TOPIC 9

The structure and properties

of matter
9.1 Overview
Numerous videos and interactivities are embedded just where you need them, at the point of learning, in
your learnON title at [Link]. They will help you to learn the content and concepts covered
in this topic.

9.1.1 Why learn this?

There are millions of different substances in the world. Some, like water, occur naturally. Others, like paper
and plastic, are made in factories. Some substances, like sugar and blood, are made by living things. All
substances one have important thing in common; they are all made of the tiny building blocks of matter
that we call atoms.

LEARNING SEQUENCE
9.1 Overview 338
9.2 The history of the atom 340
9.3 The structure of the atom 344
9.4 It’s elementary! 347
9.5 Grouping elements 351
9.6 Compounds 355
9.7 Making molecules 359
9.8 Polymers 362
9.9 Mixed-up metals 364
9.10 Carbon — the stuff of life 367
9.11 Science TV 370
9.12 Review 372

DNA, the largest molecule in the human body, contains millions of atoms bonded together. Red spheres indicate
oxygen atoms, orange indicate phosphorus, blue indicate nitrogen, grey indicate carbon and white indicate
hydrogen.

338 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

What’s inside?
When you were little, you probably shook and squeezed your
birthday presents while they were still wrapped up to work out Trying to work out what atoms are like is
what was in them before you opened them. For many years, not easy when you can’t see them.
that was what it was like for scientists trying to understand
the properties and structure of matter and, in particular,
the atom.
1. What sort of information can you infer about a wrapped
present by shaking it or squeezing it?
2. Imagine that you have a brightly wrapped box with
something in it. Describe the different guessing techniques
that you would use to work out what is in the box without
opening it.

INVESTIGATION 9.1
How small are the bits that matter? How small are the bits?
AIM: To investigate division of matter Number Length of strip
You will need: of cuts (approximate)
a strip of paper cut from an A4 sheet (about 30 cm long) 0 30 cm
pair of scissors 1 15 cm
ruler
2 7.5 cm (easy?)
a lot of patience and care
a sense of humour 3
• Construct a table like the one 4
below and record the length 5
of the strip of paper. The first three cuts along the 6
• Cut the strip of paper in strip of paper 7
half across the middle. Put
one half aside. Measure the 8 1 mm (you’re doing well
length of the other half. to get this far!)
• Cut the measured half in 9
half again. Again, put one 10
half aside and measure and
12
record the length of the
other half. 14
• Before you go any further, 18 1 micron (1 millionth of
predict how many times you a metre, one thousandth
will be able to cut the strip of a millimetre)
in half. 22
• Continue this process until
26
you can no longer cut the
strip in half. 31 The size of a single atom

Discussion
1. How many cuts were you able to make? Was it more or fewer than your prediction?
2. Estimate the number of cuts you would need to make before the strip would be too small to see.
3. Estimate how many cuts you would be able to make if the strip you started with was
(a) 60 cm long and
(b) 1 metre long.
4. Do you think that the sharpness of the scissors has an effect on the outcome of this experiment? Explain
your answer.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 339

9.2 The history of the atom Atoms of silicon

Science as a human endeavour

9.2.1 The atom
All matter is made up of tiny particles that are called
atoms. In fact, atoms are so tiny that 24 million of the
smallest atoms would fit side by side in 1 centimetre, and
you could fit 120 000 atoms across the average human
hair! They are so small that we have only recently devel-
oped the technology that allows us to see them. Here you
can see the atoms in a sample of silicon in a photo taken
by a tunnelling electron microscope.
While such images provide solid evidence for the exist-
ence of atoms, the first recorded theories about these basic
building blocks of matter date from thousands of years ago.
So how did anyone even know what atoms were back then?

9.2.2 In the beginning …

The idea of the atom started with a thinking exercise that Democritus, a teacher and philosopher living in
Greece about 2500 years ago, gave to his students to discuss. Maybe it went something like the story below.
Democritus named these tiniest particles of matter atomos, which was the Greek word meaning ‘unable
to be divided’.

Imagine a twig that Now if I take one of

has fallen from a tree. those halves, could And can we split
Can we break it in half? I split that also in half? that half again?

Yes! Ummm ...

We suppose so.
yes?

Is there any limit to how In the end, I think that you would reach a stage where
many times we can split the you had something so tiny that it couldn’t be split
halves into other halves? any further. What do you think students?

You are so clever,

We don’t know. Democritus!

340 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

9.2.3 The nineteenth century
Over the next two thousand or so years, people argued over whether atoms actually existed. Even those
who believed in the idea of atoms had no real idea of what the atoms actually looked like, and there was a
general tendency to regard these mysterious little things as being very small solid balls of stuff, a bit like
very tiny marbles. It wasn’t until the beginning of the nineteenth century that scientists turned their atten-
tion to finding out whether atoms existed and what an atom actually looked like.

John Dalton (1766–1844)

John Dalton is considered to be a pioneer of modern atomic theories.
John Dalton
In his 20s and 30s, he experimented extensively on gases to learn more
about them and the particles they are made of. Based on his observations,
he arrived at a number of important conclusions about matter and atoms,
which he presented in 1803.
Dalton’s atomic theories
1. Matter is made up of atoms that are indivisible and indestructible.
2. All the atoms of an element are identical.
3. Atoms of different elements have different masses and different
chemical properties.
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole numbers to
form compounds.
5. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed in a chemical process. When a compound decomposes, the atoms
separate but are themselves unchanged.

9.2.4 Twentieth century on ...

JJ Thomson (1856–1940)
JJ Thomson experimented with electric charges and cathode ray tubes (which were used in the twentieth
century to produce pictures in television sets).
He suggested that the glow produced in the tube when electricity was passed through it was due to the
movement of small ‘corpuscles’. He believed these negatively charged particles to be parts of the atom
itself. Further experimentation with gases seemed to suggest that there were both negative and positive
charges in the atom. In 1904, he proposed an atomic model in which the atom was a sphere of positive
charge that had negative charges (which he called electrons) scattered through it, much like sultanas and
plums in a plum pudding. Not surprisingly, this is called the ‘plum pudding model’ of the atom.

JJ Thomson The ‘plum pudding’ model

Positive
charge

Negative
charges
(electrons)

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 341

9.2.5 Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937)
Rutherford’s vision of the atom came as the result of experiments he was doing in which he fired posi-
tive charges at gold atoms. He found that some of the positive charges could pass right through the atom
and, in some cases, the charges bounced right back. If Thomson’s model was correct, this would not have
happened.
Rutherford proposed a new model of the atom that explained his observations. In this model, the atom
was mostly empty space, with all of its positive charge in a clump in the centre (the nucleus). He thought
that the electrons moved around the nucleus in fixed orbits, much as planets do around the sun. For this
reason, Rutherford’s model is sometimes called the ‘planetary model’ of the atom.

Ernest Rutherford Rutherford’s model of the atom

Positive nucleus

Electron

9.2.6 Niels Bohr (1885–1962)

Niels Bohr saw that, if Rutherford’s model of the atom was correct, atoms would be very unstable and
matter would fall apart all the time, and this didn’t happen. Bohr’s model of the atom was a lot more com-
plicated but seemed to be consistent with what scientists observed, and it explained a lot of strange things
that science, up to then, hadn’t been able to explain.
Bohr agreed with Rutherford that the atom was mostly empty space and that most of the mass was in the
nucleus where the positive charges were located. However, he proposed that the electrons changed orbits
and so they formed electron clouds around the nucleus. In this model, it was impossible to predict exactly
where an electron was at a particular time.

