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Chapter 14
Oscillations
Non Periodic Motion
The motion which is non-repetitive .
e.g. rectilinear motion , motion of a projectile.

Periodic Motion
A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic
motion.
e.g. uniform circular motion , orbital motion of planets in the solar system.

Oscillatory Motion
Periodic to and fro motion is called oscillatory motion.
e.g. motion of a cradle , motion of a swing, motion of the pendulum of a
wall clock.
Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but every periodic motion need not be
oscillatory.

Oscillations and Vibration

There is no significant difference between oscillations and vibrations.
When the frequency is small, we call it oscillation.
[Link] oscillation of a branch of a tree
When the frequency is high, we call it vibration.
e.g. The vibration of a string of a musical instrument.
Period and frequency
Period (T)
The period T is the time required for one complete oscillation, or cycle.
Its SI unit is second.
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Frequency
The frequency ν of periodic or oscillatory motion is the number of
oscillations per unit time.
It is the reciprocal of period .
𝟏
𝛎=
𝐓
The SI unit of ν is hertz ( Hz).
(In honor of the discoverer of radio waves, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz)
1Hz =1oscillation per second =1s−1
Example
On an average a human heart is found to beat 75 times in a minute.
Calculate its frequency and period.
75
The beat frequency of heart , ν =
1min
75
=
60 s

= 1.25 s−1 = 1.25 Hz

1
The time period ,T =
1.25

T = 0.8 s
Displacement

The distance from mean position is called displacement ( x)

At mean position displacement x= 0 and at extreme position x= ±𝑨
A is called amplitude of oscillation.
Amplitude
The maximum displacement from the mean poition is called amplitude (A)
of oscillation.
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Mathematical Expression for Displacement

The displacement can be represented by a mathematical function of time.
It can be a sine function, cosine function or a linear combination of sine and
cosine functions.
f (t) = A cos ωt or
f (t ) = A sin ωt.
f (t) = A sin ωt + B cos ωt
Where A = Amplitude
ω=angular frequency
𝟐𝛑
ω= or ω= 𝟐𝛑𝛎
𝐓

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion is the simplest form of oscillatory motion.
Simple harmonic motion is the motion executed by a particle subject to a
force, which is proportional to the displacement of the particle and is
directed towards the mean position.

Mathematical expression for an SHM

Consider a particle vibrating back and forth about the origin of x-axis,
between the limits +A and –A.
If the motion is simple harmonic ,its position can be represented as a
function of time.
x (t) = A cos (ωt + 𝛟)
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Phase
The time varying quantity, (ωt + ϕ), is called the phase of the motion.
It describes the state of motion at a given time.
Phase Constant
The constant ϕ is called the phase constant (or phase angle). The value
of ϕ depends on the displacement and velocity of the particle at t = 0.
The phase constant signifies the initial conditions.

A plot of displacement as a function of time for ϕ = 0.

x (t) = A cos (ωt )

The curves 1 and 2 are for two different amplitudes A and B.

The curve 3 , for ϕ = 0 , x (t) = A cos (ωt )

The curve 4 , for ϕ = -π/4 , x (t) = A cos (ωt - π/4)
The amplitude A is same for both the plots
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Plots of for 𝛟 = 0 for two different periods.

Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion

Consider a particle P in uniform circular motion.

The projection of particle along a diameter of the circle is x(t) .
x(t)
From figure, cos (ωt + ϕ) =
A

x(t) = A cos (ωt + 𝛟) -----------------(1)

This equation represents a Simple Harmonic Motion.
i. e, the projection of uniform circular motion on a diameter of the circle is in
Simple Harmonic Motion.
Velocity in Simple Harmonic Motion

The magnitude of the velocity of the particle is ωA ;

its projection on the x-axis gives the velocity of SHM
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Displacement in SHM is , x = A cos (ωt + ϕ)

Velocity in SHM can be obtained by differentiating x.
d
v= x
dt
d
= [A cos (ωt + ϕ)]
dt

=A 𝑥 – sin (ωt + ϕ) 𝑥 ω
v = – ωA sin (ωt + 𝛟)
sin2 (ωt + ϕ) = 1 − cos 2 (ωt + ϕ)

sin (ωt + ϕ) = √1 − cos 2 (ωt + ϕ)

v =–ωA √1 − cos2 (ωt + ϕ)

v =–ω√A2 − A2 cos 2 (ωt + ϕ)

(x = A cos (ωt + ϕ))

v = – ω√𝐀𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟐 ------------(2)
Case 1 -At Mean position
x =0
v = ω√A2 − 0
v = ω𝐀
Velocity is maximum At Mean position

Case 2 -At extreme position

x=A
v= ω√A2 − A2
v= 0.
The velocity is minimum at extreme positions.
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Acceleration in SHM

The radial acceleration of Particle is is ω2 A .

