt
o
reacti
onwithcoldwater
.

Examples:
 Magnesi um
Procedure:
-Asmal lamountofwetsandi sputatthebot t
om ofaboil
ingtube;
-Asmal lpieceofmagnesi um ri
bboniscleanedandputint hemiddleofthecombusti
ont ube;
-Thewetsandi sheatedgentlyfi
rstt
hent hemagnesium ri
bbonisheatedstrongl
yunti
litglows.
Reason:
-Togener atest eam t
hatdri
vesoutt heairthatwouldotherwi
ser eactwit
ht hemagnesium (pr
event
ing
react
ionwi thsteam)
-Thedeliverytubeisremovedf r
om thewat erbef
oreheati
ngstops.
Reason:
Topreventsucki ngback(ofthegas)ast heapparat
uscools
-Thegaspr oducedistest
edusingabur ningspli
nt.

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser
vat
ionsandexpl
anat
ions.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Magnesium bur
nswi t
hawhi t
ebli
ndi
ngf l
ame;
-Greysoli
d(magnesium)for
msawhi tesoli
d;duet
ofor
mat
ionofmagnesi
um oxi
de;
-Evolut
ionofacolourl
essgasthatpr
oducesapopsoundwhenexposedt
oabur ni
ngspl
int
;conf
ir
ming
i
tishydrogen;

Reacti
onequat i
on.
Magnesium +St eam → Magnesi um oxi
de+Hydr
ogengas;
Mg(s)+H2O(g)→ MgO(s)+H2(g);

 Calci
um
-React
ionbetweencalci
um andsteam woul
dproducecal
cium oxi
deandhydrogengas.
-Howeverthereact
ionistooexpl
osivet
obedoneunderlabor
atorycondi
ti
ons.

[Link]
ine.
-Alkal
ineearthmetalsreactwit
hchl
ori
net
of orm cor
respondi
ngchlor
idesast
heonlyproducts.
Conditi
on:presenceofheat,hencet
hemet
almustbeheat edf
ir
st.
Precauti
on:reacti
onshouldbedoneinaworkingfumechamberbecausechlor
inegasispoisonous)
.

Examples:
 Magnesi
um.
Procedur
e:
-Apieceofbur
ningmagnesi
um i
slower
edi
ntoagasj
arcont
aini
ngchl
ori
ne.

Observat
ions:
-Themet alconti
nuest
obur
nwi t
habri
ll
iantwhi
tef
lame.
-Theygreysolidfor
msawhitepowder
.

Expl
anati
on.
-React
ionbet
weenmagnesium andchlor
ineisexother
mic.
-Theheatproducedkeepst hemetalburni
ng;thusfacil
it
atest
her
eact
ionbet
weenmagnesi
um and
chl
ori
netofor
m magnesium chl
ori
de,whi
chisthewhi t
epowder.

Equati
on:
Mg(s)+Clg)→ Mg
2( Cl
2(
s)

 Magnesi
um.
Procedur
e:
-Apieceofbur
ningcal
cium i
slower
edi
ntoagasj
arcont
aini
ngchl
ori
ne.

Observati
onsandexpl anati
ons.
-Themet alburnsshor tl
ywithanorangeflamebutsoonsmol der
soff.
-Thereisnosteadyr eactionbet
weencalcium andchlor
ine.
Reason:
-Whencal cium i
sheat edacoatingofthemet aloxi
deisformedf i
rstwhi
chprevent
sfurt
heerr
eaction
betweenthemet alandchl ori
ne.
-Howeverundersui tablecondit
ionscalcium r
eactswithchlor
inetoform awhitepowderofcal
cium
chl
oride.

Equat
ion:
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Ca(s)+Clg)→ C
2( aCl
2(
s)

[Link]
onofal
kali
neear
thmetalsanddi
lut
eacids
-General
lyal
kal
ineear
thmet
alsreactwi
thdi
lut
eacidst
ofor
m sal
tsandhydr
ogengas.

Examples:
 Wi t
hhydr ochlori
caci d.
 Ber ylli
um:
-Whenapi eceofber yl
li
um isdr oppedintoabeakercont
aini
nghydr
ochlori
caci
d,ther
eisef
fer
vescence
ofacolour l
essgas.
-Thecol ourlessgaspr oducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oabur ningspli
ntconfi
rmi
ngthatitis
hydrogengas.
-Acolourlesssolut
ionofber yl
li
um chlori
deremainsi
nthetestt
ube//boil
ingt
ube.

Equat
ion:Be(s)+2HCl
aq)→ B
( eClaq)+H2(
2( g)

 Magnesi um:
-When a pi ece ofmagnesi um i
s dropped i
nto a beakercontai
ning hydr
ochlor
ic acid,ther
eis
eff
ervescenceofacol ourl
essgas.
-Thecol ourl
essgaspr oducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oaburningspli
ntconfir
mi ngthatiti
s
hydrogengas.
-Acolourlesssolut
ionofmagnesium chl
ori
deremainsi
nt hetestt
ube//boil
ingtube.

Equat
ion:Mg(s)+2HCl
aq)→ Mg
( Claq)+H2(
2( g)

 Calcium:
-Whenapi eceofcalci
um isdroppedint
oabeakercontai
ninghydr
ochl
ori
cacid,ther
eisef
fer
vescence
ofacolour l
essgas.
-Thecol ourlessgasproducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oabur ni
ngsplintconfi
rmi
ngthatitis
hydr
ogengas.
-Acolourlesssolut
ionofcal
cium chl
ori
deremai
nsinthetestt
ube//boi
li
ngtube.

Equat
ion:Ca(s)+2HCl
aq)→ C
( aClaq)+H2(
2( g)

 Wi t
hsul phur
ic(VI)acid.
 Beryl
lium:
-When a pi ece ofber yll
ium is dr
opped i
nto a beakercontai
ning sul
phuric(VI
)acid,t
hereis
eff
ervescenceofacol ourl
essgas.
-Thecol ourl
essgaspr oducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oabur ni
ngspl i
ntconf
irmi
ngthati
tis
hydrogengas.
-Acolourlesssolut
ionofber yl
li
um sul
phater
emainsinthetestt
ube//boil
ingtube.

Equat
ion:Be(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ BeSO4(aq)+H2(g)

 Magnesi
um:
-When a pi ece ofmagnesi
um is dr
opped i
nto a beakercont
aini
ng sul
phuri
c(VI
)acid,ther
eis
eff
ervescenceofacol
ourl
essgas.
-Thecol ourl
essgasproducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oabur ni
ngspli
ntconf
ir
mingthatiti
s
hydrogengas.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Acol
our
lesssol
uti
onofmagnesi
um sul
phat
eremai
nsi
nthet
estt
ube/
/boi
li
ngt
ube.

Equat
ion:Mg(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ MgSO4(aq)+H2(g)

 Calcium:
-Whenapi eceofcalcium isdr oppedi ntoabeakercont ai
ningsulphur
ic( VI
)acid,therei ssli
ght
eff
ervescenceofacol ourlessgas.
-Thecol our l
essgaspr oducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oabur ni
ngspl i
ntconfi
rmi ngthatitis
hydrogengas.
-Ther eactionhoweverqui ckl
yst opsandt hereisformationofawhi t
eprecipit
ateinthet esttubeor
boil
ingtube.
Reason:
-Whencal cium react
swi thdil
utesul phur i
c(VI)cidthereisformati
onofcal ci
um sulphatewhi chis
i
nsolublehencet heformat i
onofawhi tepr eci
pit
[Link]
ubl
ecalci
um sulphatecoat
st hesurfaceof
the(cal
cium)met alstoppingfurt
herreaction.

Equat
ion:Ca(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ CaSO4(s)+H2(g)

 Wi t
hni tri
c(V)aci
d.
 Berylli
um:
-Whenapi eceofberyll
ium isdroppedint
oabeakercont
aini
ngnitr
ic(V)aci
d,t
herei
seffervescenceofa
col
ourlessgas.
-Thecol ourlessgaspr oducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oabur ningspli
ntconf
irmingt hati
tis
hydrogengas.
-Acolourlesssoluti
onofber yll
ium ni
tr
ateremai
nsi
nthetesttube//boi
li
ngtube.

Equat
ion:Be(s)+2HNO3(aq)→ Be(
NO3)aq)+H2(
2( g)

 Magnesium:
-Whenapi eceofmagnesium i
sdroppedint
oabeakercont
aini
ngni
tri
c(V)aci
d,ther
eisef
fer
vescence
ofacolour l
essgas.
-Thecol ourlessgasproducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oaburningspli
ntconfi
rmi
ngthatitis
hydr
ogengas.
-Acolourlesssolut
ionofmagnesi
um ni
tr
ateremai
nsint
hetestt
ube//boil
ingt
ube.

Equat
ion:Mg(s)+2HNO3(aq)→ Mg(
NO3)aq)+H2(
2( g)

 Cal ci
um:
-When a pi ece ofcalcium is dr
opped i
nto a beakercontai
ning ni
tr
ic(V)acid,therei
s sl
ight
eff
ervescenceofacol ourl
essgas.
-Thecol ourl
essgaspr oducesapopsoundwhenexposedt oabur ningspl
intconf
ir
mi ngt
hati
ti s
hydrogengas.
-Acolourlesssolut
ionofcalci
um nit
rat
eremainsi
nthet estt
ube//boi
li
ngtube.

Equat
ion:Ca(s)+2HNO3(aq)→ Ca(
NO3)aq)+H2(
2( g)

Trendinreact
ivit
yinalkali
neearthmet als.
-Thereacti
vit
yoft healkal
ineeart
hmet alsincreasesdownthegroup.
Reason:
-Theatomi cradi
usincreasesdownt hegr oupduet oincr
easi
ngnumberofenergyl
[Link]
act
ion
ofthetwovalenceelectronstowardstheposi t
ivenucl
eusthusdecreasesdownt
[Link]
kal
ine
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
eart
hmet alsreactbylosi
ngel
ect
ronst
heeasewi
thwhi
cht
heval
enceel
ect
ronsar
elostt
her
efor
e
decreasesdownthegroup

Similar
ityofionsandf ormulaeofsomecompoundsofAlkal
ineeart
hmet al
s.
-Alkali
neear t
hmet al
shavet hesamevalency(
2)andasi mi
larchar
ge(2+)onthei
rionssi
ncet
heyal
l
haveasi nglevalenceelect
ron.
-Thust heyhavet hesamegener alf
ormul
ainthei
rionsandcompounds.

Exampl
es.
OH-) Oxi O2-) -
Alkalimet ali on Hydr oxide( des( Chl ori
de(Cl ) Sul phat es(SO42-)
2+
Be
Mg2+
Ca2+
Usesofsomeal kalineear thmet al sandt heircompounds
[Link] um i susedi nt hemanuf actureofmagnesi um hydr oxidewhichi susedasanant
i-
aci
d
medi cine.
Reason:magnesi um hydr oxideisanon- toxicbase.
[Link] ow- densi tyal l
oyofmagnesi um andal umi nium isusedi naeroplanesconst ructi
on.
[Link] at
edcal cium sul phate( plasterofPar is)isusedi nhospi talstosetfracturedbones.
[Link] smadebyheat i
ngami xtureofcal cium car bonat e(limestone),
clayandsand.
[Link] cium car bonat eisusedi nt heext racti
onofi r
on.
[Link] cium oxi de( quicklime)i saddedt om aci dicsoi l
stor aisepHf oragri
culturalpurposes.
[Link] cium ni trat eisusedasani trogenousf ertil
izer.
[Link] um oxi deisusedi nt hel ini
ngoff ur naces.
[Link] ium sul phat eisusedi nt hedi agnosisoful cers.
[Link] i
um ni trateisusedt opr oducet hegreenf lamei nfirewor ks.
[Link] cium car bonatei smi xedwi thoiltomakeput ty.
TheHal ogens.
-Aret heel ement swi thsevenval enceel ectronsandhencei ngr oupVI Ioftheper iodi
ctable.
-Allar enon- met all
icinnat ure.
-Themember soft hef ami l
yi nor derdownt hegr oupisasf oll
ows:
 Fl uor ine.
 Chl orine
 Br omi ne
 I odine
 Ast atine

El
ect
ronar
rangementoft
hef
ir
stt
hreehal
ogens.
El
ement s El
ectronar
rangement
Fl
uorine 2.
7
Chlor
ine 2.
8.7
Bromine 2.
8.18.7

Note:
-Halogeni
sader
ivat
iveoft
woGr
eekwor
ds:hal
oandgen.

Di
agr
am:Par
tofper
iodi
ctabl
eshowi
ngt
hehal
ogens
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Gradat
ioninpropert
iesofhalogens.
[Link]
us.
 Atomicradius:
-Refer
stothedistancebetweenthecent
reoft
henucl
eusofanat
om andt
heouter
mostenergylevel
occupi
edbyelectron(s)
 Ioni
cradius:
-Refer
stothedistancebetweenthecent
reoft
henucl
eusofani
onandtheout
ermostener
gylevel
occupi
edbyelectron(s)

Trend:
-Theioni cradiusandtheat omicr
adiusofhalogensincreasedownthegr oup.
Reason:
-Therei sani ncreasei
nt henumberofenergylevelsdownt hegr
oupfrom Fluori
netoi
odine.
Il
lust
rat i
on:
-Fluorine(2.7)hasonly2ener gyl
evels;Chl
ori
ne( 2.
8.7)has3energylevelswhil
ebromine(2.
8.18.
7)has
4ener gylevels.
-Thust heout ermostelectr
oninbromineisfurt
herfrom thenucl
eusthant heout
ermostelect
ronin
chlori
neandf luori
ne.

[Link] onicradiusofthesameel ement .

-Forthesamehal ogentheionicr
adiusislargerthantheat omi
cradius.
Reason:
-Halogensformi onsbygai ni
ng(an)electr
oni nt
ot heoutermostenergyl
[Link]
sincreasest
he
el
ectron-
electr
onr epulsi
onintheoutermostener gylevelhencedecreasi
ngthenuclearattr
act
ionoft
he
outermostelectr
onst owardsthenucleus.

Il
lustrati
on
-Chlor i
neat om hasel ectr
onar rangementof2. 8.
7hence3ener gylevel
s.
-Duringi onf or
mationi treactsbygai ninganel ectr
onintothethirdenergyl
evelt
oacqui
reanew
el
ectronar r
angementof2. 8.8.
-Intheat om 17pr otonsar eat tracting17el ectr
ons;whil
ei nthechlori
deionther
eare17protons
attr
act i
ng18el ectronsi ntheout ermostener gylevel.
-Thusi nt heiontheef fectoft heposi tivenucleusislower.
-Thisi sduet oincreasedr epul siveef fectbetweent heexist
ingelectr
onsintheouter
mostenergylevel
andt heincomi ngel ectron(elect ron-electr
or epulsi
on)

Di
agr
ammat
ical
ly:chl
ori
neat
om andchl
ori
dei
on
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Summar
y:changesi
nat
omi
candi
oni
cradi
usamongal
kal
imet
als.
El
ement Symbol Atomic El
ectron Atomic I
onicradi
us
number arr
angement r
adius(nm) (nm)
Fl
uorine F 9 2.7 0.064 0.136
Chlor
ine Cl 17 2.8.
7 0.099 0.181
Bromine Br 35 2.
8.18.7 0.114 0.195
I
odine I 53 2.
8.18.
18.7 0.133 0.216
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Laboratorypreparat
ionofchl
ori
ne.
Note:Itisusuall
ypreparedbyoxi
dati
onofconcent
rat
edhydr
ochl
ori
caci
dbyr
emovalofhydr
ogen.