Neils Bohr Bohr’s model of the atom

Orbital electrons Nucleus, containing

negatively charged positively charged
protons

342 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

9.2.7 James Chadwick (1891–1974)
British scientist James Chadwick and Ernest Rutherford noticed in their experiments that the overall mass
of the nucleus was much heavier than could be accounted for just by protons alone.
In 1932, Chadwick found proof of the existence of another type of particle in the nucleus — one that
was about the same size as the proton but that had no electrical charge. This was the neutron. Chadwick’s
discovery meant that the Bohr model of the atom had to be adjusted.

James Chadwick The Chadwick–Bohr model

And now?
At the moment, the Chadwick–Bohr model of the atom is the most consistent with what scientists observe
happening in experiments. However, there are still a few things that even this version cannot explain. One
day, a new model will be developed to explain what the present model cannot.

9.2 Exercise: Remember and think

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. Recall the important idea that Democritus had 2000 years ago about the substances that make up the
world.
2. Recall where the term ‘atom’ came from.
3. Recall which model of the atom is currently used.
4. Describe how Thomson’s model of the atom differed from that of Democritus.
5. Explain why the model of the atom has changed over the centuries.
6. Compare and contrast Rutherford’s and Bohr’s models of the atom.
7. Explain why Rutherford’s model is called the planetary model.

Think
8. In ancient Greece, scientists developed their theories by discussion rather than by doing formal experiments
to test their ideas. Assess what problems might arise from using only the ancient Greek approach to
science.
9. Why do you think that the neutron was the last of the components of the atom to be discovered?
10. Why has direct observation of the atom been impossible until now?

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 343

 Create
11. The table below shows when different events in the development of the atomic model occurred. Use these
dates to construct a timeline of the events. Remember that you will need to choose an appropriate scale!

Date Event
Fifth century BC Democritus proposed the existence of atoms.
1804 Dalton developed his theory of atoms and matter.
1897 JJ Thomson discovered the electron.
1911 Rutherford developed the planetary model of the atom.
1913 Bohr developed a model of the atom.
1919 The proton was discovered.
1932 The neutron was discovered.

Investigate
12. Bohr’s model of the atom is also called the quantum model. Find out what a quantum is.
13. Many of the scientists mentioned in Twentieth century won Nobel prizes for their work. Use the library and
the internet to discover who won a Nobel prize and for what discoveries.

9.3 The structure of the atom

9.3.1 The nucleus and electrons
We now know that an atom is made up of three types of particles: protons, neutrons and electrons.
Protons and neutrons are approximately the same size and are both found in the nucleus, or centre, of
the atom. While the proton has a positive electric charge, the neutron has no electric charge at all (neutral).
As both protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus, you may sometimes see these particles referred to
as nucleons.
Electrons are nearly 2000 times smaller than protons and carry a negative electric charge. These zoom
around the nucleus in constantly changing paths called orbits. While we show electrons in diagrams as
orbiting quite close to the nucleus, they are relatively far away. To give you an idea of the scale involved,
imagine that the nucleus of a hydrogen atom is a tennis ball that you have placed in the middle of a field —
the electron would have the diameter of a human hair and be positioned over 2 kilometres away from the
tennis ball.
Most of an atom is made up of empty space!!

Balancing act!
The electrons whiz around the nucleus in orbits, some closer to the nucleus than others, but they do not
fly off from the atom despite their great speed. This is because the negatively charged electrons are held in
their orbit by their electrical attraction to the positively charged protons in the nucleus.
An atom usually has equal numbers of positive protons and negative electrons so it has no overall elec-
tric charge.

INVESTIGATION 9.2
Atomic spaces
AIM: To demonstrate that most of an atom is empty space
You will need:
1 hula hoop
1 straw

344 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

 rice grains
cotton thread
table tennis ball
sticky tape
broom and dustpan
• Set up the equipment as shown in the diagram
at right.
• From across the room, but within target
distance, use the straw as a peashooter to fire
rice grains at the table tennis ball.
CAUTION: Ensure that the rice grains are not
fired towards any person.
• Count how many grains go right through and
how many hit the table tennis ball. (Note: Hits
to the cotton thread do not count!)
• Use the broom and dustpan to clean up the
mess you’ve left on the floor.
Discussion
1. Construct a bar graph to display your results.
2. Construct a bar graph to show the class results.
3. Which part of the atom does the table tennis ball represent?
4. What does the hula hoop represent?

9.3.2 An array of atoms

So far, 118 different types of atom have been identified. Not all of these atoms are found easily on Earth.
Some of them have been observed only under laboratory conditions and have existed for only fractions of
a second before breaking up.
The different atoms are made up of different combinations of protons, neutrons and electrons. Only 92
occur naturally. The smallest atom has a single proton in its nucleus, which is orbited by just one electron,
while the largest of the naturally occurring atoms has a giant nucleus of 92 protons and 146 neutrons with
92 electrons moving around it.

Structure of an atom — summary

Part of atom Where found Relative weight Charge

Proton Nucleus Heavy Positive

Neutron Nucleus Heavy Neutral (no charge)

Electron Around nucleus Light Negative

HOW ABOUT THAT!

Protons and neutrons are made up of different combinations of even smaller particles called quarks. Quarks
were first named by the American scientist Murray Gell-Mann in 1964. Gell-Mann named the first three quarks
‘up’, ‘down’ and ‘strange’, with another three, ‘bottom’, ‘top’ and ‘charm’, being identified later.
A proton is made of two ‘up’ quarks and one ‘down’ quark, while a neutron is made of two ‘down’ quarks
and one ‘up’ quark. The word quark can be pronounced to rhyme with either ‘mark’ or ‘cork’.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 345

 The models of the atom shown in this topic do not show accurately the relative sizes of electrons, protons and
neutrons; electrons are much smaller than those drawn here. Also, the size of the nucleus and the distance
between the nucleus and the electrons are not to scale. It is impossible to draw an accurate scale diagram
here. The diagram is used only to show how the protons, neutrons and electrons are arranged.

In the middle of the atom

is the nucleus. The nucleus
is made up of protons
and neutrons held tightly
together. The nucleus has a
positive charge because it
contains protons.

Protons are found in

the nucleus. They have
a positive charge and
are much heavier than
electrons.

Neutrons are found in

the nucleus and have no
charge (neutral). They
are much heavier than
electrons.

Electrons move around

the nucleus. They have a
negative charge. They are
much lighter than protons
and neutrons.

9.3 Exercise: Remember and think

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. Describe an atom.
2. Name the three parts of an atom and explain where they would be found.
3. Explain why electrons do not fly off an atom.
4. Recall what makes up most of an atom.

Think
5. If a neutral atom has 12 protons, calculate how many electrons it has.
6. What type of electric charge does the nucleus of every atom have?
7. Draw a diagram of an atom that has three protons and one neutron in its nucleus. How many electrons
would it have?