Its projection on the x-axis gives the
acceleration in SHM.

Acceleration in SHM can be obtained by differentiating velocity in SHM.

dv
a=
dt
d
a= – ωA sin (ωt + ϕ)
dt

a=– ωA cos (ωt + ϕ) x ω

a=– ω2 A cos (ωt + ϕ)
x = A cos (ωt + ϕ)

a=– 𝛚𝟐 x -------------(3)
In SHM, the acceleration is proportional to the displacement and is always
directed towards the mean position.
Case 1 -At Mean position
x=0
a=– ω2 x

a=0
Magnitude of acceleration is minimum at mean position.
Case 2 -At extreme position
x=A
a=– ω2 x

a=– 𝛚𝟐 A
The acceleration is maximum at extreme positions.
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The variation of particle displacement, velocity and acceleration in

a simple harmonic motion

Force Law for Simple Harmonic Motion

F = ma
a=– ω2 x
F = –m ω2 x

F = –kx -------------(4)
𝐤
Where k= m ω2 ; 𝛚𝟐 = 𝐦

𝐤
𝛚=√
𝐦

The force in SHM is proportional to the displacement and its direction is

opposite to the direction of displacement. Therefore, it is a restoring force.
Note:
• The centripetal force for uniform circular motion is constant in
magnitude, but the restoring force for SHM is time dependent.
• Since the force F is proportional to x such a system is also referred to as
a linear harmonic oscillator.
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Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

A particle executing simple harmonic motion has kinetic and potential
energies, both varying between the limits, zero and maximum.
Kinetic Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
1
K = mv 2
2
1
K = mv 2
2

v= – ω√A2 − x 2
v 2 = ω2 (A2 − x 2 )
𝟏
K =𝟐 𝐦𝛚𝟐 (𝐀𝟐 − 𝐱 𝟐 ) ----------------(5)
Case 1 -At mean position
x=0
1
K = mω2 (A2 − 0)
2
𝟏
K = 𝐦𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐
𝟐
KE is maximum At Mean position
Case 2 -At extreme position
x=A
1
K = mω2 (A2 − A2 )
2

K= 0.
KE is minimum At extreme positions.
Thus the kinetic energy of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is
periodic, with period T/2.

Potential Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

1
U = kx 2
2
k= m ω2
𝟏
U = m𝛚𝟐 𝐱 𝟐 ----------------(6)
𝟐
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Case 1 -At Mean position

x=0
1
U = mω2 x 2
2
U =𝟎
PE is minimum At Mean position
Case 2 -At Extreme position
x=A
𝟏
U = m𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐
𝟐

PE is maximum At extreme positions.

Thus the potential energy of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is
also periodic, with period T/2.

The Total Energy in SHM

E=U+K
1 1
E = mω2 x 2 + mω2 (A2 − x 2 )
2 2
1 1 1
E = mω2 x 2 + mω2 A2 − mω2 x 2
2 2 2
𝟏
E = 𝟐 m𝛚𝟐 𝐀𝟐 ---------------(7)
The total mechanical energy of a harmonic oscillator is a constant or
independent of time.

Variation of Potential energy , kinetic energy K and the total energy E with
time t for a linear harmonic oscillator
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At what position the KE of a simple harmonic oscillator becomes

equal to its potential energy?
KE =PE
1 1
mω2 (A2 − x 2 ) = mω2 x 2
2 2

A2 − x 2 = x2
2
A2 = 2x
2 A2
x =2
𝐀
x=
√𝟐

Some Systems Executing Simple Harmonic Motion

There are no physical examples of absolutely pure simple harmonic motion.
In practice we come across systems that execute simple harmonic motion
approximately under certain conditions.
Oscillations due to a Spring

The small oscillations of a block of mass m fixed to a spring, is fixed

to a rigid wall is an example of SHM.
The restoring force F acting on the block is, F (x) = –k x
k, is called the spring constant.
A stiff spring has large k and a soft spring has small k.
Equation is same as the eqn for force in SHM and therefore the spring
executes a simple harmonic motion.
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Period of Oscillations of a Spring

Restoring force, F = –k x
Where k= mω2
k
ω2 =
m

k
ω=√
m
2π 2π
Period, T= =
ω
√k
m

𝐦
T = 𝟐𝛑√ 𝐤

Example
A 5 kg collar is attached to a spring of spring constant 500 N 𝑚−1 . It slides
without friction over a horizontal rod. The collar is displaced from its
equilibrium position by 10.0 cm and released. Calculate
(a) the period of oscillation,
(b) the maximum speed and
(c) maximum acceleration of the collar.