Equation:
2HClaq)+[
( O] Cl g)+H2O(
2( l
)
-The[O]isf r
om asubstancecont aini
ngoxygen(anoxi
dizi
ngagent)
.
-Themai noxidizi
ngagent snor mall
yusedforpr
eparat
ionofchl
ori
near
e:
 Pot assium manganat e(VII
);KMnO4.
 Manganese( I
V)oxi de;MnO2

(
a).Pr
eparati
onofchl
ori
nef
rom MnO2andHCl
.
(
i)
.Apparatus:

(i
i)
.Conditi
ons:
-Heating;
-Presenceofanoxi
dizi
ngagent
;int
hiscasei
tismanganese(
IV)oxi
de.

(i
ii
).Procedure:
-Hydrochlori
caci di
sr eact
edwi
thmanganese( I
V)oxide(
dropwi
se)
;
Equati
on:
Heat
MnO2(s)+4HCl (
aq) MnClaq)+2
2( H2O(l)+Cl
2(g)

(i
v).Explanati
on:
-Manganese( I
V)oxideoxi
dizeshydrochl
ori
cacidbyremovinghydrogenresult
ingintochl
ori
ne.
-Themanganese( IV)oxi
deisreducedtowaterandmanganesechl or
ide.
-Ther esult
antchlori
negasispassedthroughabottl
econtai
ningwater.
Reason:
-Tor emovehydr ogenchl
ori
def umes(gas)whichisver
ysolubleinwater.
-Nexti ti
spassedt hr
oughconcentrat
edsulphuri
cacidoranhydrouscalci
um chlor
ide;t
odrythegas.

(v).Col
lect
ion:
(a).Wetchlori
neiscol
lect
edoverbr
ine(sat
urat
edsodi
um chl
ori
desol
uti
on)orhotwat
er.
Reason:
-Itdoesnotdissolvei
nbri
neandislesssol
ubleinwat
er

(b).Drychlor
ineiscol
lect
edbydownwarddeli
very(upwarddispl
acementofai
r)
Reason:
-Itisdenserthanair(
2.5ti
mes)
.
Not e:
-Chl or
inemayalsobedr i
edbyaddi
ngcalci
um chlori
detothejarofchl
ori
ne.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
(c).Thefi
rstbott
lemustcontai
nwaterandthesecondconcent
rat
edsulphur
icacid.
Reason:
-Ifthegasisfir
stpassedthr
oughconcentr
atedsul
phuri
cacidi
nthefi
rstbott
lethentot
hewat
er;i
twi
ll
bemadewetagai n.

Physi
calproper
tiesofHal
ogens.
[Link]
calstat
eandappearanceatr
oom t
emper
atur
e.

Halogen Stateandappearance
Fl
uorine Paleyellowgas
Chlori
ne Green-yell
owgas
Bromine Volati
lebrownli
quid
I
odine Shinydar kgr
eysoli
d.

[Link]
it
y
(a)
.Inwat er
Experi
ment :Toinvest
igat
esolubil
it
yofhal
ogensinwater
.
 Pr ocedur
e:
-Aboi l
ingtubecontai
ningchl
orinegasisi
nvert
edint
oabeakercontai
ningwater
.
-Theexper i
mentisrepeatedwit
hf l
uor
ine,
bromineandafewcryst
alsofiodi
ne.

 Di
agr
am:

 Obser
vat
ions:
 Fluor
ine:
-Thelevelofsol
uti
onri
sesintheboi
li
ngtube.
-Thepaleyell
owcolouroff
luori
nedi
sappears.

 Fluor
ine:
-Thelevelofsolut
ionri
sesintheboi
li
ngt ube.
-Thegreen-yel
lowcolouroffl
uori
nedisappears.

 Bromi
ne
-Thel
evelofsolut
ionr
isesint
heboil
ingtube.
-Thebr
owncol ouroff
luor
inedi
sappears.

 Iodine:
-Thel evelofsolut
ionremainsthesameintheboil
ingt
ube.
-Theshi nydarkgreycr yst
alsr
emaininthebeaker
.
 Ther iseinwat erl
evelishigheri
nfluor
inethaninchl
ori
newhi
let
her
isei
nchl
ori
nei
s
higherthaninbr omine.

Di
agr
ams:obser
vat
ionsaf
tersomet
ime
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

 Expl anat i
ons:
-Fluori
ne, chl
or i
neandbr ominear eal lsol
ubleinwat er,whil
ei odi
nei si nsolubl
einwater.
-Whenaboi lingtunecont ainingt hesol ublehal ogensi sinvert
edi ntoabeakercont ainingwater
,the
halogendi ssolvesinthewat er.
-Thiscr eatesapar t
ialvacuum andt hewat eri nthebeakert husr isest ooccupyt hespaceleftbythe
di
ssolvedgas.
-Thehal ogensdi ssolveinwat ertof orm acidicsoluti
ons.
-Themor esol ubl
ethehal ogen, t
hehi ghert heriseinwat erl
evelint heboi li
ngtube.
-Thust hesol ubil
it
yofhal ogensdecr easesdownt hegr oupfrom fluorinet obromine.
Reason:
-Allhal
ogenshavemol ecul
arst r
uctur eswithwr eakvanderwaal sf orcesbet weenthemol ecul
es.
Duringthedi ssoluti
ont heVanderWaal smustbebr [Link] rengt hofVanderWaal sincreaseasthe
atomicsi zeandhencet hemol ecularsi zeincreaseswhi choccur sdownt hegroup.

(b)
.Int
etr
achl
oromethane.
-Thesameprocedur
e( ofdi
ssol
vinghal
ogensi
nwat
er)i
sfol
lowedwi
tht
etr
achl
oromet
hane.

 Observati
ons:
-Allhal
ogensaresolubl
eintet
rachl
oromethane.
-Thesolubi
li
tyofeachhalogenishi
gherintetrachlor
omethanet
haninwater
.
Reason:Halogensaremolecul
arthusnon-polarandt husaremoresol
ubl
einpol
aror
gani
csol
vent
sli
ke
tet
rachl
oromethanethaninpol
arsolvent
slikewat er.

[Link]
.
-Fluori
neandchl or
inearegasesatroom t
emperatur
eandsimplyexpandandi
ncreaseinvol
umewhen
heated.
-Bromi nei
sabrownl iqui
datroom t
emperat
ureandevol
vesbrownfumeswhenheated.
-Iodineexist
sasshi nydarkgreysoli
datroom temper
atur
eandsubl i
mestogivebrownfumeswhen
heated.

[Link]
ri
calconducti
vity.
-Allhal
ogensar eonconduct orsofheatandel ectri
cit
y.
Reason:
-Halogensar emolecularandt hushavenei therdelocal
izedelect
ronsnorfreemobi
lei
onsforel
ectr
ical
conducti
vit
y.
[Link] t
ingandboi l
ingpoints.
-Themel t
ingandboi l
ingpointsofhal ogensincreasedownt hegroup.
Reason:
-Halogensexistasdiatomicmol eculesandt hushavemol ecul
arstructur
es;
-Themol eculesarehel dtogetherbyi nter
molecularfor
cescal l
edt heVanderWaal
swhichhavet obe
brokenduringmelti
ngandboi l
ing;
-ThestrengthoftheVanderWaal sincreasesast hesizeoftheat omsandhencemolecul
esincr
eases
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
whi
choccur
sdownt
hegr
oup.

Summar
yonsomephysi
calpr
oper
ti
esofhal
ogens>
Mel
ti
ng Boil
ing
Hal
ogen For
mul
a At
omi
cnumber Appear
ance o o
poi
nt( C) poi
nt( C)
Fl
uorine F 9 Pal
eyell
owgas -
238 -
188
Chlor
ine Cl 17 Greenyel
lowgas -
101 -35
Bromine Br 35 Brownli
qui
d -
7 59
I
odine I 53 Shi
nydarkgr
ey 114 184
sol
id

Chemicalpropert
iesofHalogens.
Note:Iti
snoteasyf ornon-metal
sli
kehal
ogenstof orm cat
ions.
Reason:t heioni
zati
onener gy(amountofenergyr equir
edt oloseanelect
ron(s)fr
om theout
ermost
energylevelofagaseousat om)i
sveryl
arge.
-Thusmostnon- met al
sreactbyfor
minganions(negati
velychargedi
ons)byelectr
onloss.

1.I
onf ormati
on.
-Halogensreactbygainingasingl
eelectr
onint
otheouter
mostener
gyl
evelt
oform ast
abl
eelect
ron
confi
gurati
onandcorrespondi
nganions.
-Duringionformati
onbyel ect
ronlossenergyi
srel
eased,andt
heener
gychangefort
hispr
ocessis
cal
ledelect
ronaff
ini
ty

Not
e:Def
ini
ti
on.

-El
ect
ronaf
fi
nit
yisthustheener
gyrel
easedwhenanat
om i
ngaseousst
ategai
ns
anel
ectr
ont
oform anegati
vei
on(ani
on)

 Tr endinelectronaffini
tyofhalogens:
-Generallyt
heel ectr
onaf fi
nit
yofhalogensdecr easesdownt hegr oup.
Reason:
-Thesi zeoftheat omsincr eases(duet oincr
easingnumberofener gylevels)downthegroupandt hus
theforceofattracti
onoft heelect
ronsi ntheoutermostener
gyl eveltowardst henucl
eusdecreases.
-Thusdownt hegr oupt heeasewi thwhi chelectronsaregaineddecr easesandt hefast
ertheeaseof
elect
rongain,themor et
heener gyreleasedhencet hemoretheel ectr
onaffinity.

Summar y:
Element I oni zat
ionequat ion El
ect
ronaf
fi
nit
y(kJpermol
e
Fluorne F(g)+e→ F-(g)
i -
322
-
Chlori
ne Cl (g)+e→ C l(g) -
349
-
Bromine Br g)+e→ B
( r (g) -
325
-
Iodine I g)+e→ I
( (g) -
295
[Link] i
onwi thmet als.
(a).Chlori
ne.
 Reactionofchl orinewi t
hir
on.
(i
).Appar at
us.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Note:
-Thesetupcanal
sobemodi
fi
edbyusi
ngsodi
um hydr
oxi
det
oabsor
bexcesschl
ori
negasasshown
bel
ow.

(i
i)
.Precaut
ion.
-Experi
mentshouldbedonei naf
uncti
onalf
umecupboardori
ntheopen.
Reason:
-Chlor
inegasispoisonousandwi
llt
husbeharmf
ultothehumanbody.

(i
ii
).Procedur
e:
-Ast r
eam ofdrychl
ori
negasi
spassedoverheat
edi
ronwoolaspert
hedi
agr
am.

(i
v).Conditi
ons.
 Chl ori
negashast obedry(donebytheanhydr
ouscalci
um chl
ori
deintheU-tube)
Reason:
Topr eventhydrat
ionhenceoxi
dationofi
ron(whi
chwillt
henfor
m Fe2O3.
5H2O)henceprevent
ing
reacti
onbet weenironandchl
ori
ne.

 I r
onmet almustbehot ;andt hi
sisdonebyheating.
Reason:
Topr ovi
deactivat
[Link] ki
neti
cenergywhichther
eactant
smusthavetoform
products.
 Anhydr ouscalcium chl
oride.
-I
nt heU-tube;todrythechlori
negas.
-I
nt hethist
lefunnel
;topreventat mospher
icwatervapour(moi
stur
e)fr
om gett
ingi
ntot
heapparatus
andhencer eacti
ngwi t
hiron(III
)chlori
de.

Note:I
ntheguar
dtube,
cal
cium oxi
dei
spr
efer
abl
etoanhydr
ouscal
cium chl
ori
de.
Reason:
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Otherthanprevent
ingat
mospheri
cwat ervapourf
rom get
ti
ngint
othef
laskwi
thi
ronwool
;ital
so
absorbsexcesschlori
net
husprevent
ingenvironment
alpol
lut
ion

(v).Observations:
-Ironmet alglowsred- hot.
-Redbr ownf umes( FeCl3(
g))arefor
medi nthecombust i
ontube.
-Abl acksolid(FeCl3( )i
s) scollect
edint hef l
ask.
Not e:
-Iron(II
I)chlori
decannotbeeasi l
ycollectedint hecombust
iontube.
Reason:
-Itsubli
meswhenheat edandhencet hehot tercombusti
ontubecausesi
ttosubl
imeandi
tsvapouri
s
collect
edont hecoolerpar tsoftheflask.

(vi
).Reacti
onequat
ion.
2Fe(s)+3Cl
2(g) → 2FeCl
3(
g)

(vi
i)
.Concl usion.
-Ir
on( II
I)chlori
desubl
imesonheat
ing;t
hebl
acksol
idchangest
ored-
brownf
umesonheat
ing.
Equation:
FeCl3(
s) FeCl
3(
g)
(
black) (
Red-
brown)

 Reactionwi
thal umi nium.
-Chlor
iner
eactswithal umi nium Iasi
mil
armannert
oir
ont
ofr
om al
umi
nium chl
ori
de.
Equati
on:
2Als)+3
( Clg)→ 2
2( AlCl3(s)
2Als)+3
( Clg)→ A
2( l2Cl
6(s)

Note:
-Alumi ni
um chl
ori
dealsosubl
imesonheat
ing.
Equat ion:
AlCl3(
s) Al
Cl3(
g)
(
Whi
te) (
Whi
te)

 Reactionwi
thburni
ngmagnesi
um.
(i
).Procedur
e:
-Burningmagnesi
um i
slower
edint
oagarjarofchl
ori
negas.

(i
i)
.Observat
ions:
-Themagnesi um conti
nuest
oburnwi
thabri
ghtbl
indi
ngf
lame;
-Formati
onofwhi tefumes(MgCl
2)
;whi
chcoolsi
ntoawhi
tepowder
.

(
ii
i)
.Equati
on:
Mg(s)+Clg)→ Mg
2( Cl
2(
s)

-General
lychl
ori
nereactswithmostmet alswhenhottopfor
m cor
respondingchlor
ides.
Note:
Whereamet alf
ormstwochl ori
deswheni treact
swit
hchlori
ne,
thehigherchlor
idei
susuall
yfor
med.
Reason:
Thehigherchl
ori
deisstabl
[Link]
ainswhyr eact
ionsofchl
ori
newithironresul
tsint
oir
on(I
II
)
chl
ori
deandnoti r
on(II
)chlori
de.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
(
b).Br
omine.
 Reacti
onofbr
omi
newi
thi
ron
Appar
atus

(i
i)
.Precaut
ion.
-Experi
mentshouldbedoneinafuncti
onalf
umecupboardori
ntheopen.
Reason:
-Brominegasispoisonousandwi
llt
husbeharmf
ultothehumanbody.

(i
ii
).Procedure:
-Bromi nel
iquidisheat
edtogener
atebrominevapour(
fumes)
.
-Theironwooli sthenheat
edandastream oft
hebrominegasispassedoverheat
edi
ronwoolasper
thediagram.

(i
v).Conditi
ons.
 Br ominemustbeheat edtogenerat
ef umesbeforeheat
ingtheiron.
Reason:
Sot hatbrominevapourwil
ldri
veoutairfr
om theboil
ingtubetopreventoxi
dat
ionofi
ronwi
thoxygen
whichwoul dotherwi
sepreventreact
ionbetweenir
onandbr omine.

 Ir
onmetalmustbehot
;andthi
sisdonebyheati
ng.
Reason:
Toprovi
deact
ivat
ionener
gyi
.e.t
heminimum ki
net
icener
gywhi
cht
her
eact
ant
smusthavet
ofor
m
pr
oducts.