346 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

 Create
8. Construct a model of an atom. It should have at least six protons, six neutrons and six electrons. Use any
materials that you like. Perhaps try using a bowl of jelly with lollies in it to represent the parts of the atom!
Your model should have a key.

Investigate
9. Investigate what nanotechnology is and what connection it has with atoms.

9.4 It’s elementary! A page from a fourteenth century alchemy text

showing distillation being performed
9.4.1 The alchemists
In ancient Greece, scientific discovery was something
that was done by talking and theorising rather than by
performing experiments. However, in other parts of
the world such as China and the Middle East, people
were starting to take a more hands-on approach to
unlocking the world’s mysteries. These earliest inves-
tigations were done very differently from what we
now know as modern science and became the basis of
alchemy, the ancestor of modern chemistry.
Alchemy has been mentioned in writings dating
back thousands of years but it was especially influ-
ential in Europe between the twelfth and sixteenth
centuries. The alchemists of old were more magicians
than scientists though, and their experiments involved
not just combining ‘pure’ substances but also com-
plex combinations of gestures, chanted spells and the
drawing of arcane symbols. Experiments were per-
formed only at what they saw as critical times so the
alchemists also delved into astrology, believing that
certain alignments of stars and planets would help
their experiments succeed. The dearest wish of the
alchemists was to develop a process (called trans-
mutation) that turned base metals, such as lead and
copper, into gold, and to concoct an elixir that would
grant immortality. Not surprisingly, waving their
hands around and chanting was not terribly successful
in achieving either of these!
However, the alchemists did discover many impor-
tant things. While they noticed that some substances
such as gold and silver were usually found in their
most basic form, others such as carbon could be
derived from different substances altogether. By the
end of the sixteenth century, they had identified twelve substances that seemed to be ‘pure’ — gold, iron,
silver, sulfur, carbon, lead, mercury, tin, arsenic, bismuth, antimony and copper.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 347

9.4.2 The new science This table from the seventeenth-century
In about the seventeenth century, people stopped thinking text Opuscula chymica classifies known
about magic and instead carried out investigations based substances under the headings minerae
(minerals), metalla (metals), mineralia (ores),
on careful observations. These new seekers of knowledge
salia (salts), decomposita (inorganic materials),
were called scientists. They discovered that the twelve terrae (oxides), destillata (mineral acids), olea
pure substances that they knew of could not be broken (oils), limi (chalky minerals) and compositiones
down further into other substances. Scientists investigated (processes).
many common everyday substances as well, including
salt, air, rocks, water and even urine! They discovered that
nearly everything around us could be broken down into
other substances. They gave the name element to any sub-
stance that could not be broken down into other substances.
Between 1557 and 1925, another 76 elements were dis-
covered. We now know that 92 elements exist naturally. In
recent years scientists working in laboratories have been
able to make another 25 artificial elements. In total there
are now 118 known elements.

9.4.3 Element basics

An element is a substance that contains only one kind of
atom. As there are about 118 elements, this means that
there are only 118 types of atom that we know of so far.
What makes these atoms different from each other is that they are made up of different combinations of
protons, neutrons and electrons. It is the specific combination of these smaller particles in the different
atoms that gives each element its particular physical and chemical properties.
Just as no two people are the same, neither are any two elements. Elements can be distinguished by
looking at such characteristics as their:
• colour
• hardness and brittleness
• melting and boiling points
• density
• state (whether they are solid, liquid or gas at room temperature)
• reaction with acids or other chemicals.
Lithium, sodium and potassium are stored in oil to seal
9.4.4 The good, the bad and them away from air and moisture.
the ugly!
While many of the elements look pretty sim-
ilar — dull grey and metallic — they vary
enormously in their nature. Bismuth and gold
are beautiful to look at and are safe to handle
whereas mercury, a liquid metal that has fas-
cinated people for centuries, is toxic and has
disastrous effects on human nerve tissue.
Lithium, sodium and potassium are dull grey
metals that are so soft that they can be cut into
slices with a butter knife. However, they are

348 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

highly dangerous when they come into contact with water — they react so quickly and generate so much
heat that they burst explosively into flame. As even the moisture in the air is enough to set them off, they
are stored in oil.
Carbon takes on many different forms depending on how its atoms are arranged. It can be dull brittle
coal, which can be burned to produce heat; it can be the dull grey ‘lead’ that runs through the centre of your
pencil; or it can glitter like ice when it is in its diamond form.

INVESTIGATION 9.3
Checking out appearances
AIM: To investigate the characteristics of elements
You will need:
samples of chemical elements (such as carbon, sulfur, copper, iron, aluminium and silicon)
• Copy the table below into your notebook.
• Carefully examine each of the elements in the set; look for colour, appearance and hardness.
• Complete the table by filling in the description. One example is completed for you.

Element State Description

Hydrogen Gas Clear, colourless, explosive

HOW ABOUT THAT! Lewis Carroll’s Mad Hatter character in Alice’s

In days gone by, substances containing mercury were Adventures in Wonderland was mad because
used to make hats. In those days it was not known that mercury was used in the making of hats.
mercury is a very poisonous substance. Poisoning by
mercury can affect your nervous system and your mind.
This sometimes happened to people who made hats
and were exposed to mercury for a long time: hence the
expression ‘mad as a hatter’!

9.4.5 Chemical symbols

In our everyday lives, we tend to have a standard set of shorthand ways of writing common words. For
example, we write ‘St’ for ‘street’, ‘Mr’ for ‘mister’ and ‘e.g.’ instead of ‘for example’. In a similar way,
scientists use a standard shorthand way of writing the names of the elements. Each element is represented
by either a single capital letter or a capital letter followed by a lowercase letter — these are known as the
elements’ chemical symbols. The chemical symbols of some of the more common elements that you may
encounter are shown in the table at the top of the next page.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 349

 Element name Element symbol Element name Element symbol
Aluminium Al Mercury Hg
Carbon C Nitrogen N
Copper Cu Oxygen O
Gold Au Silicon Si
Helium He Silver Ag
Hydrogen H Sulfur S
Iron Fe Zinc Zn

Looking at this table, you can see that, in most cases, the chemical symbol was derived from the ele-
ment’s name, using either its first letter (e.g. H = hydrogen, O = oxygen) or the first letter and then the
second or third letter (e.g. He = helium, Si = silicon, Zn = zinc). But what about the symbols for gold,
copper, mercury, iron and silver?
Interestingly enough, these elements were among the first to have been identified and were usually
referred to by their Latin or Greek names by early scholars. As a result, their chemical symbols are based
on their classical names: aurum (gold), cuprum (copper), hydro argyros (mercury), ferrum (iron) and
argentum (silver).

9.4.6 Atoms and elements

Elements are identified according to how many protons their atoms have in their nuclei. This value is
referred to as the element’s atomic number. As an atom has the same number of electrons as protons, the
atomic number is also equal to the number of electrons that the neutral atom of an element has. The table
below shows the atomic numbers of the 10 lightest elements.

Chemical Number of Number of Number of

Element symbol Atomic number protons neutrons electrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 0 1
Helium He 2 2 2 2
Lithium Li 3 3 4 3
Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4
Boron B 5 5 6 5
Carbon C 6 6 6 6
Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7
Oxygen O 8 8 8 8
Fluorine F 9 9 10 9
Neon Ne 10 10 10 10

HOW ABOUT THAT!

