OCEANOGRAPHY/HYDROLOGY This field of

science studies the marine and freshwater domains of the

hydrosphere.
GLACIOLOGY studies the ice and icy parts of the Earth
known as the cryosphere, and its effects to the
environment.
ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES study of the gaseous parts
of the Earth, known as the atmosphere.
Field of study that brings together the natural sciences,
particularly astronomy and physics, in a joint effort to
understand the physical universe as a unified whole.
Cosmology studies how the history of the universe led to
the stars, galaxies, and other features we can observe
today.
Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years
old.
• The universe as we currently know it comprises all
space and time, and all matter & energy in it.
• Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most
abundant elements.
Galaxy is a cluster of billions of stars and clusters of
galaxies form superclusters. In between the clusters is
practically an empty space.
Big bang proponents suggest that some 10 billion to 20
billion years ago, a massive
blast allowed all the universe’s known matter and energy
—even space and time themselves—to spring from some
ancient and unknown type of energy.

A Belgian priest named Georges Lemaitre first

suggested the Big Bang Theory in the 1920s when he
theorized that the universe began from a single primordial
atom.
Edwin Hubble was a man who changed our view o
BACKGROUND f the Universe. In 1929 he showed that
galaxies are moving away from us with a speed
proportional to their distance.

COSMIC MICROWAVE (CMB)

STEADY STATE THEORY- During the time when the
big bang theory was still being established, Fred Hoyle
and his colleagues, Hermann Bondi and Tommy Gold,
proposed another theory on the origin of the universe.
Steady state cosmology – matter is constantly created as
the universe expands.
Big bang cosmology – matter dilutes as the universe
expands.
Eduard Suess, an Austrian geologist first substantiated
that there had once been a land bridge connecting South
America, Africa, India, Au stralia, and Antarctica.
Continental drift theory - Alfred Wegener
“All Earth” Pangaea
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. It is the
thinnest layer, ranging from about 5 to 70 kilometers in
thickness.
the mantle is the layer beneath the Earth's crust. It is the
thickest layer, extending from the base of the crust to a
depth of approximately 2,900 kilometers.
The core is the innermost layer of the Earth, situated
beneath the mantle. It is divided into two distinct regions:
the outer core and the inner core.
the biosphere comprises of all living organisms, from the
smallest bacteria to the largest whale. Plants, animals, and
single-celled organisms are all part of the biosphere
The lithosphere is basically the rocky crust of the Earth. It
is inorganic and is composed mainly of different kinds of
minerals. This is the outer part of the Earth, including
both the uppermost mantle and the crust. The mantle
surrounds the core and lies beneath the crust.
Hydrosphere this is composed of all the waters, which
circulates in the Earth. This includes the oceans, seas,
rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air. Oceans
cover 71 percent of water.
The atmosphere is the mass of air surrounding our planet.
It is subdivided into different layers of different densities.
A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid
and stable at room temperature.
International Mineralogical Association (IMA). As of
July, 2015, there are 5048 valid species of minerals in the
list.
Habit - the typical outward appearance of a mineral's
crystal form.
Crystal Structure - formation of the mineral according to
its chemical composition.
Mineral Splitting – Some minerals have a tendency to
split or crack along parallel or flat planes.
Cleavage - the tendency of minerals to break along the
planes of weakness - splitting between two (2) atomic
planes - result of weaker bond strengths or greater lattice
spacing across the plane in question
Fracture - the resulting surface of a mineral after
experiencing cleavage and/or parting - can also result
from breaking a mineral outside its cleavage points.
Luster/Lustre - property of a mineral to reflect light -
describes how brilliant or dull it is. Metallic luster looks
like a shiny metal such as chrome, steel, silver, or gold.
Metallic minerals are also always opaque. Non-metallic
minerals may be shiny and reflect light, however, they do
not look like a metal.
Specific Gravity - Specific gravity is the measure of a
mineral's density.
Hardness - the resistance of a mineral to scratching. This
is controlled by the bond strength between its atoms.
Color - the most conspicuous property of a mineral and is
used to identify them.
Streak – the colour of a mineral in its powdered form.
Diaphaneity - refers to a mineral’s ability to transmit
light.
Mineral: Mineral is a homogenous naturally occurring
substance with a definable internal structure. They are
created naturally without any human interference.
Mineral Ore: A mineral ore is a naturally occurring
material having one or more minerals in sufficient
concentration mixed with other elements. Specifically, the
minerals which contain a high percentage of the metal, i.e.
the mineral from which a metal can be profitably
extracted is called an ore.
Line of difference: Mineral is a naturally occurring
substance but a mineral ore is the concentration of
minerals in the rock. So we can say that all ores are
minerals, but all minerals are not necessarily ores.
Placer mining is a collection of mining methods that use
water to separate re from the surrounding sediment.
Underground mining involves opening one or more
portals or shafts into the earth that follow or intercept coal
seams that are too deep for surface mining methods.
Surface mining technique that extracts minerals from an
open pit in the ground.
The constant deformation and rebuilding those cycles in
the planet is what we refer to as Earth’s geomorphic
processes.
Geo means Earth and morph means form; thus, these
are the processes that shaped our planet to what we know
of it today
Endogenic processes are the processes that occur below
the surface of the Earth. (inner internal)
Exogenic processes, occurs above the Earth’s surface
(outer external)
Diastrophic forces refer to forces generated by the
movement of the solid material of the earth’s crust.
orogenic processes involving mountain building through
severe folding and affecting long and narrow belts of the
earth’s crust. (horizontal)
epeirogeny processes involving uplift or warping of large
parts of the earth’s crust.
earthquakes involving local relatively minor movements.
(vertical)
Magma is a molten and semi-molten rock mixture found
under the surface of the Earth.
Basaltic magma - is formed through dry partial melting
of the mantle.
Rhyolitic magma - forms as a result of wet melting of
continental crust.
Andesitic magma - is formed through wet partial melting
of the mantle.