(v)
.Observat
ions:
-Brownfumesofbr ominearepr
oducedonheat
ingbromi
neliqui
d.
-Their
onwoolgl owsred-
hotuponheati
ng
-Their
onwoolf ormsdarkredcr
ystal
s(ofi
ron(
II
I)br
omide)

(vi
).React i
onequat i
on.
Wor d:Ir
on+br omine→ I r
on(II
I)bromide.
Chemi cal:2Fe(s)+3Br g)→ 2
2( FeBr3(
s)
Dar
kredcr
yst
als.

 Reactionofbromi
newithzinc
-Usi
ngthesamesetupbr omi
neal sor
eact
swi
thzi
nct
ofor
m zi
ncbr
omi
de.
Equat
ion:Zn(s)+Brg)→ Z
2( nBr
2(
s).

 React
ionofbrominewithmagnesium
-Usi
ngthesamesetupbr omineal sor
eact
swi
thzi
nct
ofor
m magnesi
um br
omi
de.
Equat
ion:Mg(s)+Brg)→ Mg
2( Br2(
s).
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
 Reacti
onofbr ominewit hsodium
-Usi
ngthesamesetupbr omineal sor
eact
swi
thzi
nct
ofor
m sodi
um br
omi
de.
Equat
ion:2Na(s)+Br
2(g)→ 2NaBr( .
s)

(
c).Iodi
ne.
 Reacti
onofi
odi
newi
thi
ron
Apparat
us

(i
i)
.Precaut
ion.
-Experi
mentshouldbedoneinafunct
ionalfumecupboar
dori
ntheopen.
Reason:
-I
odineispoisonousandwi
llt
husbeharmf ult
othehumanbody.

(i
ii
).Procedure:
-I
odinecr yst
alsar
eheatedtogener
ateiodi
nevapour(f
umes)
.
-Thei r
onwooli st
henheatedandastream oft
heiodi
negasi
spassedoverheat
edi
ronwoolaspert
he
di
agr am.

(i
v).Conditions.
 I odinemustbeheat edtogenerat
efumesbefor
eheat i
ngtheiron.
Reason:
Sot hatiodinevapourwi
lldri
veoutairfr
om t
heboil
ingtubetopreventoxi
dat
ionofi
ronwi
thoxygen
whichwoul dother
wisepreventr
eacti
onbetweeni
ronandi odi
ne.

 Ironmetalmustbehot ;andthi
sisdonebyheat ing.
Reason:
Toprovideacti
vati
onenergyi.e.t
heminimum ki
neticener gywhichthereact
ant
smusthavet
ofor
m
products.
(v)
.Observati
ons:
-Purplevapour(
fumes)ofiodineispr
oducedonheat ingiodinecryst
als.
-Theironwoolglowsred-
hotuponheat i
ng
-Theironwoolformsgreyblackcryst
als(ofi
ron(I
I)iodide)

(vi
).React i
onequat ion.
Wor d:Ir
on+i odine→ I r
on( I
I)iodi
de.
Chemi cal:Fe(s)+I g)→ F
2( eI
2(
s)
Gr
ey-
blackcr
yst
als.

 ReactionofIodi
newithzinc
-Usi
ngthesamesetupbr ominealsor
eact
swi
thzi
nct
ofor
m zi
nci
odi
de.
Equat
ion:Zn(s)+Ig)→ Z
2( nI
2(
s).

 React
ionofI
odi
newit
hmagnesi
um
-Usi
ngthesamesetupbr
omineal
soreact
swi
thzi
nct
ofor
m magnesi
um i
odi
de.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Equat
ion:Mg(s)+Ig)→ Mg
2( I
2(
s).

 Reacti
onofI odinewithsodium
-Usi
ngthesamesetupbr ominealsoreact
swi
thzi
nct
ofor
m sodi
um i
odi
de.
Equat
ion:2Na(s)+I
2(g)→ 2NaI(
s).

Note:
-Thereacti
vit
yofchl ori
newi t
hmetalsismor evigor
oust hanthatofbromi
ne,whichismorethanthatof
i
odine.
-Thusreacti
vit
yofhal ogenswithmet al
sdecreasesdownt hegroup.
Reason:
-Halogensreactbygai ni
ngelect
rons;theeaseofgai ningelectr
onsdecreasedownt hegroupast he
atomicsizei
ncr easeswhichleadstopr ogr
essivedecreaseintheforceofatt
racti
onofelect
ronsinthe
outer
mostener gylevelsbytheposit
ivel
ychargednucleus.

[Link]
onwit
hwater
.
-Halogenst
hatdi
ssol
vei
nwat
erf
orm ami
xtur
eoft
woaci
ds.

Reacti
onofchlori
newit
hwater.
-Chlor
inedi
ssolvesi
nwatertofor
m chl
ori
newat
er,
whi
chi
sami
xtur
eoft
woaci
ds:chl
ori
c(I
)aci
dand
hydr
ochlor
icacid.

Equation:
Cl g)+H2O(
2( )→ HOC
l l
(aq)+HCl
(aq)
Chl
ori
c(I
)aci
d Hydr
ochl
ori
caci
d

 Ef fect
sofsunli
ghtonchlori
newat er.
(i
).Procedure:
-Chlorinewaterismadebydissol
vingthegasi nwater
.
-Alongt ubefil
ledwi
thchlor
inewateri
si nvert
edoverabeakercont
aini
ngwat
er.
-I
tist henexposedtosunl
ight(br
ightl
ight)asshownbelow.

(
ii
).Appar
atus:

(i
ii
).Observat
ions:
-Aftersometi
meagascol l
ectsi
nthetubeandonappl
yingagl
owi
ngspl
int
,thespl
inti
sreki
ndl
es
showingthatthegascol
lect
edisoxygen.

(i
v).Explanation:
-Chl or
inewat erhastwocomponent
s.
Equat i
on:
Cl g)+H2O(
2( l) ═HC l
aq)+HOC
( l
(aq)
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-TheHOClbeingunstabl
ewi l
ldi
ssolveonexposur
etosunl
ight
,gi
vingoutoxygen.
Equat
ion:
2HOClaq)→ 2
( HCl
aq)+O2(
( g)(
slowr
eact
ion)

Overallreacti
on:
2H2O(l)+2Cl g)→ 4
2( HCl
aq)+O2(
( g)

 Eff
ectofchl
ori
newateronli
tmuspaper
s
(i
).Pr
ocedur
e:
-Astri
pofblueadastri
pofredl
it
muspapersaredr
oppedi
ntochl
ori
newat
eri
nabeaker
.

(i
i)
.Observat
ions:
-Theblueli
tmuspapert
urnsr
ed;t
henbot
hli
tmuspaper
sar
edecol
our
ised.

(i
ii)
.Explanati
ons.
-Chl or
inewatercontainsamixtur
eofchl
ori
c(I
)aci
dadhydr
ochl
ori
caci
d.
Equat i
on:
Cl g)+H2O(
2( l)═HClaq)+HOC
( l(
aq)

-Thetwoacidscauset heli
tmuspapertot
urnr
ed(fr
om blue)whil
etheredli
tmuspaperremai
nedred.
-Theli
tmuspaper sarethendecol
ouri
sedduet
obleachi
ngactionofchlor
inewater
,whichi
sduetothe
act
ivi
tyofchlori
c( I)aci
d.
-Thechlor
ic(I)acidisunstabl
eandthusdecomposestogivehydrochl
ori
cacidandoxygenat
om.
Equat
ion:
HOCl(
aq)→ HCl (aq)+[O]

-Theoxygenatom combi neswi

ththechemi
caloft
henat
ural
dyei
nthel
it
must
husdecol
our
isi
ngi
t.
Equat
ion:
Dye+HOCl aq)→ HC
( l
(aq)+(Dye+[O]
)
Col
our
ed Decol
our
ised
Not
e:sol
uti
onsofbr
omi
neandf
luor
inei
nwat
erwi
llbehavei
nasi
mil
armanner
.

Exampl es:
 Fluor i
nedi
ssol vi
ngi
nwat er
F2(g)+H2O(l) ═HF(aq)+HOF(aq)
Hydr
ofl
uor
icaci
d Fl
uor
ic(
I)aci
d
-Themi
xtur
eisf
lour
inewat
er

 Bromi nedi
ssol vi
ngi
nwat er
Brg)+H2O(
2( l)═HB r
(aq)+HOBr(
aq)
Hydr
obr
omi
caci
d Br
omi
c(I
)aci
d
-Themi
xtur
eisbr
omi
newat
er.

Someusesofhalogensandt heircompounds.
[Link]
uorinei
sarawmat er
ialinthepreparat
ionofasynt heti
cfibreknownaspol ytet
rafl
uoroethane.
[Link] luori
near eaddedtowat erandsomet oothpast esinsmal lquanti
ti
est or
educe
toot
hdecay.
[Link]
uorinei
susedinthemanuf actur
eofhydr ogenf l
uori
deusedt oengr avewor dsorpictur
esongl ass.
[Link]
inei
susedtomakebl eachesusedi npaperandt exti
leindustries.
[Link]
inei
saddedtowat ertokil
lmicr
o-organismsi nwatertreatmentwor ks.
[Link]
inei
susedinthemanuf actur
eofapl asticknownaspol yvi
nylchlori
de( PVC).
[Link]
inei
susedinlar
gescal emanufactureofhydr ochl
ori
caci d.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
[Link] act
ureofsil
verbromidewhi
chi susedtomaket
hel
ightsensi
ti
ve
phot
ographi
cpaperandfi
lms.
[Link]
ionofi
odi
neinalcohol(
ti
nct
ureofi
odi
ne)isusedasadi
sinfect
ant
.

TheNoblegases.
-Aretheelementswiththemaximum possi
blenumberofvalenceel
ectr
onsandhencei
ngroupVIIIof
theperi
odictabl
e.
-Allar
egaseousi nnature.
-Themember softhefamilyi
norderdownt
hegroupi sasfol
lows:
 Heli
um
 Neon
 Argon
 Krypton
 Xenon
 radon
-Theyarefoundasf reeatomsinnatur
eandform about1%ofairwit
hargonbei
ngthemostabundant

El
ect
ronar
rangementoft
hef
ir
stt
hreenobl
egases.
El
ements El
ectr
onar
rangement
Heli
um 2.
Neon 2.
8.
Argon 2.
8.8.

Note:-Helium wi
thonlytwoelect
ronshasoneoccupi edenergyl
evel
;whichiscompletel
yfullandhence
i
ssaidt ohaveadupl etel
ectr
onconf i
gurati
on
-Ther estoft
henoblegaseshaveei ghtelect
ronsi
ntheirout
ermostoccupi
edenergylevelhenceare
saidtohavet heoct
etelect
ronconfi
gur at
ion.
Diagram:Partofperi
odictabl
eshowi ngthenoblegases

Dotandcr
ossdi
agr
amsf
ort
hef
ir
stt
hreeAl
kal
ineEar
thmet
als

Physi
calpr
oper
ti
esofnobl
egases
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
[Link]
us.
 Atomicradius:
-Refer
stothedistancebet
weent
hecent
reoft
henucl
eusofanat
om andt
heouter
mostenergylevel
occupi
edbyelectron(s)
 Ioni
cradius:
-Refer
stothedistancebet
weent
hecent
reoft
henucl
eusofani
onandtheout
ermostener
gylevel
occupi
edbyelectron(s)

Trend:
-Theatomi
cradi
usofnobl
egasesincr
easedownthegroup.
Reason:
-Therei
sanincr
easei
nthenumberofener
gylevel
sdownt hegr
oupf
rom Hel
ium t
oradon.

Il
lust
rat
ion:
-Heli
um (2.
)hasonl
y1energylevel;Neon(2.
8)has2ener
gylevel
swhil
eArgon(2.
8.8)has3ener
gy
l
evels.
-Thustheouter
mostel
ect
roninAr gonisfurt
herf
rom t
henucl
eusthant
heouter
mostelectr
oninneon
andheli
um.

Note:
-Undernormalcir
cumstancethenobl
egasesnei
therl
osenorgai
nel
ect
ronsandarethusstabl
ehence
unreacti
ve.
-Duet othi
stheyr
arel
yformionsandhencecomparat
ivest
udi
esofi
oni
cradiiamongnoblegasesar
e
notfeasibl
e.

[Link] gi es.
-Nobl egaseshavever yhighi onizati
onener gies.
Reason:
-Nobl egasesar ecol ourl
essmonoat omi cgaseswi thveryst ableel
ectronarrangements,eitherduplt
et
(heli
um)oroct et(ther est)
.
-Thenucl earat t
ract i
onf orceofel ectr
onsi ntheoutermostener gyl
eveltowar dsthenucl
eusi sthusvery
strong.
Trend:
-Thei onizat i
onener gydecr easedownt henobl egasesgr oup.
Reason:
-Ast hesi zeoft heat omsi ncreasedownt hegr oup(duet oincreaseinthenumberofener gylevels)
,the
forcewi t
hwhi cht heel ectr
osi ntheout ermostener gylevelsar eatt
ract
edt owardsthenucl eusdecrease
hencei ncr easeint heeaseofel ect r
onloss( fr
om theout ermostener gylevel
).

[Link]
ngandboi li
ngpoints.
-General
lynoblegaseshavever ylowmel ti
ngandboi l
ingpoi nts.
Reason:
-Theyexistasmonoat omicgaseswi t
hsi mplemolecularstructureswit
hweakvanderwaal sfor
cesthat
areeasytobreak.
Trend:
-Melti
ngandboi l
ingpointsamongt henobl egasesincr easedownt hegroup.
Reason:
-Noblegasesexistasmonoat omicmol eculesandthushavesi mplemol ecul
arst
ruct
ures;
-Themol ecules(atoms)ar eheldt ogetherbyi nt
ermol ecular(i
nter-
atomic)for
cescalledtheVander
Waalswhi chhavetobebr okenduringmel t
ingandboil
ing;
-ThestrengthoftheVanderWaal si ncreasesasthesi zeoft heat omsandhencemol eculesincr
eases
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
whi
choccur
sdownt
hegr
oup.

Summar
y:changesi
nat
omi
candi
oni
cradi
usamongal
kal
imet
als.
El
ement Symbol Atomic At
omicr
adi
us 1stI
onizati
on Mel
ti
ngpoint Boi
li
ngpoint
- o o
numbe (
nm) energy( kJmol ( C) ( C)
1
r )
Helium He 2 0.
128 2372 -
270 -
269
Neon Ne 10 0.
160 2080 -
249 -
246
Argon Ar 18 0.
192 1520 -
189 -
186
Krypton Kr 36 0.
197 1350 -
157 -
152
Xenon Xe 54 0.
217 1170 -
112 -
108

Chemicalproper
ti
esofNobl egases.
-General
lythenoblegasesnei therl
osenorgai
nelectronsandarethusstabl
ehenceunr
eact
ive.
-Duetothistheyrarelyfor
mi onsandhencehavenof easibl
echemicalreact
ions.
-Howeverxenonandr adonwi thver
ylar
geatomicradiiandsmall
erioni
zati
onenergi
est
akeparti
n
somereactionsandt husdisplaycomechemicalproperti
es.