Hydrogen was made during the big bang that started
the universe. The elements with atomic numbers
between 2 (helium) and 26 (iron) were created in
stars as part of the fusion process. When super-
massive stars become supernovae, elements
heavier than iron are formed and may be found in
the nebulae that are produced as a result. Planetary
nebulae such as the Ring Nebula shown here are
prime hunting grounds for astrophysicists and
astrochemists looking for these heavy elements.

350 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

 9.4 Exercise: Remember and think
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. Recall why sodium and potassium need to be stored under oil.
2. Describe the structure of an atom of boron.
3. Define the term ‘element’.
4. Why do scientists use chemical symbols?
5. State one harmful effect of (a) mercury and (b) sodium.

Think
6. At the entrances to many buildings there are safety signs warning of dangerous chemicals. Give one reason
for using chemical symbols on these signs rather than writing the warnings in full.
7. When platinum was discovered, it was assigned the chemical symbol Pt. Why wasn’t it given the chemical
symbol P?

Investigate
8. The element mercury was known to ancient people and was very important to the alchemists. Find out
all you can about this liquid metal. What does its name mean? Where is it found? What has it been used
for in the past? What is it used for now? What is the safety procedure if mercury is spilt? Why is mercury
dangerous?
9. Many years ago, balloons were filled with hydrogen so that they could float high in the sky. However,
hydrogen is no longer used in balloons because it explodes too easily. At fairs, carnivals and in florists’
shops, you can often buy colourful gas-filled balloons that fly high into the sky if you let them go. These
balloons are filled with another element called helium. Investigate who discovered the gas helium, where it
was discovered and when.
10. Wolfram, natrium, kalium and stannum are the original names for elements we know under different names.
Find out what their modern element names are, when they were discovered, what language their name
came from and the chemical symbols that they have been assigned.
11. Investigate who decides whether a new element has officially been discovered and what it should be
named.
12. Play the It’s elementary! revelation game in the Resources tab and test your ability to identify common
elements from their symbols.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Try out this interactivity: It’s elementary! revelation game (int-0229)

9.5 Grouping elements

9.5.1 The periodic table
During the nineteenth century, as scientists started to find more and more elements, they also started to find
that some elements could be grouped together because they had similar chemical or physical properties.
Scientists such as Robert Bunsen, John Newlands and Julius Lothar Meyer worked independently over
many years to create a system that classified and ordered the elements according to these groups. However,
it was not until 1869 that the Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev produced the first truly workable version
of what we now know as the periodic table. While about 60 of the 92 naturally occurring elements had
been identified at that time, the discovery since of new elements — some natural and some synthesised —
has expanded Mendeleev’s original table into the form you see now.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 351

 Looking at the common characteristics of the elements of the periodic table, scientists have divided the
elements into three main groups — the metals, the non-metals and the metalloids.

9.5.2 Metals
The metals have several features in common:
• They are solid at room temperature, except for mercury, which is a liquid.
• They can be polished to produce a high shine or lustre.
• They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
• They can all be beaten or bent into a variety of shapes — a property called malleability.
• They can be made into a wire; we say they are ductile.
• They usually melt at high temperatures. (Mercury, which melts at −40 °C, and gallium, which melts at
30 °C, are exceptions to this.)

9.5.3 Non-metals Buckets of sulfur mined from the top of

a volcano. Sulfur is a naturally occurring
Only 22 of the elements are non-metals. At room temper- non-metal.
ature, 11 of them are gases, 10 are solid and one is liquid.
The solid non-metals have most of the following features
in common:
• They cannot be polished to give a shine like metals; they
are usually dull or glassy.
• They are brittle, which means they shatter when they
are hit.
• They cannot be bent into shape.
• They are usually poor conductors of electricity and heat.
• They usually melt at low temperatures.
• Many of the non-metals are gases at room temperature.

9.5.4 Metalloids
Some of the elements in the non-metal group look like metals. One example is silicon. While it can be polished
like a metal, silicon is a poor conductor of heat and electricity and cannot be bent or made into wire. Those ele-
ments that have features of both metals and non-metals are called metalloids. There are eight metalloids alto-
gether: boron, silicon, arsenic, germanium, antimony, polonium, astatine and tellurium.

Metalloids are important materials often used in electronic

components of computer circuits.

352 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

INVESTIGATION 9.4
Looking for similarities
AIM: To determine properties of elements
You will need:
safety glasses
samples of sulfur, zinc, tin, carbon, silicon, copper
steel wool or very fine sandpaper
battery or power pack
wires with alligator clips
light globe
• Make a copy of the table below and use it to record your observations.

Characteristics of some elements

Element Shiny or dull? Does it bend? Does it conduct electricity?
Sulfur
Zinc
Tin
Carbon
Silicon
Copper

• Rub each of the elements with

the fine sandpaper and observe Connect your element sample into this circuit.
whether they are shiny or dull.
• Try to bend the metal.
• Connect the circuit shown in the Power supply
diagram at right to determine (transformer)
whether electricity passes through
each of the elements.

Discussion Lamp
1. Which of the six elements have a
shiny surface when polished?
2. Which of the six elements do
not have a shiny surface when Element to
polished? be tested
3. Which of the six elements can be
bent?
4. Which of the six elements cannot
be bent?
5. Which of the six elements allow
electricity to pass through? Contacts
6. Which of the six elements do not (alligator clips)
conduct electricity?
7. Attempt to divide the elements into two groups on the basis of your observations. Suggest names for these
two groups.
8. Which of the six elements tested does not seem to fit into either of these two groups?

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 353

 The periodic table
Elements 1–92 all occur naturally. Those from element 93 onwards have been made in laboratories and are all
radioactive. Those for element 104 onwards are not shown in this table.
Alkali Alkaline
metals earth metals Halogens Noble gases

Group 1 Group 2 Group 13 Group 14 Group 15 Group 16 Group 17 Group 18

Key
3 4 1 2 Atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lithium Beryllium Hydrogen Helium Name Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon
Period 2 Li Be H He B C N O F Ne
Period 1 Symbol
6.94 9.02 1.008 4.003 Relative atomic mass 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Sodium Magnesium Transition metals Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
Period 3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9 Group 10 Group 11 Group 12
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
Period 4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon
Period 5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 98.91 101.1 102.91 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.8 126.9 131.3
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Caesium Barium Lanthanides Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
Period 6 Cs Ba Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.22 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)

87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 Metals Non-metals
Period 7 Francium Radium Actinides Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium
Fr Ra Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn

Lanthanides
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanum Cerium Praseo-dymiumNeodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.91 140.122 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.4 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
2,8,18,18,9,2 2,8,18,20,8,2 2,8,18,21,8,2 2,8,18,22,8,2 2,8,18,23,8,2 2,8,18,24,8,2 2,8,18,25,8,2 2,8,18,25,9,2 2,8,18,27,8,2 2,8,18,28,8,2 2,8,18,29,8,2 2,8,18,30,8,2 2,8,18,31,8,2 2,8,18,32,8,2 2,8,18,32,9,2
Actinides
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(227) 232.04 231.04 238.03 237.05 (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (254) (257) (258) (255) (256)

9.5 Exercise: Remember and think

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. Recall four features that metals have in common.
2. Recall four features that non-metals have in common.
3. Define the term ‘metalloid’. List some examples.
4. Recall which metal is liquid at room temperature.
5. Define the term ‘metallic lustre’.
6. Identify some scientists who contributed to the development of the periodic table.
7. State the chemical symbols and atomic numbers of
(a) yttrium (b) tungsten (c) xenon
In each case, identify whether it is a metal, non-metal or metalloid.