(a) The period of oscillation as given by

m
T = 2π√
k

5
T = 2π√
500

1
T = 2x 3.14 x
10

= 0.63 s

(b) The velocity of the collar executing SHM is

v = – ω√A2 − x 2
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Maximum speed, v= Aω (at mean position ,x=0)

k
ω=√
m

k
v = A√
m

A=10cm = 0.1m
500
v = 0.1 x√
5

v= 0.1 x10 =1 m/s

(c) Acceleration in SHM
a=– ω2 x
Maximum acceleration, a= ω2 A (at extreme position)
k
ω2 =
m
k
a= A
m
500
a= x 0.1
5

a=10m/s2

The Simple Pendulum

A simple pendulum consists of a particle of mass m ( bob ) suspended from

one end of an unstretchable, massless string of length L fixed at the other
end.
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Period of Oscillations of a Simple Pendulum

The radial component, mg cos𝛉 is cancelled by the tension,T.

The tangential component, mg sinθ produces a restoring torque,
τ = –L (mg sinθ ) --------------(1)
(Where the negative sign indicates that the torque acts to reduce θ.)
L= length of simple pendulum.
For rotational motion we have,
τ = I α -----------------(2)
α is angular acceleration.
From eqn (1) and (2)
I α = –L mg sinθ
–mgL
α= sinθ (since θ is very small, sinθ≈θ)
I
–mgL
α= θ ---------------(3)
I

Acceleration of SHM , a=– ω2 x -------------------(4)

Comparing eqns (3) and (4)
mgL
ω2 = I
I =mL2
mgL
ω2 = mL2
g
ω2 =
L
g
ω=√
L
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2π 2π
Period, T= =
ω g
√
L

𝐋
T = 𝟐𝛑√𝐠
Example
What is the length of a simple pendulum, which ticks seconds (seconds
pendulum) ?
L
T = 2π√
g
l
T 2 = 4π2
g

T2 g
L=
4π2

For seconds pendulum ,T = 2s

22 x 9.8
L=
4 x 3.142

L=0.994≈ 1m

Damped Simple Harmonic Motion

Periodic oscillations of gradually decreasing amplitude due to external
forces, are called dampes simple harmonic motion
The damping force is given by Fd = −bv
where v is the velocity of the oscillator
b is a damping constant.
The restoring force Fr = −kx
Total force, F = −kx − bv
ma =−kx − bv
ⅆ𝟐 𝐱 ⅆ𝐱
m ⅆ𝐭𝟐 + 𝐛 + 𝐤𝐱 = 𝟎
ⅆ
Solving this equation, the displacement of the oscillator is given by,
x (t) = 𝐀ⅇ−𝐛𝐭/𝟐𝐦 cos (ω′ t + ϕ)
The angular frequency of the damped oscillator ,
𝐤 𝐛𝟐
ω′=√𝐦 − 𝟒𝐦𝟐
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Displacement as a function of time in damped harmonic oscillations

The Energy of a Damped Oscillator

The total mechanical energy of an undamped oscillator is constant and is
given by
1
E = kA2
2

The total mechanical energy of a damped oscillator is ,

𝟏
E = 𝟐 k𝐀𝟐 ⅇ−𝐛𝐭/𝐦
The total energy of a damped oscillator decreases exponentially with time.
Free Oscillations
If an oscillator is displaced and released, it begins to oscillate with its natural
frequency (ω). Such oscillations in the absence of an external force are
called free oscillations. Due to dissipative forces, the free oscillations cannot
be sustained.
E.g, A person swinging in a swing without anyone pushing it .
A simple pendulum, displaced and released.
Forced Oscillations
If a periodic force is applied to a free oscillator to sustain its oscillations, it
will oscillate with the frequency of driving force (𝝎𝒅 ). Such oscillations are
called forced or driven oscillations.
E.g.,while swinging in a swing if you apply a push periodically by
pressing your feet against the ground, you can maintain oscillations
and can increase amplitude.
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Resonance
The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when the driving frequency(𝝎𝒅 )
is equal to the natural frequency (𝝎) of the oscillator is called resonance.

At resonance, 𝝎 = 𝝎𝒅
The variation of amplitude of a forced oscillator with angular frequency at
resonance

Some daily life phenomena which involve resonance:

• You can swing to greater heights ,if the rhythm of pushing against the
ground is equal to the natural frequency of the swing.
• At Tacoma Narrows Bridge at , Washington, USA winds produced a
pulsating resultant force in resonance with the natural frequency of the
structure. This caused a steady increase in the amplitude of oscillations
until the bridge collapsed.
• The marching soldiers break steps while crossing a bridge to avoid
resonance condition.
• Aircraft designers make sure that none of the natural frequencies at
which a wing can oscillate match the frequency of the engines in flight.
• In an earthquake, short and tall structures remain unaffected while the
medium height structures fall down. This happens because the natural
frequencies of the short structures happen to be higher and those of
taller structures lower than the frequency of the seismic waves.

Seema Elizabeth
MARM GHSS Santhipuram