Usesofsomenobl egases.
Note:Theappl i
cati
onofnobl egasesi sir
oni call
ycent er
edont hei rinertnat ure.
[Link] nlightbul bstopr ovideani nertenvironmentt opr eventoxi dati
on.
[Link] nsulatori narch-
wel ding.
[Link] susedi nst reetsandadver t
isementl ights.
[Link] mixedwi thoxygeni susedi ndeepseadi vi
ngandmount aineering.
[Link] mixedwi thoxygenal soi susedi nhospi talsforbreathingi npat ient swit
hrespi
rat
orypr
oblems
andthoseunder goingcer tainfor msofsur gery.
[Link] canbeusedi nsteadofhydr ogeni nballoonsf ormeteor ologicalr esearch.
Reason:
-Hydrogeni sexplosi veIpr esenceofai randmayexpl odecausi ngser iousacci dent
s.
-Heli
um islessdenset hanhydr ogen.
[Link] i
susedi nt hermomet ersformeasur ement sfverylowt emper atur es.
[Link] isusedt okeepcer tai
nmet alalloysatt emper aturesl ow enoughf ort
hem tobecome
superconduct ors.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

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Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

OR
(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
UNIT3:PROPERTI
ESANDTRENDSACROSSAPERI
OD.
Checkl
ist
.
1.I
ntr
oducti
on
[Link]
endsinphysicalproper t
iesofelementsinper
iod3
 Electri
calconduct ivi
ty
 Atomi candi oni
cr adii
 Mel t
ingandboi li
ngpoi nt
s
[Link]
endsinchemi calpropertiesofelement
sinperiod3
 React i
onwi thoxygen
 React i
onwi thwat er
 React i
onwi thacids
Intr
oduct i
on:
-Aper iodisaverti
calr owofel ementsintheper
iodi
ctable.
-Element sinthesameper iodhavesamenumberofener gylevel
s.
-Ther eare7per i
odsi nt heper i
odictabl
eexceptforlanthani
desandact
ini
deswhi
charenotassi
gned
periods.
-Per i
ods1–3havef ewerel ementsbecausetheylackthed- bl
ockel
ement
sandhaveonl
ythes-bl
ock
element sandthep-blockel ement s.
Note:
 s- blockel
ement s:group1and2
 d- blockel
ement s:transiti
onalel
ements
 p- blockel
ement s:groupsI IIt
oVIII
.

-Tounderstandt
rendsandpr
oper
ti
esacr
ossat
ypi
calper
iodoft
heper
iodi
ctabl
e,weshal
luseper
iod3
asther
eference.

ThePeri
odthreeoftheperi
odictable.
-Consi
stsofelementswit
hthreeenergylevel
s.
-Consi
stsofthe8elementsfr
om sodium toargon.
-I
tisonl
ymadeofs- blockandp-blockel
ementsadlacksanyel
ementi
nthed-
blockgr
oupofel
ement
s.

Par
tofper
iodi
ctabl
eshowi
ngper
iod3oft
heper
iodi
ctabl
e.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Trendsi nphysi calpr oper ti

esofel ement si nper i
od3.
[Link]
calconduct ivit
y.
-Sodium, magnesi um andal umi nium ar egoodconduct or sofel ect
ricit
y.
Reason:
Theyal lhavegi antmet alli
cst ructureswi thdel ocali
zedel ect roswhi chconductel ectr
ici
ty;
-Theel ectr
icalconduct ivityincreasesf rom sodi um toal umi ni um.
Reason:
Electr
icalconduct i
vit
yi ncreaseswi thi ncr easei nthenumberofdel ocali
zedel ectr
ons;t husalumi ni
um
witht hehi ghestnumberofdel ocali
zedel ectrons( 3)i neachat om wi l
lhavet hehi ghestel ectr
ical
conduct i
vit
y;
-Inthemet alst heel ectricalconduct i
vitydecr easeswi thincr easei nt emper at
ure.
Reason:
-Increaseint emper atur edistortst heal ignmentofel ect ronst huspr eventingtheireasyf lowandhence
poorconduct i
vity;
-Phosphor us, sulphur ,chlorineandar gondonotconductel ect ri
ccur rent.
Reason:
Theyal lhavemol ecularst r
uctur esandal ltheelectronsi nt heat omsar eusedinbondi ng;t hustheylack
delocali
zedel ectr onorf reeionsf orelect ricalconduct i
vity.
-Sili
conconduct sel ectriccur r
ent ,andi tsel ectri
calconduct ivityincreaseswi thincreaseint emper at
ures.
Reason:
-Itisasemi -conduct or;maki ngi taver yuni queel ementi nt hisper iod.
Note:
-Asemi -
conduct orisacr ystal
linemat erialwhi chonl yconduct selectrici
tyundercer t
aincondi ti
ons.

[Link] omicandionicradii
.
-Theat omicradi
iofperiod3elementsdecreaseacrosst
heperi
od.
Reason.
-Fort hesamenumberofener gylevel
st henumberofpr ot
onsint henucl
eusincreasesacr
ossthe
peri
od;t hi
sleadstothei ncr
easeinnuclearchargewhil
etheshiel
dingef
fectremai
nst hesamehence
decreaseinatomicradiusacrosst
heperiod.

[Link] t
ingandboi l
ingpoi nts
-Sodium, magnesi um andal umi nium havever yhi ghmel t
ingandboi l
ingpoi nts.
 Reason:
-Theyhavegi antmet alli
cst ructur eswithst rongmet all
icbondswhi chneedal otofener gytobreak.
-Theboi li
ngandmel ti
ngpoi ntsi ncreasef r
om sodi um toal umini
um.
 Reason:
-Asyoumoveacr osst heper i
odf rom sodi um t oalumi ni
um,t henuclearchar gei ncreaseswhilethe
energyl evelsr emai nt hesamehencedecr easei nat omi cradius;thesmal lert
heat omi cradi
us(for
metals)thest r
ongert hemet all
icbonds.
-Sil
icon,thoughanon- met alalsohasaver yhighmel ti
ngandboi l
ingpoints.
 Reason:
-Sili
conhasagi antat omi cst ructurewi thst rongcoval entbondst hr oughoutt hest ruct
ure,which
needal otofheatener gyt obr eak.
-Phosphor us, Sulphur, Chlorineandar gonhavel owmel t
ingandboi l
ingpoi nts.
 Reason:
-Theyal lhavemol ecularst ructureswi thst r
ongcoval entbondsbet weent heatoms( exceptinargon)
butweakvanderwaal sf orcesbet weent hemol eculeswhi chareeasyt obr eak.
-Not ethatar gonexi stasat omsandt husamonoat omi cmol ecul
e.
-Themel t
ingandboi li
ngpoi ntsdecr easesfrom phosphor ustoargon.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
 Reason.
-Aswemoveacr osstheperi
odf r
om phosphor ustoar gon,thesizeoft heatomsdecreasesleadi
ng
tosmal lerat omsandhencemol ecules,whi
chl eadt odecreaseinthest rengt
hofthevanderWaal s
(acr
osst heper i
od)
Note:
-Phosphor usandsul phurexi
stsassolidsatroom temper atur
ewhi l
echl or
ineandargonexistsasgases
atroom temper ature.
Reason:phosphor usandsulphurhavegi antmolecularstr
uctureswhi l
echlor i
neandargonhavesi mpl
e
molecularst ructures.
-Summar y:Somephysi calpr
opert
iesfel ement
si nperiod3.

S
Pr
oper
ty Na Mg Al Si P(
whi
te) Cl Ar
(
monocl
ini
c)
Physi cal Green
Sil
ver Sil
ver Black Whit
e Col
our
less
stateand Si
lver Yel
lowsol
id yel
low
sol
id sol
id soli
d sol
id gas
appear ance gas
Electron
2.
8.1 2.
8.2 2.
8..
3 2.
8.4 2.
8.5 2.
8.6 2.
8.7 2.
8.8
arrangement
Valency 1 2 3 4 5or5 6 7 8
Atomi c
0.
157 0.
136 0.
125 0.
117 0.
110 0.
104 0.
09 0.
192
radius
o
MP( C) 98 650 660 1410 44 119 -
101 -
189
o
BP(C) 890 1110 2470 2360 280 445 -
35 -
186
Simple
Gi
ant Gi
ant Gi
ant Gi
ant Si
mpl e
St
ruct
ure Mol
ecul
ar Mol
ecul
ar molecular
metal
li
c metal
li
c metal
li
c at
omic molecular
/at
omic
Van
Bondt
ype met
all
ic met
all
ic met
all
ic Coval
ent Coval
ent Coval
ent Covalent
derwaals

Trendsi nchemi calpr oper t

iesoftheel ement si
nper iod3.
Note:Tr endsi nreactivi
ty.
-Ther eactivit
yamongt hemet al
li
cel ement sdecr easesacr osstheper i
odfrom sodi
um toalumini
um.
Reason:
-Ther ei sacont i
nuousi ncreaseinnucl earchargef rom sodium t oalumini
um whichleadstoincreasein
i
oni zationener gieshencei ncreasingdi ffi
cultyi
nr emovi nganel ectr
onf r
om theouter
mostener gylevel
.
-Amongt henon- met alli
cel ement s,t hereactivit
yi ncreasesacr osst heperiodfrom phosphor usto
chlorine.
Reason:
-Ther ei sincreasei nnucl earchar gef rom phosphor ust ochl or
ine,henceanincreaseineaseofel ect
ron
gain( electroaf f
init
y)sincenon- metal sreactbygai ningelectrons.
-Argoi sunr eactiveandcanonl yreactunderver yspecialcondi t
ions.
Reason:
-It
’sanobl egaswi t
hast ableoctetconf i
gurati
on.

[Link]
od3el
ementswit
hoxygen.
-Allper
iodthreeel
ement
sreactwi
th(bur
nin)oxygenwi
tht
heexcept
ionofar
gon.

Experi
ment:Toinvest
igatethereacti
onsbet weenper i
od3el ement
sandoxygen
Procedure:
-Asmal lpi
eceoftheelementisplacedinadef lagrat
ingspoonandwarmedgentlyunti
litcat
chesfir
e.
-Iti
sthenloweredint
oagasj arfullofoxygen.
-Theflamecolourandthecolouroft heproductarenot ed.
-10cm3ofwat ercontai
ninguniversalorl
itmusi ndi
catorisaddedi
ntot
hegasjarwit
hthepr oduct
s.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
 Sodi um:
-Bur nsvigorouslyinoxygenwithagoldenyel
lowflame;toproducewhi t
esoli
dofsodi
um oxi
de.
Equat i
on:
Na(s)+O2(s)→ Na2O(s)
-Ther esultantsodium oxi
dedissol
vesinwatert
of or
m sodium hydr
oxide.
Equat i
on:
Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq);
-Thesodi um hydr oxi
deisalkal
inei
nnatureandthusturnsl
itmusindicatorbl
ue;

 Magnesi um:
-Burnsvi gor
ouslyinoxygenwi t
habr i
ghtwhit
elight
;topr
oducewhitesol
idofmagnesi
um oxi
de.
Equation:
2Mg(s)+O2(s)→ 2MgO(s)
-Ther esult
antmagnesi um oxideissli
ghtl
ysol
ubleinwatert
oform magnesi
um hydr
oxi
de.
Equation:
MgO(s)+H2O(l)→ Mg( OH)2( ;
aq)
-Themagnesi um hydroxi
deisal kal
inei
nnatureandthustur
nsli
tmusindi
catorbl
ue;

 Al umi nium:
Not e:
-Alumi ni
um ( foi
l)isusuall
ycoatedwit
hat hinlayerofalumini
um oxi
de,Al
2O3;whichpr
event
sreact
ion
withtheoxygen.
-Whenpol ished,itr
eactsslowlywit
hoxygentoform awhi t
esoli
dofal
umini
um oxide.
Equation:
Als)+3
( O2(s)→ Al2O3(
s)
-Ther esultantaluminium (
III
)oxi
deisi
nsolubl
einwat er
.

 Si li
con:
-Sili
conpowdercanonl yburinoxygenatver
yhightemper
at esofabout450oCt
ur ofor
m sol
idsi
li
con
(I
V)oxi de.
Equation:
Sis)+O2(
( s)→ Si
O2(s)
-Ther esult
antsi
li
con(I
V)oxi
deisinsol
ubl
einwat
er.

 Phosphor us.
-Bur ns readil
yi n oxygen wi th a brightorange f l
ame;to produce dense whi
tefumes (
sol
id)of
phosphor us(V)oxide
Equat ion:
P4(s)+5O2(s)→ 2P2O5(s)
Not e:sulphurexist
sandt hereforereactsasmol eculesofP4.
-Ther esult
antphosphor us( V)oxidereadil
ydissolvesinwatertofor
m phosphori
c(V)aci
d.
Equat ion:
P2O5(s)+3H2O(l)→ 2H3PO4(aq);
-Thephosphor icacidisaci dicinnatureandthust urnsli
tmusindi
catorpi
nk/red;

 Sul phur.
-Bur nsinoxygenwi t
habluefl
ame;t
oform acolourl
essgasofsul
phur(I
V)oxi
de
Equat i
on:
S(s)+O2(s)→ SO2(s)
-Ther esultantsulphur(
IV)oxi
der
eadi
lydi
ssolvesinwatert
oform sul
phur
ic(
IV)aci
d.
Equat i
on:
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
SO2(s)+H2O(l)→ H2SO3(aq);
-Thephosphor i
cacidisaci di
cinnat
ureandt
hust
urnsl
it
musi
ndi
cat
orpi
nk/r
ed;

-Thesul phuric(IV)aci
di sunstabl
eandt
huseasi
lyget
soxi
dizedbyoxygent
othest
abl
esul
phur
ic(
VI)
aci
d.
Equati
on:
H2SO3(aq)+O2(g)→ H2SO4(aq);

 Chl orine.
-Burnsi noxygenonlyundercer
tai
ncondi
ti
onst
ofor
m aci
dicoxi
des.
Equat i
on:
2Cl s)+O2(
2( s)→ 2Cl
2O(
s)

 Argon.
-Ar
goni
sunreact
ive.

Conclusi
on:
-Metall
icel
ement
sburni
noxygentofor
m basicoxides.
-Non-metal
li
coxi
desbur
ninoxygent
oform acidi
coxides.

[Link]
od3elementswit
hwater.
 Sodi um.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpieceofsodi
um met
aliscutanddr
oppedint
oat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresultantsol
uti
onist
est
edwi t
hli
tmuspaper
;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Obser vati
onsandexpl anati
ons:
-Themet alfloat
sont hewat ersurface;becauseiti
slessdensethanwat er;
-Ahi ssingsoundi spr oduced;duet oproducti
onofhydrogengas;
-Itvigorousl ymeltsintoasi l
veryballthendisappearsbecauser eact
ionbetweenwaterandsodi
um i
s
exothermi c(producesheat )
.Ther esult
antheatmeltsthesodium duetoitsl
owmel t
ingpoint
.
-Itdartsont hesur f
ace;duet opropulsionbyhydrogen;
-Themet almaybur sti nt
oagol denyel l
ow fl
ame;becausehydr ogenmayexpl odeintoaflamewhi
ch
thenbur nst hesodium;
-Ther esultantsoluti
ont ur
nsblue;becausesodi um hydr
oxidesoluti
onformedisastrongbase;

Reactionequat i
ons.
EquationI
2Na(s)+2H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)+H2(g);

EquationI
I
4Na(s)+O2(g)→ 2Na2O(s);
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

EquationI
II:
Na2O(s)+H2O(l)→ 2NaOH(aq)

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsol
uti
ononl i
tmuspaper ;
-Li
tmuspaperturnsbl
ue;sodium hydroxi
deformedi
shi
ghl
ysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
argenumber
ofhydr
oxyli
onswhichresul
tintoalkal
inecondi
ti
ons/
/hi
ghpH;

 Magnesium.
Procedure:
-Asmal lpi
eceofmagnesi
um r
ibboniscutanddr
oppedi
ntoat
roughcont
aini
ngwat
er;
-Theresult
antsol
uti
onist
est
edwi t
hli
tmuspaper;

Di
agr
am ofappar
atus:

Observati
onsandexplanations:
-Themet alsi
nksint
othewat ersurface;becauseiti
sdenserthanwater
;
-I
treactsslowlywit
hwat erleadingtoslowevol ut
ionofhydrogengas.
-Theresult
antsolut
ionturnsbl ue;becausesodium hydr
oxidesolut
ionf
ormedi
sast
rongbase;

Reacti
onequat ion.
Mg(s)+2H2O(l)→ Mg(OH)aq)+H2(
2( g);

Eff
ectofr
esult
antsolut
iononli
tmuspaper;
-Lit
muspapert urnsbl
ue;magnesium hydroxidefor
medi shighl
ysol
ubl
einwat
er;r
eleasi
ngal
arge
numberofhydroxyli
onswhichresul
tint
oalkal
inecondit
ions/
/highpH;

 Aluminium.
-Alumini
um doesnotnor mal
lyr eactwit
hcoldwat erorst
eam.
Reason:
-Alumini
um isusual l
ycoatedwi thathincoati
ngofal umini
um oxidewhichprevent
sfurt
herreact
ion.
-Howeveratver yhightemperat uresofabout700oCsteam canreactwi
thaluminium t
oform al
uminium
oxi
deandhydr ogengas.
Equati
on:
2Als)+3
( H2O(g)→ Al2O3(
s)+3H2(g);

Note:
-Duetoi
tsi
nabi
li
tytr
eactwi
thwat
erandai
ral
umi
nium i
spr
efer
abl
eformaki
ngcooki
ngut
ensi
lsl
ike
suf
uri
asandcoki
ngpans.