Think
8. While all metals have similar characteristics, there are also differences between them. List three ways in
which metals can differ from each other.
9. Silicon is used in the ‘chips’ of computer circuits, but it is never used in the connecting wires of electric
circuits. Deduce why not.

Imagine
10. Imagine that you are a scientist who has discovered what appears to be a new element. It is golden in
colour and very shiny. Propose experiments to test if it is a metal or non-metal. What results would you
expect to get if it is a metal?

Investigate
11. Polonium is a metal discovered by Marie Curie. She also discovered another metal. Find out its name and
the important role it played in medicine.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 9.1: The periodic table: atomic structure (doc-12420)

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 9.2: Metals and non-metals (doc-12421)

354 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

9.6 Compounds
9.6.1 What is a compound?
If you have ever seen a gold nugget or watched liquid nitrogen being poured from a canister to freeze
things very quickly, then you have seen something quite rare — an actual isolated element. Think about all
of the millions of substances in the world. The cotton and wool of your clothes, the paper of your books,
the vinyl of your school bag, the plastic bags that you carry the groceries in, the things that you eat, the
things that you drink and so on — all of these things are actually made up of different combinations of
elements rather than pure elements on their own. In fact, most of the substances that we encounter on Earth
are either compounds or mixtures.

9.6.2 Elements and compounds

Most atoms found in nature are joined to atoms of other elements to form a compound. While an element
contains only one type of atom, a compound is made up of atoms of different elements bonded together.
A compound has very different properties from the elements from which it is made. For example, the
compound sodium chloride (table salt) is made up of sodium and chlorine atoms bonded together, but it has
very different properties from the elements sodium and chlorine when they are on their own.

The elements sodium and chlorine bond to make the compound sodium chloride.

+ =
Chlorine Sodium chloride
Poisonous White crystalline solid
Yellow-green gas Non-toxic
Sodium Highly reactive Melting point = 800 °C
Explosive Melting point = −101 °C Boiling point = 1413 °C
Soft, silver metal Boiling point = −34 °C
Highly reactive
Melting point = 98 °C
Boiling point = 883 °C

9.6.3 Compounds and mixtures

In topic 5, we looked at the concept of mixtures, which are made up of different pure substances mixed
together. You will recall that a pure substance is one that is made up of only one type of particle.
It is important to note that compounds and mixtures are not the same thing!
Mixtures can be made up of two or more elements, two or more compounds or a combination of ele-
ments and compounds. The substances that make up mixtures can usually be easily separated from each
other. When the parts of a mixture are separated, no new substances are formed. Fizzy soft drink is a good
example of a mixture. It contains water, gas, sugar and flavours. If you shake the soft drink, the gas bub-
bles separate from the water and go into the air. You still have the water in the bottle and the gas in the air;
they are just not mixed together any more. The parts of the mixture can be separated quite easily. The gas
escapes when the lid of the container is opened, and the water can be separated by evaporation, leaving
behind sugar and some other substances.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 355

 However, when a compound is formed, the atoms of different elements bond together. For example,
when the elements iron and sulfur are heated together they form a new compound called iron sulfide.
Once formed, it is extremely difficult to separate the iron sulfide into its basic elements again. This is quite
different from the relative ease with which we can separate the parts of a mixture.

INVESTIGATION 9.5
Making a compound from its elements
AIM: To show that a compound has different properties from its elements
You will need:
Lid
4–5 cm strip of clean, shiny magnesium ribbon. (It can
be coiled to fit in the crucible.)
crucible with lid Bunsen burner Magnesium
pipeclay triangle heatproof mat ribbon
tongs matches inside
safety glasses
Crucible
• Examine the piece of magnesium and note its
appearance before putting it in the crucible and
Pipeclay
covering it with the lid.
triangle
• Put the crucible on the pipeclay triangle as shown
in the diagram. Bunsen
• Heat the crucible with a strong blue flame, burner
monitoring the reaction by occasionally lifting the
lid a little with tongs.
Tripod
• When all the magnesium ribbon has been
changed, turn off the flame and leave the crucible
on the tripod to cool.

Discussion
1. Describe the substance in the crucible.
2. Is magnesium an element or a compound?
Give a reason for your decision.
3. Magnesium is one of the reactants in this
experiment. What is the other reactant?
4. Is the substance remaining in the crucible an element or a compound? What is its name?
5. What is the evidence that a new substance has been made?
6. Apart from observing whether the reaction is complete, give another reason for lifting the lid of the crucible a
little with tongs during the burning.

Some common substances

Substance Type Composed of: Scientific name
Gold Element Gold Gold
Diamond Element Carbon Carbon
Water Compound Hydrogen and oxygen Dihydrogen oxide
Table salt Compound Sodium and chlorine Sodium chloride
Brass Mixture Copper and zinc Brass
Soft drink Mixture Water, sugar, carbon dioxide and other compounds
Sea water Mixture Water, sodium chloride and other compounds

9.6.4 Separating compounds

Elements can be separated from the compounds that they make up in a number of ways including:
• passing electricity through the compound
• burning the compound
• mixing the compound with other chemicals such as acids.
Now, let’s look at the first of these methods a bit more closely.

356 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

Splitting water
We are surrounded by water. It is in our taps, in our bodies, in the
Water is split in a Hofmann
rivers, in the sea and in the air, and it comes down as rain. We wash
voltameter. The clear gas in the
in it, cook in it and drink it. We cannot live without water. Water left tube is hydrogen. The gas in
is not an element as it can be broken down into simpler substances. the right tube is oxygen. What
The illustration at right shows a piece of apparatus called a Hofmann do you notice about the amounts
voltameter. Water is poured into the voltameter, which is connected of hydrogen and oxygen that are
produced?
to a battery. The electricity splits the water into the elements that it is
Oxygen
made of: hydrogen and oxygen.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen and oxygen are both elements. They are both gases that
have no colour and no smell. Hydrogen is a much less dense gas than
oxygen. This means that a balloon filled with hydrogen will float up
Water
very high, but one filled with oxygen will not.

HOW ABOUT THAT!

• Carbon dioxide is the gas that is added to soft drinks to give
them their fizz. Solid carbon dioxide, commonly known as ‘dry
ice’, is used to keep things cold at outdoor events.
• The most abundant compound on planet Earth is water (H2O).
Two-thirds of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, in which
many other compounds (such as salt) are mixed. The compound
water is the only substance that is naturally present on Earth in all
three states — solid (about three-quarters of the Earth’s water is
frozen near the North and South Poles and in glaciers), liquid and 6V battery
or power supply
gas (water vapour in the atmosphere).
• Your own body contains more water than any other substance —
about 60 per cent of your body is made up of water. If you think
that’s a lot, an elephant is 70 per cent water and a tomato is 95
per cent water.