Weathering refers to the breaking or decomposition of

rocks due to external factors that can be caused by
climate, weather, chemical compounds, or living
organisms.

Physical weathering (decay of rocks due to weather

elements such as high temperature or extreme cold),
Chemical weathering (decomposition due to chemical
changes in the mineral), and
Biological weathering (breaking of rocks brought by
living organisms)

Erosion refers to the movement of rocks, debris, and other

products of weathering, from one location to another.
Mass wasting refers to the movement of rocks due to the
force of gravity.
Landslides are the most common mass wasting
occurrence, which can result to catastrophic
consequences.
Deposition is geological process which involves the
addition of sediments, soil and rocks to a land mass.
direct consequence of erosion,
Sedimentation is the deposition of rock fragments, soil,
organic matter,
Earthquake is the underground shaking of
the Earth produced by the rapid release of
elastic energy stored in rock that has been
subjected to great forces.
Adaptation – any structure, behavior, or internal process
that allows response to a stimulus.
Evolution – gradual accumulation of adaptations over
time.
In 1859, Charles Darwin published “On the
Origin of Species” in which he made two
major points on evolution:
Stimulus – any condition in the environment that requires
an organism to adjust
Response – reaction to stimulus All organisms maintain
stable internal conditions such as body temperature and
water content
Homeostasis – stable level of internal conditions
Unicellular – organism is made up of one cell. Example:
bacteria streptococcus pyogenes which commonly cause
acute pharyngitis or a sore throat
Multicellular – organism is made up of more than one
cell. We, humans, are multicellular and our cells are
differentiated.

Cells can be differentiated – different cells in one

organism have different functions.
Chemical – atoms combined to form molecules
Cellular – cells are made of molecules
Tissue – consists of similar types of cells
Organ – made up of different types of tissues
Organ system – consists of different organs that work
closely together
Organismal – made up of the organ systems

Metabolism – the chemical process by which a plant or

an animal uses food, water, etc., to grow and heal and to
make energy
Catabolism – the breakdown of food components (such
as carbohydrates, proteins and dietary fats) into their
simpler forms, which can then be used to provide energy
and the basic building blocks needed for growth and
repair.

Anabolism – the part of metabolism in which our body is

built or repaired.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) – contains the hereditary

material of a cell; the blueprint of reproduction, growth,
and development.
Growth – an increase in the amount of living material
Development – all changes that an organism undergoes in
its lifetime
Ecology – the study of the interaction of organisms with
their environment.
Abiotic factors – non-living factors such as air, water,
energy, soil, temperature, and minerals are needed for
survival
Biotic factors – include all living things on earth
Special Creation - Life-forms may have been put on
earth by supernatural or divine forces.
 Extraterrestrial Origin - Life may not have originated
on earth at all; instead, life may have infected earth from
some other planet. Also known as the theory of
panspermia.
Spontaneous Origin - Most scientists tentatively accept
the spontaneous origin. This theory states that living
organisms can originate from inanimate objects.