 Si
li
con,
phosphor
usandsul
phur
.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Thesenon-
met
alsdonotdi
spl
acehydr
ogenf
rom wat
erandt
husdonotr
eactwi
thwat
er.

 Chlor
ine.
-Di
ssol
vesi
nwat ertf
orm chl
ori
newat
er,
whi
chi
sami
xtur
eofchl
ori
c(I
)aci
dadhydr
ochl
ori
caci
d.

Equation:
Cl g)+H2O(
2( )→ HOC
l l
(aq)+HCl
(aq)
Chl
ori
c(I
)aci
d Hydr
ochl
ori
caci
d

[Link]
onofperi
od3elementswit
hacids
Procedur
e:
-Apieceoft
heelementisdroppedi
nto5cm3ofanaci
dinat
estt
ube.
-Anygasproducedist
ested.

 Sodium:
-Reactsexplosi
vel
ywit
hacidstoform sal
tsandhydr
ogenandt
husr
eact
ionsofsodi
um wi
thaci
ds
shoul
dnotbet ri
edi
nthel
aborat
ory.

 Magnesi
um:
-React
swithbothdi
lut
ehydr
ochl
ori
canddi
lut
esul
phur
icaci
dtof
orm magnbsi
um sal
tsandhydr
ogen
gas.

 Wi thhydr
ochlori
caci
d:
Mg(s)+2HClaq)→ Mg
( Claq)+H2(
2( g)

 Wi thsul
phur icaci
d:
Mg(s)+H2SO4(aq)→ MgSO4(aq)+H2(g)

 Alumini
um:
Note:
-Itdoesnotr
eadil
yr eactwit
hdil
uteacids.
Reason:
-Thisisduetopresenceofat hi
naluminium oxi
decoat
ingt
hatpr
event
scontacthencer
eact
ionwit
hthe
acids.
-Whenpol i
shedtr emovet heoxidecoatingitr
eact
swithbot
hdil
utehydr
ochlori
canddil
utesul
phuri
c
acidtofor
m aluminium sal
tsandhydrogengas.

 Withhydr
ochlori
cacid:
2Al
s)+6
( HClaq)→ 3
( Al
Cl aq)+3
3( H2(g)

 Withsul
phur icaci
d:
2Al
s)+3
( H2SO4(aq)→ Al
2(
SO4)aq)+3
2( H2(g)

 Si
li
con,
phosphorus,sul
phurandchl
ori
ne.
-Theydonotr
eactwit
hdiluteaci
ds.

Summar
y:Chemi
calpr
oper
ti
esofper
iod3el
ement
s.
El
ement Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
React
ion Readil
y React
s -Formsa Sipowder White Burnsinai
r Nreacti
on
wit
hair r eact
swit
h sl
owlywi
th prot
ect
ive burnsat phosphor
us oroxygen wi
thairor
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
or air. air
. coati
ngof t emperat
ures smol dersi
n wit
hablue oxygen
oxygen -Bur ns -Burnsin Al2O3when above950oC air; fl
ameto under
brightl
yin oxygen i
tbur nsi
n t ofor
m SiO2 -Pbur nsin for
m SO2 normal
oxygen witha oxygen. airwitha gas condit
ions.
witha bri
ghtwhite bright
golden fl
amet o orange
yellow for
m MgO fl
amet o
fl
amet o form P2O3
form Na2O andP2O5
React
ion React s Slow Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor eacti
on Nor
eact
ion Dissolves
wit
h vigorously reacti
on i
nwat erto
water topr oduce withcold form
H2and watert o chlori
ne
NaOH form water
Mg( OH)2
andH2;
-React s
fasterwith
steam to
form MgO
andH2
Reacti
on Violent Rapi d React
s Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion Nor
eact
ion
with reacti
on evoluti
onof sl
owlyto
dil
ute givi
ngout H2gasand gi
veH2and
acids H2anda aMgsal ti
s anAlsal
t
sodium sal
t formed

UNIT4:STRUCTUREANDBONDI NG.
[Link] r
uctureandbond.
[Link] calbond.
[Link].
 Ionicbonds
o Meani ng
o For mat i
on
o Dotadcr ossdi agrams.
o Gi antIonicstructures
 Exampl es
 Meani ng
 Pr oper t
iesofgiantionicst ruct
ures
 Covalentanddat ivebonds
o Meani ng
o For mat i
on
o Dotadcr ossdi agrams.
o Gi antcovalent( at
omic)st ructures
 Exampl es
 Meani ng
 Pr oper t
iesofgiantcoval entstruct
ures
 Det ailsofDiamond, graphiteandsili
con(
IV)oxi
de
o Mol ecular(simpl eandgi ant)structur
es
 Exampl es
 Meani ng
 Hydr ogenbondandVanderwaal s
 Pr oper t
iesofmol ecularst r
uctures
 Met al
li
cbonds
o Meani ng
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
o Format ion
o Dotadcr ossdi agr ams.
o GiantMet al
li
cst ruct
ures
 Exampl es
 Meani ng
 Pr opertiesofgi antmetal
li
cst
ruct
ures
[Link] iod3
 Oxidesofper i
od3el ement s
o Nature
o Meltingandboi l
ingpoi nts
o Gener altrendsi nbondt ypes
 Chlori
desofper iod3el ement s
o Nature
o Meltingandboi l
ingpoi nts
o Gener altrendsi nbondt ypes
[Link] yonbondchar act erist
ics

[Link]
ngofstr uct
ureandbond.
 Bond:
-Themutualforceofat t
racti
onthathol
dspart
iclestogetherwhenat
oms( si
milarordi
ff
erent
)combi
ne
duri
ngchemicalreacti
ons.
 Str
uct
ure:
-Aregul
arpatt
ernofpar t
iclesinasubst
anceheldtogetherbychemi
calbonds.

[Link] ur
eoft hechemi calbond.
-Atomsar emadeupofener gylevel
sandnucl eus.
-Theener gyl evel
scont ainel ectronswhi l
ethenucl euscont ainspr otonsandneut r
ons.
-Theel ectronsar enegat ivelycharged,pr otonsar eposi t
ivelychar gedwhi l
eneut ronsar eelectri
cal l
y
neut ral.
-Thenobl egasesar echemi cal
lyinertsincet heiroutermostener gyl evelsarecompl etelyfi
ll
edwi tht he
maxi mum possi blenumberofel ectr
ons.
-Thusnobl egaseshaveei therast abledupl etstate( 2)li
kei nhel i
um orat ableoctetconfigurat
ion( 2.8
or2. 8.8)asi nneonandar gonr espectivel
y.
-Ot herat omsar eunst ablebecauset heout ermostener gyl evelsarenotyetcompl etel
yfill
edwi tht he
maxi mum possi blenumberofel ectr
ons.
-Toat t
aint hest abledupl etoroct etnobl egasconf iguration,suchat omsl ose,gai norshar et heir
valanceel ectrons.
-Itist heactofl osing,gaini ngorshar i
ngval enceel ectronst hatleadt othechemi calbonds.
-Whenat omsgai norl oseval enceel ectron(s)t heybecomechar gedf ormingani onsandcat i
ons
respect i
vely.
-Par ticl
esoft hesamechar gerepeleachot herwhi lepar ti
clesofdi ff
er entchargesattractoneanot her.

[Link].
-Therearethreemai
ntypesofchemi
calbonds:
 Ionicbonds
 Covalentbond
 Met al
li
cbond
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
(a)
.Ioni
cbonds/el ectr
oval
entbond.
 Meani ng
-Isabondf or
medduet ocomplet
etransf
erofel
ect
ronsf
rom oneat
om t
oanot
herr
esul
ti
ngi
ntot
wo
opposit
elychargedions.

Formati
onofani onicbond.
-Formedduet ocompl etetransferofelect
ronsf rom oneatom toanother;andmai nlyformedbetweena
metalandanon- met al
.
-Thisoccursinabi dforbot hatomst oacqui r
east ablenoblegasconfigurat
ion.
-Oneatom losesallitsvalenceel ect
ronsthusf ormingacat i
on(posi
ti
velychar gedions).
-Theotheratom gainsal lt
hel ostvalenceelectronsformingananion(negativelychargedion).
-Thecationandt heani onar eoppositel
ychar gedandt husdevelopamut ualforceofat t
ract
ionbet
ween
them whichistheionic/el ectr
ovalentbond.

Il
lust
rati
on:f ormat ionofi oni
cbondbet weensodi um andchl orinetof or
m sodi um chloride.
-Sodium met al(atomi cnumber11)hasel ectronicconf igur ati
on2. 8.1andt husunst ablewi th1val
ence
el
ectron.
-Chlori
negas( atomi cnumber17)hasel ectroni cconf i
gur ati
on2. 8.7andt husunst ablewi t
h7valence
el
ectrons.
-Sodium i smor eel ectropositi
ve( t
het endencyt oloseel ect r
onst oform cat ions)thanchl or
inewhil
e
chlor
inei smor eel ectronegative(thetendencyt ogai nelectr onstof orm anions) .
-Sodium l osesi tssi nglevalanceel ectr
ont of orm sodi um ionwi t
hel ectr
onicconf i
guration2.8andanet
chargeof+1( Na+)
-Chlorineat om accept sthesi ngleel ectronl ostbysodi um t of orm achl ori
dei onwi thelect
roni
c
-
confi
gur ation2. 8.8wi t
hanetchar geof- 1(Cl).
-Theposi tivelychar gedsodium i onandt henegat i
vel
ychar gedchl orideionat t
racteachot her.
-Theel ect r
ost ati
cf orcesofat tr
acti
ondevel opbet weent het woopposi telychar gedi onsandt hi
s
consti
tutest hei oni cbond.
-Compoundsf ormedduet oionicbondi ngar ethuscal ledi oniccompounds.

Di
agr
ammat
ical
ly:

Examplesofioniccompounds.
 Sodium chlori
de.
 Potassium fl
uori
de.
 Magnesi um oxi
de
 Aluminium (I
II
)oxide.

Dotandcr
ossdi
agr
amsf
ori
oni
ccompounds
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
[Link]
assi
um f
luor
ide.

[Link]
um oxi
de

[Link]
um oxi
de.

[Link]
um chl
ori
de.

[Link]
umi
nium (
II
I)oxi
de.

GiantIonicst ructures
-Ioni
cbondi ngr esultsi
ntoonet ypeofst ructure,
thegi
antioni
cstructur
e.
-Thisisat ypeofst ructureinwhi chal lionsar ebondedwit
hstrongionicbondsthroughoutt
hest r
uctur
e.
-Eachi oni nt hegi antionicstr ucturei ssur r
oundedbysever alothersresul
ti
ngintogiantpatter
nof
severalions, hencegi antionicstructur e.
-Mosti onicsubst anceswi t
ht hegi antionicst r
uctur
earecryst
alli
neinnature,madeupcrystal
s.
 Not e:
Acr ystalisasol idform ofasubst anceinwhichthepar t
icl
esarear r
angedinadef i
nit
epatter
n
repeat edr egular
lyin3di mensi ons.

Il
lust
rat
ionofthegianti
oni cstr
uct ure:sodi
um chl ori
dest ruct
ure.
sofmanyNa+andCl -
-TheNaClst r
uct
ureconsi st arr
angedandpackedi nar
egul
arpat
ter
n.
+ -
-EachNa i ssur
roundedbysi xClt hatareequidistantfr
om i t
.
-
-Simil
arl
yeachCl issurroundedbysi xNa+t hatareequi dist
antfrom i
t.
-Thispatt
ernoccursrepeatedlyinal ldi
rect
ions.
-Theresulti
sagiantofionsi nalldirecti
onshencegi antionicstr
uctur
e.

Di
agr
am oft
hecubi
cst
ruct
ureofsodi
um chl
ori
de.

Propert
iesofgi antionicstr
uct
ures.
[Link] ehar dandbr it
tl
e.
 Reason:
-Ioni
csol i
dsar ehardbecauseeachi oni
sheldinthecrystalbystr
ongat t
racti
onsfrom t
heopposi
tel
y
chargedionsar oundi t.
-Theyar ebritt
leandt husmaybesplitcl
eanl
y(cl
eaved)usingasharp-edgedrazor.
 Expl anation:
-Whenacr ystalistappedsharpl
yalongapar t
icul
arpl
anei tispossibl
etodi spl
aceonelayerofi
ons
rel
ati
vet othenext .
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Duet ot
hedispl
acement,ionsofsi
mi l
archargecometoget
herl
eadi
ngt
orepul
sivef
orcesbet
weent
he
port
ionsofthecr
ystal
s.
-Thi
sf or
cesthet
wopor t
ionsofthecrystal
stospli
tapar
t.

Di
agr
am:cr
yst
alcl
eavagei
nioni
ccompounds.

[Link]
ngandboi l
ingpoints.
 Reason:
-Theyhavest rongelect
rost
aticforces/i oni
cbonds/el ect
roval
entbondsbet
weent
heopposi
tel
y
chargedi
onsthroughoutt
hestruct
urewhi chrequi
rel
argeamountsofener
gytobr
eak.

[Link] l
it
y.
(i
).Theyar esol ubleinpolarsolvent sl ikewat er,
ethanolandacet one( propanone)
 Reason:
-Wat ercont ai
nshi ghlypolarmol ecul es.
-Theposi t
iveendsoft hepolarwat ermol eculesareattractedt othenegat i
veionsi nthecrystal
,andthe
negativeendsoft hewat ermolecul esar eat t
ractedtotheposi ti
vei onsint hecrystal.
-Thisr esult
stot hefor mati
onofi on- sol ventbondswhi chl eadst oreleaseofener gy.
-Thisener gyissuf fi
cienttocauset hedet achmentofi onsf rom thecr ystall
att
icehencedi ssoluti
on.
Note:
-Thisdet achmentofi onsiscall
edsol vation,andtheener gyr equir
edf ort hi
siscalledsolvati
onenergy.
-Wher et hesol ventiswat ert
hei onsar esaidt ohavebeenhydr at
ed,andt heener gyinvolvedinthe
processi scalledhydr ati
onener gy.

Di
agr
ams:hydr
atedposi
ti
veandnegat
ivei
ons.

(i
i).Theyar einsolubl
einnon- polaror ganicsol
ventsliketetr
achloromet hane,benzeneandhexane.
 Reason:
-Non- polarmoleculesar eheldtogetherbyweaki nt
er molecularforces,theVanderWaal sforces.
-TheVanderWaal sar emuchsmal lerinmagnitudecompar edt ot heionicbondsi ntheionicsol
id
crystallatt
ice.
-Thust hei on-i
oni nt
eractionsint hei onicsol
idarest r
ongert hant hesolvent-
solventinter
acti
onsinthe
solventort hesolvent-
ioninteracti
onsbet weenthesol i
dandt hesol vent.
-Thust henon- polarsolventmol eculescannotpenet r
at etheioniclatti
cetocausesal vati
on.