The element hydrogen is present in all acids. By placing a piece of metal in an acid, the hydrogen is
forced out. The hydrogen can be collected and tested with a flame.
The element oxygen is present in water, air, rocks and even hair bleach. Oxygen is the gas that all living
things need to stay alive. It is also necessary for all substances to burn — even hydrogen does not burn in
the absence of oxygen.
When hydrogen gas is burned, it combines with the oxygen in the air to form water. This releases a lot
of energy. If large amounts of hydrogen and oxygen are used, enough energy can be released to lift a space
rocket!

INVESTIGATION 9.6
Splitting hydrogen from acid
AIM: To separate hydrogen from an acid
You will need:
safety glasses
2 test tubes and test-tube rack
matches

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 357

 dilute hydrochloric acid Collect the hydrogen gas by
measuring cylinder placing the second test tube
magnesium metal over the first.
• Measure 10 mL of hydrochloric acid and pour it into the test tube.
• Add a piece of magnesium and place the second test tube on top
of the first, as shown in the diagram at right. Carefully observe what
happens.
• After one minute, take the second test tube off the first. While it is
still inverted, immediately light the gas in the second test tube with
Dilute hydrochloric
a match. acid

Discussion
1. Describe what happened in the test tube containing the metal and
the acid.
2. What does hydrogen gas look like?
3. What happened when you lit the gas?
4. Look closely at the second test tube. Describe what you see
inside it.
Piece of magnesium
metal

9.6 Exercise: Remember and think

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample
responses for every question, go to your learnON title at [Link]. Note:
Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. Explain the following terms carefully.
(a) Element
(b) Compound
(c) Mixture
2. Give two examples of each type of substance in question 1.
3. Describe how compounds differ from elements. A
4. Recall the important differences between a mixture and a
compound.
5. Recall three ways in which elements can be separated
from their compounds.
6. Fizzy soft drink is a mixture of several compounds. List
three of the compounds and suggest how each of them
could be separated from the mixture.
7. If atoms are ‘bonded’ together, describe what this means.
8. Recall which elements are present in carbon dioxide.

Think B C
9. Describe how you know that water is not simply a mixture
of hydrogen and oxygen.
10. Magnesium oxide is a compound of magnesium and
oxygen. Describe how you know that it is a completely
different substance from each of the two elements it is
made up of.
11. How can only 92 different elements make millions of
different compounds?
12. Which of the diagrams at right represent:
(a) elements
(b) compounds
(c) mixtures? D E

358 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

 Investigate
13. Joseph Priestley was one of the first scientists to discover the element oxygen. He also discovered many
compounds that are gases. Research and report on the life of Joseph Priestley.

Create
14. Construct models of some compounds. You may have to find out how many of each type of atom is in
each compound as well as the shape in which the atoms are bonded together.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 9.3: The periodic table: elements and symbols (doc-12422)

9.7 Making molecules

9.7.1 Molecules and lattices Table salt is a lattice made of
sodium and chlorine atoms.
The naturally occurring elements are the building blocks of every-
thing in our world. The atoms of various elements can be joined in a
wide variety of ways to produce many compounds. Elements and com-
pounds can be combined in many ways to make countless mixtures.
Atoms can join, or bond, in many different ways. In some sub-
stances, atoms are joined in groups called molecules. For example,
in oxygen gas, oxygen atoms are joined in groups of two. Atoms
in nitrogen and chlorine gas also travel in pairs. In the compound
carbon dioxide, one carbon and two oxygen atoms are bonded
together in every molecule. Atoms can join to form small or large
molecules of many different shapes.
Some compounds are not made up of molecules. Instead the atoms bond by forming structures called
lattices. Sodium bonds to chlorine, which bonds to sodium and so on. Common table salt is an example of
a substance that is bonded in this way.

INVESTIGATION 9.7 Cut these shapes

Mix ’n’ match from coloured paper.
AIM: To explore the variety of compounds that can be formed from just 1.5 cm
three elements
You will need:
2 cm
green, red and blue sheets of paper
scissors, pencil, ruler
1 large sheet of cartridge paper
• Cut out 25 diamonds, each 2 cm long and 1.5 cm wide, from the green sheet of
paper. 2 cm 2 cm
• Cut out 30 equilateral triangles, with each side 2 cm, from the red sheet of paper.
• Cut out 15 squares, with each side 2 cm, from the blue sheet of paper.
• Imagine that different types of atoms are represented by particular shapes: 2 cm
a blue square = carbon
a green diamond = oxygen
a red triangle = hydrogen 2 cm
and that, by placing them side by side on the sheet of paper, you are joining them.
2 cm

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 359

 • Place two green diamonds next to each other on the sheet.
This represents the element oxygen, as shown in the following A green diamond represents an
diagram. atom of oxygen. Together, two
• Place one blue square on the sheet between two green diamonds. diamonds represent a molecule of
This represents the compound carbon dioxide. Label it with its name oxygen.
and symbol.
• Represent and label the following substances:
(a) water, which contains 1 oxygen and 2 hydrogen atoms
(b) methane (natural gas), which contains 1 carbon and 4 hydrogen
atoms
(c) benzene (in petrol), which contains 6 carbon and 6 hydrogen
atoms
(d) glucose (sugar), which contains 6 carbon, 12 hydrogen and
6 oxygen atoms
(e) hydrogen peroxide (found in hair bleach), which contains 2 oxygen atoms and 2 hydrogen atoms.
Discussion
1. Which of these compounds contain only hydrogen and carbon atoms? In what ways are these two substances
different from each other?
2. Which of the compounds contain only oxygen and hydrogen? Do these compounds have the same
characteristics?
3. Think about the appearance of the compound sugar. How does it differ in appearance from the elements that
it is made of?

Molecules of (a) carbon dioxide, (b) water and (c) methane. These models are called space-filling models;
they show the relative sizes of the centre-to-centre distances between the atoms. These models are useful in
showing the dimensions of a molecule but don’t show the bonds involved.

(a)
(b) (c)

HOW ABOUT THAT!

• The 17th century French philosopher René Descartes was the first person to represent a water molecule as
being made up of one oxygen atom connected to two hydrogen atoms. He didn’t know about the way they
were bonded together, however. He envisaged that the atoms in a molecule were connected by a sort of
hook-and-eye arrangement, with the eyes being attached to the oxygen atom and the hooks being on the
hydrogen atoms. Sort of like atomic velcro!
• You can make an educated guess about what state of matter a substance is found in at room temperature by
looking at the size of the molecule that they usually form. Small molecules made of only a few atoms, such as
carbon dioxide and methane, are usually gases. On the other hand, large molecules are usually found in the
form of solids at room temperature.

360 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

9.7.2 Ball-and-stick A ball-and-stick model of a molecule of ascorbic acid (vitamin C)
models of molecules
Ball-and-stick systems are used to rep-
resent molecules as drawings in 2D or
as 3D kits. The atoms are represented as
balls and the bonds between the atoms
are represented by the sticks that join the
balls together. Traditionally, the balls are
coloured to represent particular atoms:
white (hydrogen), black (carbon), red
(oxygen), yellow (sulfur), green (chlorine)
and blue (nitrogen).

9.7 Exercise: Remember and think

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. What is a molecule? Name two compounds that are made up of molecules.
2. Are all compounds made up of molecules? Explain.
3. Name four elements that are made up of molecules.
4. Complete the table below for the molecules mentioned above. The first entry has been done as an example.

Substance Number and types of atom State at room temperature

Carbon dioxide 1 carbon Gas
2 oxygen
Water
Ascorbic acid
Methane

5. In a ball-and-stick model of a molecule, what does the stick represent?

Think
6. Draw a diagram to represent each of these molecules. Use the ball-and-stick model of ascorbic acid as a
guide to presenting your diagrams.
(a) Nitrogen gas (two nitrogen atoms joined together)
(b) Carbon dioxide.
7. A particular molecule is made up of 12 carbon, 22 hydrogen and 11 oxygen atoms. What state of matter is
this substance most likely to be found in at room temperature? Explain your answer.

Investigate
8. Find out who developed the ball-and-stick system for representing the molecule and where and when they
first used it.
9. What is the largest molecule presently known? How many atoms does it contain and what elements?
10. Complete the Making molecules interactivity in the Resources tab by creating the correct model of the
molecule as each chemical formula appears.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 9.4: Making compounds (doc-12423)

Try out this interactivity: Making molecules (int-0228)

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 361

9.8 Polymers
9.8.1 Polymers and plastics
If you were packing things to keep you warm on a trip to a cold climate, soft-drink bottles wouldn’t be the
first things you’d think of, would you? Yet windproof, polar fleece jackets and trousers are made from the
plastic recycled from soft-drink bottles. The plastic can be reformed and recycled because of the special
structure of its molecules.

Polymers
Polymers are long molecules made up of many smaller identical molecules (called monomers) bonded
together. The term ‘polymer’ comes from two ancient Greek words: poly meaning ‘many’ and meros
meaning ‘parts’. Most polymers are made up of chains containing carbon atoms.
Plastics are synthetic polymers. Polyethylene, for
example, is a polymer that is used to make plastic A polymer is made up of smaller units called
bags. It is made up of thousands of ethylene mol- monomers bonded together.

ecules chemically linked together in a long chain. Each molecule of ethylene is made
Cotton and rubber are examples of natural poly- up of two carbon atoms and four
hydrogen atoms bonded together.
mers. Although scientists first developed polymers
Ethylene
in laboratories in the 1800s, it was not until after monomer
World War II that most of the modern polymers
were invented. Modern polymers are used in food
wrapping, paint, plastic glass, polystyrene foam for
packaging and cups, banknotes, cases for electronic
appliances such as computers and televisions,
The polymer polyethylene is made of thousands
clothing, glues, shopping bags, sports equipment of ethylene monomers all bonded together
and even tea bags! in long chains.

9.8.2 Natural and synthetic polymers

Synthetic polymers
These are manufactured by using chemical processes. They are often referred to as just plastics.

The polymer polyvinyl chloride Polyethylene is used to When spun into long threads,
(PVC) is made up of monomers of make plastic bags, soft- nylon (or polyamide) can be
vinyl. It can be made into sewerage drink bottles and fabrics made into ropes, guitar strings,
and drainage pipes that are strong, such as polar fleece. pantihose and fabric. It can
light and non-corrosive. also be made into a more rigid
form for machine parts.

362 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

Natural polymers

The silk polymers that are woven to Forty per cent of the wood in trees is made up of the
form beautiful fabric come from the polymer cellulose. This cellulose can be used to make
cocoons made by the silkworm. paper. Cellulose is made up of monomers of simple sugars.

The DNA molecule is made up of two long polymers

of nucleic acid intertwined to form a helix shape.
DNA is found in every nucleated cell of every
organism and is made up of protein building blocks.
Cotton plants are also a source of
cellulose polymer. The fluffy, fibrous
boll is 90 per cent cellulose!

Fingernails, toenails and hair are all made of a

polymer called keratin, which is formed from
protein molecules.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 363

 9.8 Exercise: Remember and think
To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. What is the difference between a polymer and a monomer?
2. What are plastics?
3. Where do you find the polymer keratin?

Think
4. What is the difference between a synthetic polymer and a natural polymer? How are they similar? Give two
examples of each.
5. Synthetic polymer names are usually based on the names of the monomers of which they are made. For
example, polyethylene is made up of monomers of ethylene. Deduce the names of the monomers for these
polymers.
(a) Polyester (b) Polystyrene (c) Polypropylene

Investigate
6. Bakelite was the first artificial polymer to be manufactured on a large scale. Find out who invented it, what it
was made from and what it was used for.
7. One well-known property of polymers is that they do not conduct electricity. However, in 2000, the Nobel
prize in chemistry was awarded to scientists who found a way to make a polymer do so. Find out how this
was achieved and what the discovery will be used for.
8. Australia has led the way in the production of polymer money. Find out all you can about how these
banknotes are made.
9. How are plastic bottles turned into cold weather fabrics? Investigate the process by which polar fleece
fabric is made. Also, find out where and when it was invented.

9.9 Mixed-up metals

9.9.1 Alloys
Not everyone is good at sport; not everybody can draw; we certainly know that all people are not the same
height! Just as people are different, so are the pure metals. And just as you wouldn’t pick someone who
cannot sing to take the starring role in the school musical, you cannot pick any old metal to do a particular
job. For example, iron is very strong so it is great for building bridges, but you wouldn’t make a bracelet
from it. Gold is good in jewellery because of its lustre and its rarity (which makes it very valuable). How-
ever, it is very soft so it cannot be used for jobs that need a strong metal. So, what happens when you need
a metal that has a combination of properties that no pure metal has?
An alloy is a mixture of pure metals that has properties that the pure metals on their own do not have.
They are made by melting the metals that need to be combined and then mixing them together, much as
you do with milk and melted butter when you make a sauce. Remember, though, that the atoms of the orig-
inal metals do not combine with each other to form molecules and an alloy is not the same as a compound.
The properties of an alloy can be adjusted by using different proportions of the metals that make them.

9.9.2 Meteoric iron

The earliest known alloy used by humans actually fell from the sky. About 8 per cent of meteorites that
fall to Earth are composed of a naturally occurring alloy of iron and nickel. The metal salvaged from
these ‘fallen stars’ was believed to have mystic properties; it not only had fallen from the heavens but also
could be formed into weapons, tools and utensils that were harder and stronger than any other materials
that humans used at the time. The earliest meteoric iron tools found date back as far as 4000 BCE — long
before the start of the iron age. A dagger made from meteoric iron was found in the tomb of Tutankhamen,

364 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

and some historians believe that the mystic
A section of iron meteorite found in California. The markings
weapons Excalibur and Durendal (the sword on the surface are called Widmanstatten patterns.
of Roland) were made from fallen iron
meteorites.