[Link]
ectr
icalconduct
ivi
ty.
-I
onicsubstancesdonotconductel
ect
ri
ccur
renti
nsol
idst
ate.
 Reason:
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Theionsareheldi
nstat
icposi
ti
onsi
nthesoli
dcrystall
atti
ceandthuscannotmovet
oconductel
ect
ri
c
curr
ent.
-Theyconductel
ect
ri
ccurr
entinmol
tenandsolut
ion(aqueous)st
ates.
 Reason:
-Inmoltenandaqueousstat
esthei
onsarefreeandmobi leandthusmoveaboutconduct
ingel
ect
ri
c
curr
ent.

Gr
adat
ioni
npr
oper
ti
esofsomei
oni
ccompoundsofsodi
um.
Compoundofsodi
um
Pr
oper
tyofcompound
Sodium f
luor
ide Sodium chl
ori
de Sodium br
omi
de Sodium i
odi
de
Solubili
tyinwater Solubl
e Solubl
e Solubl
e Solubl
e
o
Mel t
ingpoint( C) 993 801 747 661
o
Boili
ngpoi nt(C) 1695 1413 1390 1304
Solid Doesnot Doesnot Doesnot Doesnot
Electri
cal
Mol t
en/
conduct i
vit
y Conduct
s Conduct
s Conduct
s Conduct
s
soluti
on

Note:
-Solubi
li
tyoft
hecompoundsdecreasefr
om sodium f
luor
idet
osodium i
odide.
-Melti
ngandboil
i
ngpoint
sdecreasefrom sodi
um fl
uori
detosodi
um i
odide.

[Link]
entbond.
 Meaning:
-Refer
st oabondf ormedwhentwoatomsofthesameorofdi ff
erentel
ementsshar
eelect
ronsto
becomestable.
-Formati
onofcoval
entbondbet
weenat
oms(simi
larordi
ssi
milar
)resultt
othef
ormati
onofamolecul
e.
-Coval
entbondsareusual
lyf
ormedbyt
heassoci
ati
onofnon-metal
s.

 Not e:
-Amoleculeisagroupofatoms(
twoormor
e)oft
hesameordi
ff
erentel
ement
sthatar
ehel
dtoget
her
byst
rongcovalentbonds.

Formationofacoval entbond.
-Covalentbondingi sbroughtaboutbythefact
st hatt
heel ectr
o-posit
ivit
yandt heelect
ro-negat
ivi
tyof
theel
ement sinvolvedareverycl
ose.
-Forthatreason,noneoft heat
omscancompl et
elyloseit
sval enceelectronst
ot henextatom.
-Forthisreason,bothatomsdonateelect
ronswhicharethenshar edbet weenthem.
-Bothatomst husat t
ainastabl
enoblegas(dupl
etoroctet)configurat
ion.

Il
lust
rati
ons:
 For mationofchl ori
nemol ecule.
-Eachchl ori
deat om hasel ectr
onicconf i
gurati
on2. 8.
7andt husneedtogainasingl
eelect
ronint he
outermostener gyleveltoatt
ainast abl
enoblegasconf igurati
on.
-Sincebothchl ori
deat omshavesameel ectr
o-negati
vit
ies,nonewil
leasi
lyl
oseanelect
rontotheother.
-Fort hi
sreason, bothdonatethenumberofel ectr
onsr equir
edbytheotherat
om (i
nthi
scase1) ,
whi ch
theysharebetweent hem.
-Thuschl ori
nemol eculeisfor
medbyshar ing2el ectr
onsbet weentwochlor
ineat
oms,henceasi ngle
covalentbond.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Di
agr
am:f
ormat
ionofchl
ori
nemol
ecul
e.

Dotandcr
ossdi
agr
am f
orchl
ori
nemol
ecul
e.

Formationofoxygenmol ecule.
-Eachoxygenat om hasel ectroni
cconfi
guration2. 8.6andt husneedt ogain2el ectr
onsintothe
outermostenergyleveltoattainastabl
enoblegasconf igurati
on.
-Sincebothoxygenat omshavesameel ect
ro-negativi
ties,nonewi l
leasi
lyloseanelectr
ontotheother
.
-Forthi
sr eason,bothdonat ethenumberofel ectr
onsr equir
edbyt heotheratom (
inthiscase2)
,which
theysharebetweent hem.
-Thusoxygenmol eculeisf ormedbysharing4el ectrons( 2from eachat om)betweent wochlori
ne
atoms,henceadoubl ecovalentbond.

Di
agr
am:t
heoxygenmol
ecul
e.

Note:
-Asingl
ecovalentbondi srepr
esent
edindot(.
)andcr oss( x)di
agramsusi
ngt wodots,twocr osses,a
dotandacrossorasi ngl
eline(
–)betweentheatomsinvolvedinthebond.
-Thusasingl
ecovalentbondl i
keinchl
ori
necanber epresentedasCl–Cl ,adoublecovalentbondl i
ke
i
noxygencanber epresentedasO=Owhi leatri
plecoval
entbondl i
keinni
trogencanberepr esent
edas
N≡ N.

Dot(.
)andcross(
x)di
agr
amsf
orvar
iouscoval
entcompounds.
[Link],
H2

[Link]
ogenchl
ori
de,
HCl

[Link]
tr
ogen,
N2

[Link]
er

[Link]
bon(
IV)oxi
de,
CO2
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

[Link]
agas,
NH3

[Link],
PH3

[Link]
hane,
CH4

[Link]
hane.CH2CH2

[Link]
hyne,
C2H2

[Link]
hanol
,C2H5OH

[Link]
omoet
hane,
C2H4Br
.

Thecoordi
natebond.
-Refer
stoatypeofcoval
entbondinwhichtheshar
edpai
rofel
ect
ronsf
ormi
ngt
hebondi
scont
ri
but
ed
byonlyoneoftheatomsfor
mingthebond.
-I
tisalsocal
ledt
hedati
vebond.

Exampl es:
 For mati
onofammoni um i
on.
-Occur swhenanammoni agasmol ecul
ecombi neswi t
hahydr ogenion( proton).
-Alltheat omsi ntheammoni amoleculehaveast ablenoblegasconf igurati
onandt husthemol eculei
s
stable.
-Howevert henitr
ogenintheammoni amoleculehasal onepairofelectrons(elect
ronsthathavenotyet
beenusedi nbondf ormati
on)
-Thehydr ogenionhaslostit
souter
mostsi nglevalenceelect
rontoformt hehydrogenion.
-Thust hehydrogenionhasnoelectron(
s)initsoutermostenergylevel.
-Tobest ablethehydrogenneedstwoelectronsinitsoutermostenergylevel.
-Thehydr ogenionthusacceptsbondswi t
ht helonepair(2)ofelect
ronsi ntheni t
rogenoftheammoni a
mol eculeformingadat i
vebond.
-Thet otalnumberofel ect
ronsint heammoni um ioni s11whi lethet otalnumberofel ect
ronsi s10
l
eadi ngt oanetpositi
vechargeof+1

Note:
-Inadot(.)andcross(
x)di
agr
am wher
ethecoval
entbondi
sr epr
esent
edbyhor i
zont
alli
nes(–),t
he
dati
ve//coor
dinat
ebondisr
epr
esent
edbyanar
row(→)point
ingtheat
om that“
accept
s”theel
ectr
ons.

Di
agr
am:f
ormat
ionofammoni
um i
on.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Format ionofhydr oxonium ion(H3O+)
-Occur swhenawat ermol ecul
ecombi neswi t
hahydr ogeni on(proton).
-Allt heat omsint hewat ermoleculehaveast ablenoblegasconf igur
ati
onandt hust hemol ecul
ei s
stable.
-Howevert heoxygeni nt heammoni amol eculehas2l onepai r
sofel ectr
ons//fourelectrons(electr
ons
thathavenotyetbeenusedi nbondf ormat i
on)
-Thehydr ogenionhasl ostitsouter
mostsi nglevalenceelectr
ont ofor mthehydr
ogeni on.
-Thust hehydrogeni onhasnoel ectron(s)initsoutermostener gylevel.
-Tobest ablethehydr ogenneedst woel ectronsinitsoutermostener gylevel
.
-Thehydr ogeni ont husacceptsandbondswi tht wooft hefourel ectr
onsintheoxygenoft hewat er
mol eculeformingadat i
vebond/ /coor dinatebond.
-Thet otalnumberofel ectr
onsint hehydr oxonium ionis11whi let hetot
alnumberofel ect
ronsi s10
l
eadi ngt oanetposi ti
vechar geof+1

Di
agr
am:f
ormat
ionoft
hehydr
oxoni
um i
on.

Note:
-Thehydroxonium i
on(H3O+)canst
illf
urt
herr
eactwit
hanotherhydr
ogeniontof
orm anot
herionoft
he
2+
formul
aH4O .
-Thisisduet othepresenceofasinglel
onepairofel
ect
ronsinthestr
uctur
eofthehydroxoni
um i
on
(H3O+)
.

Di
agr
am:f
ormat
ionofH4O2+f
rom H3O+andH+

Note:
-TheH4O2+cannothoweverr
eactf
urt
hersi
nceal
ltheval
enceel
ect
ronsi
nal
lit
sat
omshavebeenused
i
nbondingleavi
ngnolonepair
s.

Furt
herexamplesofdat
ivecoval
entbondsi
not
hercompounds.
[Link](I
V)oxide
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

[Link]
mat
ionofPH4+

[Link]
umi
nium chl
ori
nedi
mer(
Al2Cl
6)
.

[Link]
a-al
umi
nium chl
ori
devapour
scompl
ex,
AlCl
3.
NH3

Note:
-Subst
anceswithcovalentbondsformtwomai ntypesofst
ruct
ures:
 Molecul
arstr
uctures
 Giantat
omic//Gi antcoval
entst
ruct
ures.

[Link] ecularstructures.
-Ref erst oast r
uct ureinwhi chcoval entbondshol dsat omst oget
hertofor
m molecul
esandt he
result
antmol eculesar ehel dtogetherbyi ntermolecul
arforces.
-Subst ancewi t
hmol ecularstructuresareusual l
ygasesorl i
qui dsatroom t
emper
atur
e.
-Few sol i
dssuchassul phur,iodine,fats,sugar,naphthaleneandpar aff
inwaxalsohavemolecul
ar
structures.
-Thei ntermolecularforcesi nmol ecularstruct
uresareoft wot ypes:
 VanderWaal s
 Hydr ogenbonds

(a)
.TheVanderWaal s.
-Ar etheweakestf orm ofinter
molecul
arforcesduetoi nduceddi pole-induceddipoleatt
ract
ions
betweenmol ecul
es.
-Ast hesi zeoft hemoleculeincr
eases,t
henumberofconst it
uentelectr
onsi ncr
easesleadi
ngt o
i
ncreaseinstrengthoft
heinduceddipol
e–induceddipol
einteracti
ons.
-ThestrengthoftheVanderWaal st
husincr
easesasthemol ecularsi
zeincreases.

Note:
Thisexplainsthetr
endi nboil
ingpoi nt
sforthehal
ogens,whichincreasefrom fluor
inetoiodi
ne.
 Reason:
-From fluori
netoiodinethesi zeoftheatomsandhencet hemol eculesi
ncr easesleadi
ngt oi
ncreasein
molecularmassest hatl
eadt ost r
ongerinduceddipol
e–i nduceddi pol
ei nter
acti
onshencei ncr
easing
str
engthoft heVanderWaal s( f
rom F2toI2)
-Thisalsoappl i
esfortheincreaseinboili
ngpoint
sforthehomologousser iesofalkanes.

Di
agram:I
ll
ust
rat
ionofVanderWaal
sfor
ces
(
i)
.Iodi
ne

(
ii
).Gr
aphi
te.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

(b).Thehydrogenbonds.
-Isani nt
ermolecularforceinwhi chtheelect
roposi t
ivehydrogenatom ofonemolecul
eisatt
ract
edt
oan
electr
onegati
veat om ofanothermol ecule.
-Theessent i
alrequir
ement sforthef or
mat i
onofahydr ogenbond( H–bond)ar e:
 Ahydr ogenat om attachedt oahighlyelect
r onegati
veat om.
 Anunshar edpairofelectronsont heelectr
onegat i
veat om.
Not e:
Thisexplainswhyhydr ogenbondsar ecommoni nmol eculesinwhichhydrogenarebondedtohi
ghl
y
electr
onegati
veat omsl i
kenitrogen,oxygenandf luorine.

Thef ormat i
onofhydr ogenbonds
-Occur swhenhydr ogenat om i sbondedt oahi ghlyelect
ronegativeat om likeni tr
ogen,oxygenand
fl
uor i
ne.
-Theel ect r
onsi nthecoval entbond( bet
weenhydr ogenandt hemor eel ectr
onegat iveatom)ar edrawn
towardst heel ectronegat iveat om.
-Hydr ogenat om hasnoel ect
r onsot herthant heonei tcontr
ibutest ot hecoval entbond,whi chisal
so
beingpul l
edawayf r
om i t(bythemor eelectronegati
veatom).
-Hydr ogenat om hasnoout erener gyl evelofel ect
ronsmaki ngt hesi nglepr ot onint henucleus
unusual l
y“ bare” .
-Thepr otoni st husr eadilyavai lableforanyf orm ofdipol
e-di
poleattract i
ons.
-The“ bar e”pr otonoft hehydr ogenat om t husattr
actsthemor eelectr onegativeat om (e.g.N,OandF)
onei t
hersi de.
-Itthusexer tsanat tracti
vef orceont hemor eelect
ronegati
veatom hencebondi ngthem t ogether.
-Thet wo( mor eelect ronegat i
ve)l argeratomsar edrawncloserwi t
hahydr ogenat om effecti
velyburi
ed
i
nt heirelectroncl ouds.
-Thisconst itutest heHydr ogenbond.

Il
lustr
ation:format ionofhydr ogenbondsi nwat er
.
-Inwat ertwohydr ogenat omsar ebondedt oanoxygenat om whichhi ghlyelectronegative.
-Theel ectronsi nt hecoval entbond( bet weeneachhydr ogenandoxygenat om)ar edrawnt owardsthe
mor eelectronegat iveoxygenat om.
-Thehydr ogenat omshavenoel ectr
onsot hert hantheirshareoft hosei nthecoval entbond, whichare
alsobeingpul l
edawayf rom them byt heoxygenat om.
-Hydr ogenat omshavenoout erener gyl evelofel ectr
onsmaki ngt hesi nglepr otoni nt hei
rnucleus
unusual l
y“ bare”.
-Thepr otoni sthusr eadil
yavai l
ableforanyf orm ofdipole-di
pol
eat tr
act i
ons( withoxygeni nthi
scase).
-The “ bare”pr oton ofeach oft he hydr ogen atoms i n one mol eculet hus at tractst he more
el
ectronegat iveoxygenat om ofthenei ghboringmol ecule.
-Eachhydr ogenat om t husexer tsanat t
ractiveforceont heoxygenat om oft henextmol eculehence
bondingt hem t oget her .
-Theel ectronegat iveoxygenat om ofonemol eculei
sdr awnt otheelect r
oposi t
ivehydr ogenat om ofthe
nextmol eculewi tht hehydr ogenat omsef f
ect i
velyburiedintheelectroncl oudsofoxygen.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Thi
sconst
it
utest
heHydr
ogenbondi
nthewat
ermol
ecul
e.

Di
agr
am:hydr
ogenbondsi
nwat
ermol
ecul
es.

Note:
-Othercompoundswit
hhydr
ogenbondsi
ncl
udeet
hanol
,ammoni
a,hydr
ogenfl
uori
deetc.
-Hydr ogenbondsar
emuchst r
ongert
hantheweakVanderWaalsforcesbutsti
llweakert
hant
he
covalentbonds.

Eff
ectofhydrogenbondi ngonproper
ti
esofmolecul
arsubstances.
-Hydrogenbondi ngt endstodisr
uptthegr
adati
oninphysi calpr
oper
ti
esofmol
ecul
arsubstancesin
rel
ati
ontomol ecularweight
s.
-Theeffectonmol ecul
armassesonthemelti
ngandboili
ngpoi nt
sonl
yappl
ywhenthei
ntermolecul
ar
for
ceisthesame.

Examples.
[Link] hanol(C2H5OH)anddi methylether(C2H6O)havet hesamer elat
ivemolecul
armassof46.
Howevert heboili
ngpoi ntofethanolishigherat78.5oCthanthatofdi
methyletheratonl
y-24oC.
Reason:
-Even t hough bot h have mol ecular str
uctur
es with covalentbonds between the atoms,the
i
ntermolecularforcesinet hanolarehydr ogenbondswhi charemuchst rongerthantheint
ermol
ecul
ar
for
cesindi methyletherwhi chareweakVanderWaal sf
orces.

[Link](C2H5OH)hasamol ecul
armassof46whi l
ebutane(C4H10)hasamol ecularmassof58,yet
theboil
ingpointofet hanolishigherthanthatofbutane.
Reason:
-Bothhavemol ecularstructureswithcovalentbondsbetweentheat [Link] ,thei
nter
mol ecul
ar
for
cesinethanolar ehydr ogenbondswhi char emuchstronger(
andr equi
remoreener gyt
obr eak)than
theint
ermolecularforcesindi methyletherwhichareweakVanderWaal sf
orces.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Mol ecul
arsubst ances ar
e general
lyi
nsolubl
ein pol
arsol
vent
slike wat
[Link] wit
h
hydrogenbondingast heint
ermolecul
arf
orcesaresol
ubl
einwat
ersi
ncethehydrogenbondi
ngconfer
s
them somepolarit
y.
Examples:
-Sugar,et
hanol,et
hanoicacidet
c

Propert
iesofmolecularstruct
ures.
[Link]
ngandboi l
ingpoints.
-Thegenerall
yhavelowmel ti
ngandboi
li
ngpoints.
Reason:
-Al t
hough the atoms f orming t
he molecul
es are hel
dt oget
herby st
rong coval
entbonds,the
i
ntermolecul
arfor
cesar eweakVanderWaal sf
orceswhichrequi
rel
owamountsofenergyt
obreak.

[Link]
calconducti
vit
y
-Theyarepoorconduct orsofheatandelect
ri
cit
yatanyst
ate.
Reason:
-Theyhaveneitherdelocali
zedelect
ronsnorfr
eemobil
eionsforel
ect
ri
calconduct
ivi
ty.

[Link]
y
-Mol ecularsubst ancesar egenerall
yi nsol
ubleinpolarsolventsl i
kewat erbutsolubleinnon- polar
organicsol ventsli
kebenzene.
Reason:
-Inpol arsol vent
sl i
kewat erther
ear estrongwater–wat eratt
racti
onswhi chareconsiderabl
est ronger
thant hei ntermolecularf
or ces(VanderWaal s)att
ract
ionsormol ecule– wat er(sol
vent)attractions,
makingt hemol eculesunabl etopenetr
atethewater(sol
vent)str
ucturef ordissol
uti
ontooccur.
-Innon- polarsolventslikebenzene,t hebenzene-benzeneat tr
actionsar esi mi
larinstrengtht ot he
i
ntermol ecularf orcesort hemol ecul
e– benzene( solvent
)at t
ractions,enabling t
hemol eculest o
penetratet hesolventthusal l
owingdissoluti
on.

Note:
-Mol ecularsubstanceswi t
hhydr ogenbondsast hei
ntermolecularf
orcesar
esolubleinpolarsolvent
s
l
ikewat er.
Reason:
-Thehydr ogenbondsint hemol eculesar
eequalinst
rengthtot hewater–wateri
nteract
ionswhichare
alsohydr ogenbonds, t
hust hemol ecul
esareabl
etopenetrat
et hestr
uctur
eofwaterleadi
ngtosalvati
on
//dissolution//hydrat
ioni.
[Link] epol
arli
ket
hewat ermolecules.

Summar
y:Pr
oper
ti
esofsomemol
ecul
arsubst
ances.
Molecularsubstance
Pr
oper
tyofcompound Sugar Napht
hal
en Rhombi c Wat
er Hydrogen
Iodine
(Sucr
ose) e sulphur sulphi
de
Insolubl - Sli
ghtl
y
Sol
ubi
li
tyi
nwat
er Sol
ubl
e I
nsol
ubl
e Insolubl
e
e solubl
e
Molecularmass 183 128 186 256 18 34
o
Melti
ngpoint( C) 186 82 113 114 0 -85
o
Boi
li
ngpoi nt(C) - 218 183 444 100 -60
El
ectri
cal Soli
d Doesnot Doesnot Doesnot Doesnot Doesnot Doesnot
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
Molt
en/ Doesnot Doesnot
conduct
ivi
ty Doesnot Doesnot Doesnot Doesnot
sol
uti
on

[Link]//Giantatomicstr
uctures.
-Aremol ecularsubstancesi nwhi chatomsarel i
nkedt hr
oughoutthewholestruct
urebyver
ystrong
covalentbondsf rom oneat om t
othenext .
-Ther esulti
sani ndefi
nitenumberofat omswhi chareallcoval
ent
lybondedtoget
her.
-Thispat ternoccursr epeatedl
yt hroughoutt
hest ruct
ureleadi
ngtoa“ giant
”ofatomsallcoval
entl
y
bonded.

Exampl es:
(a).Diamond.
-Isanal l
otr
opeofcar bon.
 Note:allotr
opesar ediffer
entcrystal
li
nef ormsoft hesameel ementinthesamephysi calst
ate.
-Indiamond, eachcar bonat om isbondedt ofourot hercarbonatomsbyst r
ongcovalentbonds.
-Thecar bonat omsi ndi amondar ecovalentl
ybondedi ntoanoct ahedr
alpatt
ern,whi
chr epeatsi
tsel
fin
alldir
ecti
onsr esult
ingint oagiantatomicstructure.
-Sinceeachcar bonatom i sbondedt ofourothers,allt
hefourvalenceelect
ronsineachcarbonar eused
i
nbondi nghencenodel ocali
zedelectronsinthest r
uctureofdiamond.
-Di amondi st hehardestsubst anceknownduet ot hefactthatalltheatomsar ecovalentl
ybonded
togetherandar ecloselypackedt ogether.

Di
agr
am:St
ruct
ureofdi
amond:

Proper
ti
esofdiamond.
i
.Havehighmel t
ingandboil
ingpoi
nts.
Reason:
-I
thasagiantatomicstruct
urewit
hstrongcoval
entbondst
hroughoutt
hest
ruct
urewhi
chr
equi
rel
arge
amountsofenergytobreak.

i
[Link]
sinsolubl
ei nwater.
Reason:
-Itisnon- pol
arandt huscannotdissolvei npolarwatermoleculessincet herearenointer
molecul
ar
i
nt er
acti
onswhi chwouldfaci
li
tatepenet
r at
ionintothewatermoleculesfordissol
uti
ontooccur.
i
ii
.Doesnotconductheatandel ect
ri
cit
y.
Reason:
-Eachcar bonatom inthestr
uctureofdiamondi sbondedtofourothershenceusesal li
tsfourval
ence
elect
ronsinbondi ngandthusl
acksanydel ocalizedel
ectr
onsforelectri
calconducti
vit
y.

i
[Link]
hehardestsubst
anceknown.
Reason:
-Allcar
bonatomsar ecompact
lybondedinaconti
nuousoct
ahedr
alpat
ter
nwi
thst
rongcoval
entbonds
thr
oughoutt
hest r
uctur
ewhichareverydi
ff
icul
ttobr
eak.

(
b).Gr
aphi
te.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Isalsoanal lot
ropeofcar bon.
-Ingraphite,eachcarbonat om i
sbondedt ot
hreeothercar bonatomsbyst rongcoval entbonds.
-Sinceeachcar bonatom isbondedt oonlythreeother
s, onlythreeofthefourvalenceel ectr
onsi
neach
carbonar eusedi nbondinghencepr esencedelocali
zedel ect
ronsinthestructureofgr aphi
te.
-Thisexplainstheelectr
icalconductivi
tyofgraphi
te.
-Thecar bonat omsi ngr aphit
ear ecovalent
lybondedi nt ohexagonallayers,whichar ejoinedt
oeach
otherbyweakVanderWaal sforces.
-Thepr esenceofweakVanderWaal sf or
cesexplainst
hesl i
pperynatureofgraphite.

Di
agr
am:St
ruct
ureofgr
aphi
te.

Properti
esofGr aphi
te.
i
.Havehi ghmel ti
ngandboil
ingpoint
s.
Reason:
-Ithasagi antatomicstr
ucturewithstrongcovalentbondsthr
oughoutt
hehexagonallayerswhi ch
requir
elargeamount [Link]
eVanderWaal sbet
weenthel ayersthe
effectofthel argenumberofcoval entbondsst i
llcont
ri
butetohighmelti
ngandboili
ngpoi nt
si n
graphit
e

i
i.I
nsolublei
nwater.
Reason:
-Iti
snon- pol
arandthuscannotdi
ssol
vei npol
arwatermoleculessi
ncetherearenointer
molecul
ar
i
nteract
ionswhichwoul
dfaci
li
tat
epenet
rat
ionint
othewatermolecul
esfordi
ssol
uti
ontooccur.

i
ii.I
tisagoodconduct orheatandelect
ri
cit
y.
Reason:
-Eachcar bonatom inthestructureofgr
aphit
eisbondedtothreeothershenceusesonl
ythreeofit
s
fourvalenceelect
ronsinbondi [Link]
sleadstopresenceofdelocal
izedel
ectr
onsinthest
ructur
eof
graphit
ewhi chconductsheatandelect
ri
cit
y.

i
[Link]
ipper
y.
Reason:
-Thecar bonatomsi ngr
aphit
ear ecoval
entl
ybondedintohexagonallayer
swhichar
ejoinedt
oeach
otherbyweakVanderWaal sforces.
-TheweakVanderWaal sfor
ceseasilysl
ideovereachot
herwhenpr essedhencet
hesof
tandsli
pper
y
feel
.

(c)
.Sili
con(IV)oxide.
-Isacovalentcompoundofsi li
conandoxygen.
-Sil
iconhasf ourelect
ronsini
tsoutermostenergyl
evelwhil
eoxygenhassix.
-Eachsili
conat om isbondedtofouroxygenatomsbystrongcoval
entbonds.
-Eachoxygenat om i
sbondedtotwosi l
iconatomsbystrongcoval
entbonds.
-Thismeanst herearenodelocal
izedelect
ronsint
hestructur
eofsil
icon(I
V)oxi
demaki
ngi
tunabl
eto
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
conductelect
ri
ccurrent
.
-Thesi l
iconandoxygenat omsar eallcoval
entlybondedt ogether(bystrongcoval
entbonds)i
na
repeat
edmannerl eadi
ngt oagiantofcoval
entbondsthroughoutthest r
uct
ure.
-Theextraordinar
il
ystrongcovalentbondsinsil
icon(I
V)oxidet hrououtt
hest r
uct
urecont
ri
but
etothe
veryhi
ghmel ti
ng(1728oC)andboili
ng(2231oC)point
s.

Di
agr
am:st
ruct
ureofsi
li
con(
IV)oxi
de.

Propert
iesofgiantatomic/ /giantcovalentst
ructur
es.
i
.-Havehi ghmel t
ingandboi li
ngpoints
i
i.-Theyarenon-conduct orsofheatandel ect
rici
tywit
htheexcept
ionofgr
aphi
te
i
ii
.-Theyar ei
nsolubleinwat er
i
v.-Mostar egener al
lyveryhard,withtheexcepti
onofgraphi
te

 Note:f
orexplanati
onsoft heabovepropert
ies,r
efertoindivi
dualexplanat
ionsofeachcompound.
[Link]
icbond.
-Isa bond f ormed dueto electr
ostat
icattr
action bet
ween t hepositivel
ychar ged nucl
eiand t
he
negat
ivel
ychar geddel
ocal
izedelectr
onsthatholdatomst ogether.

Formationofamet all
icbond.
-I
namet alt
hereareusuallymanyat omssurroundinganyoneat om.
-Theval enceelectr
onsofanyoneat om ar
ethereforemutuall
yattr
actedtomanynucl ei
.
-Thisl eadst oasi tuati
oni nwhi chthepositi
venucl eiappeartobei mmer sedinaseaofmobi le
el
ectrons.
-Theseaofmobi leelectr
onsar esaidtobedel ocali
zedwhichexpl ai
nstheabil
ityofsubstanceswith
metall
icbondst oconductelectri
ccur r
ent.
-Thispat ter
nofposi ti
venucl eiinaseaofel ectronsisrepeatedmanyt imesthroughoutthestruct
ure
l
eadingt oagi antmetall
icstructure,t
heonlystr
uctureduetomet all
icbonds.

Di
agr
am:modeloft
hegi
antmet
all
icst
ruct
ure.

Proper
ti
esofthegi
antmetal
li
cst
ructure.
[Link]
ti
ngandboil
ingpoints.
Reason:
-Theyhavest
rongmetal
li
cbondsthroughoutthest
ruct
urewhi
chneedl
argeamount
sofener
gyt
obr
eak.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
-Thestr
engthofthemet all
icbondincreaseswit
hdecreaseinatomicsi
ze,aswel
laswithi
ncreaseinthe
numberofdelocalizedel
ectrons.
-Thusmet al
swi t
hsmal l
erat omsandmor edel
ocali
zedelect
ronstendtohavest
rongermetall
icbonds
hencehighermelt
ingandboi li
ngpoint
s.
-Thisexplai
nswhyt hemel ti
ngandboi l
ingpoint
sofmet all
icel
ementsinperi
odthreeincreasefr
om
sodi
um toaluminium.

[Link] orsofheatandel ectri

cit
y.
Reason:
-Thehavedelocal
izedelect ronswhichheatandel ectr
iccur r
ent
.
Note:
-Theelect
ri
calconductivityofmet alsi
ncreaseswi thincreasei
nthenumberofdelocal
izedel
ect
ronsin
eachatom i
nthestructure.
-Thisexpl
ainswhyal umi nium metalisabetterconduct orofheatandel
ect
ri
cit
ythanbot hmagnesi
um
andsodium.

[Link]
einwater.
Reason:
-Therearenodi pol
esinthegiantmetal
li
cst
ruct
ureandar
ethusnon-
pol
ar,socannotdi
ssol
vei
npol
ar
watermolecules.
Summar y:somephysicalproper
ti
esofmetal
s
Met
al Val
ency Mel
ti
ngpoint Boi
li
ngpoint At
omi cr
adi
i Elect
ri
cal
o o
( C) ( C) (nm) conducti
vit
y
Li
thium 1 180 1330 0.133 Good
Sodium 1 98 890 0.155 Good
Potassi
um 1 64 774 0.203 Good
Magnesium 2 651 1110 0.136 Good
Alumini
um 3 1083 2582 0.125 Good

Summar
y:Compar
ingvar
ioust
ypesofst
ruct
ures.
Giantatomi
c/gi
ant
At
tr
ibut
e Gi
antmet
all
ic Gi
anti
oni
c Gi
antmet
all
ic
covalent
[Link]
ruct
ure
i
.Examples Na,
Fe,
Cu. Di
amond,
SiC,
SiO2. Ca2+O2-,
(K+)
2SO42-, I
2,S8,C10H8,
HCl
,
+ -
NaCl , CH4.
i
[Link]
tuent At
oms At
oms I
ons Molecules
part
icl
es

i
ii
.Typeof Metalel
ementwith Non-
metalel
ement Metal
/non-
met al Non- metalel
ement
subst
ance l
ow i
ngroupIVorit
s compound(a ornon- metal
/non-
compound el
ectr
onegat
ivi
ty compound. compoundof met alcompound
el
ementswitha (elementswithhigh
l
argedif
fer
encei n electr
onegati
vit
y)
el
ectr
onegati
vity)

[Link]: Attr
actionofout er Atomsar eli
nked Attr
act i
onof Strongcoval ent
Inthesoli
d mobi l
eel ect
ronsfor throughthewhole posit
ivei onsf or bondshol dat oms
positi
venucl ei struct
urebyvery negativei ons togetherwithi nthe
bindsat oms strongcoval
ent resul
tsi nst r
ong separatemol ecules;
togetherbyst r
ong bondsf r
om one i
onicbonds separatemol ecules
met al
li
cbonds atom tothenext
. areheldt oget herby
weak
i
ntermol ecular
forces.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
[Link]
operti
es.
i
.Volat
il
it
y: Non-volat
[Link] Non-volat
[Link] Non-volat
[Link] Vol
atil
[Link]
highmel t
ingand highmel t
ingand highmel t
ingand melt
ingandlow
veryhighboi l
ing veryhighboi l
ing veryhighboi l
ing boi
li
ngpoints.
Stat
eatr
oom point
s. points. points. Usuall
ygasesor
temp. Usuall
ysol id Solid Solid vol
ati
leli
qui
ds

i
[Link]
dness// Har
d,yetmal
leabl
e. Veryhar
dand Har
dandbr
it
tl
e Sof
t
mall
eabi
li
ty bri
tt
le

i
ii
.Conduct
ivi
ty: Goodconduct
ors Non-conductorsi
n Non-conductor
s Non-conductors
whensol
idor anystate(except whensol i
d;good whensol i
d,molten
molt
en. graphi
te) conductorswhen andinaqueous
moltenorin sol
ution.
aqueoussoluti
on (Afewl i
keHClreact
(el
ectr
olyt
es) wit
hwat ertoform
el
ectrol
ytes)

i
[Link]
ubi
li
ty: Insolublei
npolar Insolubl
einal
l Solubleinpolar Polarmol ecul
es
andnon- pol
ar solvents solvents(e.
g.H2O), [Link] esol
uble
solventsbutsolubl
e i
nsol ubl
einpolar i
npol arsolvents
i
nmol tenmetal
s solventsli
ke l
ikewat er;but
tet
rachloromethane, i
nsolublei nnon-
CCl4. polarsolventsli
ke
CCl4andvi se-
versa.
Typesofbondsacr ossaperiod.
-Thenumberofval enceel
ectronsplayanimpor t
antrol
eindet
erminati
onofchemi calbondi
ng.
-Acrossaperiodintheperi
odictable,
thenatureofthebondsvari
esfr
om met al
li
ctocovalent.
-Thestruct
urealsothusvari
esf r
om giantmetall
ict
osimplemolecul
ar.
-Thussimil
arcompoundsoft heelementsi
nper i
od3wi l
lal
soexhibi
tvari
ati
oninbondt ypes,st
ruct
ures
andpropert
ies.

Var
iat
ioni
nbondt
ypesi
noxi
desofper
iodt
hreeel
ement
s.
Oxi
de Na2O MgO Al2O3 Si
O2 P2O5 SO2 Cl
2O7
Physi
cal Sol
id Sol
id Solid Sol
id Soli
d Gas Gas
st
ate
o
M.P( C) 1193 3075 2045 1728 563 -
76 -
60
o
B.
P( C) 1278 3601 2980 2231 301 -
10 -
9

St
ruct
ure Gi
anti
oni
c Gi
anti
oni
c Gi
anti
oni
c Gi
ant Mol
ecul
ar Mol
ecul
ar Mol
ecul
ar
at
omic

Bondi
ng I
oni
c I
oni
c I
oni
c Coval
ent Coval
ent Coval
ent Coval
ent
wit
hVan wit
hVan wit
hVan
derWaal
s derWaal
s derWaal
s

Natur
eof Basic Basic Amphot
eri
c Aci
dic Aci
dic Aci
dic Aci
dic
oxi
de (al
kal
ine) (weakly
alkal
ine)

Sol
ubi
li
tyi
n Dissolves Dissolves Insol
ubl
e I
nsol
ubl
e Dissolves Dissolves Dissolves
wat
er toforms toforms i
nwat erto i
nwat erto i
nwat erto
analkaline analkaline form acidi
c form acidi
c form acidi
c
solut
ion solut
ion solut
ion. solut
ion. solut
ion.

React
ion React
sto Reactsto Reactsto No No No No
wit
hacids for
m sal
t f or
m sal
t f or
m sal
t r
eact
ion. r
eact
ion. r
eact
ion r
eact
ion
andwater
. andwater
. andwater
.
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

Note:
1.-Themelt
ingandboi
li
ngpoi ntsoft
hemagnesi um oxidei
shigherthant
hatofsodi
um oxi
de
Reason:
-Bothhavegianti
oni
[Link]
ati
cforcesofatt
ract
ionbetweenmagnesium
i
onsandoxideionsar
estrongerduetothefactthatmagnesium ionhasachargeof+2andissmalleri
n
si
zethanthesodi
um i
on.

Eff
ectofbondtypesofproperti
esofchl
ori
desofperiod3el
ements
-Mostperi
od3el ementsform st
abl
echlor
ides.
-Thetrendinbondt ypes,str
uctur
esandpr oper
ti
esofchlor
idesofper
iod3el
ement
sshow var
iat
ion
acr
osstheperi
od.

Proper t
ies:
i
.React ionwithwater.
Procedur e:
-At esttubeishalffi
ll
edwithwat erandini
ti
alt
emperatureofthewaterrecorded.
-Aspat ulaendfullofsodi
um chlorideisaddedandsti
rreduntili
tdi
ssolves.
-Thehi ughesttemperatur
eat t
ainedwhenal lt
hesoli
ddi ssol
vesisrecoredandthetemperaturechange
calculated.
-Two–t hr
eedropsofuniversali
ndicatorar
eaddedandt hepHoft hesoluti
onnotedandrecorded.

Obser
vat
ions:
Obser vati
ons
Chl
ori
de o
Sol
ubil
it
y Temperaturechange( C) pHofsolut
ion
Sodium chlori
de Dissol
ves Dr
opi ntemperatur
e 7
Magnesi um chlor
ide Dissol
ves Sl
ightincr
ease 6.
5
Aluminium chlori
de Hydrol
yzed Incr
eases 3
Sil
icon(IV)oxide Hydrol
yzed Incr
eases 2
Phosphor us(I
II)
Hydr
olyzed I
ncr
eases 2
chlori
de
Phosphor us(V)chlor
ide Hydr
olyzed I
ncr
eases 2

Explanati
ons.
 Sodi um andmagnesi um chlori
des.
-Sodi um chlori
dedissolvesi nwatercausingasl
ightdropintemperature.
-Magnesi um dissolvesreadi l
ywithasmal li
ncr
easei ntemperat
ure.
-Bot hchl ori
desarei onicandwhenaddedt owat erther
ei sani mmedi at
eat t
ract
ionofpol
arwat
er
mol ecul
esf orionsinthechl ori
des.
onssuchasNa+(aq)andCl-
-Thesol i
dt husreadilydissolvesformingaquat
edi ( .
aq)
-Thesear esepar at
emet alandnon- metali
onssurroundedbypolarwat ermolecules.
+ -
-Sincether eisnopr oductionofeitherH orOH ionsthesolut
ionsareneut r
al.

Equations:
+ -
NaCls)+H2O(
( )→ Na(
l aq)+Claq)+H2O(
( l.
)

2+ -
MgCls)+H2O(
2( l)→ Mg (aq)+2Cl
(aq)+H2O(
l.
)

 Anhydrousaluminium chl
ori
de.
-I
texi
tsi
nmol ecul
arform asadimeri
cmol
ecul
eofAl2Cl
6.
-Thedimer
icmol eculeisformedwhenalumini
um chlor
ide(
AlCl
3)mol
ecul
esvapourcondenseand
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
combi
nef
ormi
ngl
argermol
ecul
esofAl
2Cl
6.

Di
agr
am:For
mat
ionofadi
meri
nal
umi
nium chl
ori
de.

-Whenaddedt owateral
umini
um chl
orideishydrolyzedtofor
m anaci di
csolut
ion.
-Bysodoingitbehavesl
ikeacoval
entchlori
deratherthananionicchlori
de.
-Thehydr ol
ysi
si sanexothermicreacti
onaccompani edbyr eleaseofheathencet
hei
ncr
easei
n
temper
ature.

Expl
anati
ons.
3+
-Thehydrol
ysisisduetothever
ysmal lbuthi
ghlychar
gedalumini
um i
on,Al .
3+
-TheAl dr awselectr
onsawayf rom i
tssurroundi
ngwatermolecul
esandcausesthem t
ogiveupH+
i
ons.
-Thi
sreacti
onusual l
yinvol
vesalumini
um ionscombini
ngwi t
hsixwatermolecul
est
oform hexa-
aqua-
al
uminium (
III
)ionswhichdi
ssoci
at et
ogiveH+.

Equati
on:
3+ 2+ +
[
Al(H2O)6](aq)→ [
Al(
H2O)
5(OH)
] aq)+H (
( aq)

Note:
Thisreactioncanbesi mpli
fi
edasf ol
lows:
-Aluminium chlori
der eacti
ngwi thwat erandhydr ol
yzingt ogiveHClaq)a
( soneoft
hepr
oduct
s.
 Equat ion:Al2Cl
6(s)+6H2O(l)→ 2Al(OH) aq)+6
3( HCl (
aq)
-Thent heHCldi ssociatestogiveH+andCl -
+ -
 Equat ion:6HCl(aq)→ H (
aq)+C l(
aq)
-I
tisther esulantH+t
t hatconfert hesoluti
oni tsaci
dicpr oper
ties.

 Sil
icon(IV)chlori
de
-Under
goeshydr olysisi
nwat eri
nanexother mi
creact
ionproduci
ngal otofheat.
-Theproductsofthehydr ol
ysisaresi
li
con( I
V)oxi
desolidandhydrogenchlori
degas.
-Thehydrogenchl or
idegasimmedi at
elydissol
vesi
nthewat ert
oform hydrochl
ori
cacid.
+
-Thehydrochlori
caciddissociat
edtoli
berateH whichleadstoaci
dicconditi
ons.

Equations:
Si
Cl s)+2
4( H2O(l)→ SiO2(s)+4HCl(aq)
+ -
Then:4HCl aq)→ 4
( H (aq)+4Cl( .
aq)

 Phosphor us(II
I)chl
ori
deandphosphor us(V)chloride
-Bothundergohydr ol
ysisi
nwat eri
nanexot her
micreact i
onproduci
ngal otofheat.
-Thepr oductsoft hehydrolysi
sar ephosphorus(II
I)aci dandphosphoric( V)aci
dr espect
ivel
y,and
hydrogenchlori
degas.
-Thehydrogenchl ori
degasimmedi atel
ydissol
vesinthewat ert
oform hydrochlor
icaci
d.
+
-Thehydrochlori
caciddissociat
edtol i
ber
ateH whichl eadstoaci
dicconditi
ons.

Equat i
ons:
 Wi thphosphor us( I
II
)chl ori
de:
PCl s)+2
3( H2O(l)→ H3PO3(s)+3HCl (
aq)
H+(aq)+3Cl-
Then:3HCl aq)→ 3
( ( .
aq)
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

 Withphosphor us( V)chlor i

de:
PCl s)+4
5( H2O(l)→ H3PO4(s)+5HCl (
aq)
+ -
Then:5HClaq)→ 5
( H (aq)+5Cl( .
aq)

Tr
endsi
nbondt
ypesandpr
oper
ti
esofchl
ori
desofel
ement
sinper
iod3
Per
iod3chl
ori
de
Pr
oper
ty
For
mul
a NaCl MgCl
2 Al
2Cl
6 Si
Cl4 PCl
3&PCl
5 SCl
2

Physi
cal Sol
id Sol
id Sol
id Li
qui
d Li
qui
d Li
qui
d
st
ateatRT
o
M.P( C) 801 714 Subli
mesat -
70 Subli
mesat- -78
180oC 94oC
o
B.
P( C) 1467 1437 - 57 - Decomposes
at57oC
Conduct
ivi
ty Good Good [Link] ni
l ni
l Nil

St
ruct
ure Gi
anti
oni
c Gi
anti
oni
c Molecular Mol
ecul
ar Mol
ecul
ar Mol
ecul
ar
dimer
Bondt
ype I
oni
c I
oni
c Ioni
c/ Coval
ent Coval
ent Coval
ent
covalent
Ef
fecton Readi
ly Readi
ly Hydrolyzed Hydr
olyzed Hydr
olyzed Hydr
olyzed
water di
ssol
ves di
ssol
ves togiveHCl t
ogiveHCl t
ogiveHCl t
ogiveHCl
fumes f
umes f
umes f
umes
pHof 7 6.
5 3 2 2 2
sol
uti
on

Summar
y:Char
act
eri
sti
csofbonds
Pr
oper
ty Substanceswith
Covalentbonds I
onicbonds Metall
icbonds
El
ect
ri
calconduct
ivi
ty Non-
conductor
sexcept -Sol
idsdonotconduct . -Conduct
s
gr
aphit
e -Aqueoussol ut
ionsand
molt
enst ateconduct

Ther
malconduct
ivi
ty -Non-conduct
orsexcept -Donotconduct -Conduct
s
graphi
te

Mel
ti
ngpoi
nt(
oC) -Lowf ormolecul
ar -Usual
lyhi
gh. -Gener
all
yhi
gh
substances
-Highforgiantat
omic
str
uctures

Boi
li
ngpoi
nt(
oC) -Lowf ormolecul
ar -Usual
lyhi
gh -Gener
all
yhi
gh
substances
-Highforgiantat
omic
str
uctures

Sol
ubi
li
ty -Generall
yinsolubl
ein -General
lysol
ubl
ein -Somemet
alsr
eactwi
th
waterbutsolubl
ein water water
or
ganicsolvents
Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)
UNIT5:SALTS.
[Link] ng.
[Link] ts:
 Nor malsal ts
 Aci dsal ts
 Basi csalts
 Doubl esalts.
[Link]
tyofsal tsinwater
 Sul phat es
 Chl or i
des
 Ni trates
 Car bonat es
 Sodi um, potassi
um andammonium sal
ts
[Link]
tyofbasesi nwater
.
[Link] ystals
[Link] i
onofsal ts
 I nsolublesal t
 Doubl edecomposi
ti
on
 Sol ubl esalts
Asodi um, potassium andammonium sal
ts

Anon- potassi um, sodi

um andammoni
um sal
t.
Thatreactswi thwat er
Dir
ectsynt hesi s
Thatdoesnotr eactwithwater
Acidandmet almet hod
Acid+basemet hod
Neutr
al i
zation
[Link] ts
[Link]
onofheatonsal ts
 Car bonat es
 Ni tr
at es
 Sul phat es.











 .
..
..







Hi
ghschoolnot
es~0714497530(
isabokemi
cah@gmai
l.
com)

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