9.9.3 Bronze
Bronze is believed to be the first alloy pur-
posely made by humans and is believed to
have originated in ancient Mesopotamia, an
empire that covered much of what is today
the Middle East. It is a mixture of copper
and tin, and it has been used for nearly
5000 years to make weapons, statues, coins
and bells. It is very strong and durable; it
is much stronger than either copper or tin.
Many of the large statues that you see in
public places, such as the statue of Queen
Victoria outside the Queen Victoria Building
(QVB) in Sydney, are made of bronze. Bronze statue of Queen Victoria (showing
While bronze is deep brown in colour to start with, it verdigris) outside the Queen Victoria
can develop a whitish green coating, called verdigris, on Building in Sydney
it when it has been exposed to air and moisture.

9.9.4 Brass
Brass — a mixture of copper and zinc — has been used
by humans for nearly as long as bronze; it is prized for its
hardness, resistance to corrosion and gold-like appearance.
Even today, brass is commonly used for fittings on boats
because it is resistant to the corrosion that other metals
suffer when exposed to salt water for a long time. Musical
instruments, such as tubas, trumpets and trombones, that
you find in the brass section of an orchestra are made of
this alloy because it is easily shaped and moulded and it
has excellent acoustic (sound) properties.

9.9.5 Steel
While steel has been produced for thousands of years,
its production was very much a matter of trial and error
until the seventeenth century. Steel is the term generally
used for an alloy of iron and carbon. When different pro-
portions of carbon are added to iron, they form different
grades of steel. Steel contains between 0.2 and 2 per cent
carbon. The more carbon there is in steel, the stronger and harder it is. However, more carbon also makes
steel more brittle. Early makers of steel had little control over the carbon content so, while they sometimes
produced swords and armour of high quality, they were just as likely to produce items that snapped when
first used!
Once the production of steel was made more efficient, it quickly became cheaper and easier to fabricate.
Skyscrapers were made possible only by the production of large quantities of good-quality steel; today, it is
the most common alloy in use with over one billion tons being produced every year worldwide.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 365

 Alloy Made of … Used for making …
Bronze Copper, tin Statues, coins
Brass Copper, zinc Engine parts, decorative fittings, musical instruments
Steel Iron, carbon Bridges, buildings, car parts
Stainless steel Iron, nickel, chromium Cutlery, kitchen fittings
Rose gold Gold, copper Jewellery
Solder Lead, tin Joins for electrical components

HOW ABOUT THAT!

The heating, mixing, pouring and cooling of steel all affect the strength of the final product. It has been
theorised that one of the reasons that an iceberg was able to tear such a large hole in the side of the Titanic was
because the steel used had too high a carbon content, making it very brittle in the icy Atlantic waters.

9.9 Exercise: Remember and think

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. Define the term ‘alloy’.
2. Explain why alloys are used instead of pure metals for some purposes.
3. Identify the alloy in the table above that contains a non-metal. What is the non-metal?
4. Describe how an alloy is different from a compound.
5. How does bronze differ from brass?

Think
6. Lead melts at 327 °C and tin melts at 232 °C, yet the melting point of solder (an alloy of lead and tin) is
183 °C. Explain this surprising fact.
7. Describe what properties alloy wheels have that could not be provided by a pure metal.
8. Draw a picture of the atoms in a sample of brass. Provide a key that identifies the atoms present.
9. Why is steel not used for the frames of racing bicycles?

Investigate
10. Although some Australian coins look like silver and gold, they are actually made of different alloys.
Investigate how our coins are made and what metals are used to make them.
11. What was the bronze age and when did it occur? Research this time period and find out what life was like
back then.
12. Is it possible to separate the metals of an alloy once they have been mixed? Investigate this using your
library and the internet.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 9.5: Alloys (doc-12424)

366 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

9.10 Carbon — the stuff of life
9.10.1 That’s made of carbon?
Carbon is a most amazing element. It is found naturally in at least three different forms. One form is
diamond, another is graphite (the ‘lead’ in lead pencils), and the third is called amorphous carbon (coal,
charcoal and soot). The three forms are different from each other because the carbon atoms are joined in
different ways. Diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon are called carbon allotropes. Allotropes of an
element have different appearances and properties due to differences in their molecular structures.
It is possible to change one form into another.
Amorphous carbon can be changed to graphite The naturally occurring three forms of carbon: diamond,
graphite and amorphous carbon
by mixing it with sand and heating the mixture
to about 2000 °C. To change graphite to dia-
monds, huge pressures and very high temper-
atures are needed. This occurs deep within the
Earth over long periods of time, and can also be
done in special factories.
Diamonds do not melt! When heated they
change straight from solid to gas. This happens
at about 3500 °C. Diamond is the hardest sub-
stance known and is used to make drill tips and
cutting tools.
Carbon is found combined with other ele-
ments in a huge range of compounds. No other
element forms as many different compounds as
carbon. Carbon is found in everything from the
skin of an elephant to paint on the walls! When sulfuric acid is added to sugar, the beaker gets
very hot, steam escapes and the element carbon is
9.10.2 Finding carbon left behind.
Carbon was one of the first elements identified by
the alchemists. Concentrated sulfuric acid can be
used to detect the presence of carbon in sugar. This
acid is too dangerous for you to use in the class-
room, but the diagram at right shows what happens
when sulfuric acid is poured over some sugar in Sulfuric
acid
a beaker. The sulfuric acid changes the other ele- Cone of
ments in sugar into different substances, leaving charcoal
the carbon behind as charcoal.

HOW ABOUT THAT!

A company based in Victoria uses the ashes of Sugar
dead people to make diamonds for clients who
want a permanent memento of their loved ones. 250 mL beaker
To create the diamonds, the ashes are prepared
and then placed under high temperature and high
pressure to crystallise for between six and twelve
months, depending on the size of the diamond
wanted. The diamonds — which can also be
coloured yellow, red, green or blue — can then be
cut and polished into the desired shape and even
inscribed with a laser before being set into jewellery.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 367

 INVESTIGATION 9.8
It’s elementary, my dear Watson!
AIM: To investigate whether carbon is present in some common substances
You will need:
safety glasses
Bunsen burner, heatproof mat and matches
metal tongs
small samples of substances to investigate (such as woollen cloth, cotton wool, sugar cube, wood, bread, peanut,
steel wool, glass, paper and aluminium foil)
• The early scientists were investigators, working methodically to find an answer to a mystery, a bit like the
famous detective Sherlock Holmes. The scientists searched for elements in everyday substances. Your
task in this experiment is to find out if the element carbon is present in some common substances. Earlier
investigators discovered that carbon can be detected if a substance turns black when it is burnt.
• Your teacher may allow you to burn some plastic in the fumehood.
CAUTION: Burning plastics produce poisonous fumes. A fume cupboard must be used.
• Hold a small piece of the substance you are going to test in the metal tongs.
• Put it in the blue flame of the Bunsen burner.
• When it catches alight, take it out of the flame and, keeping it above the heatproof mat, allow it to burn slowly.
Does it turn black?
• Draw up a table like the one below and record your observations.
Substance Observations Is carbon present?
Wood
Cotton wool

Discussion
1. In which of the substances tested is carbon present?
2. Can you be sure that, if the substance went black, carbon was present? Give a reason for your answer.
3. Can you be sure, if a substance didn’t go black, that it didn’t contain carbon?
4. Give a reason for your answer.

9.10.3 The chemistry of life

All living things are made up of compounds including proteins, fats and carbohydrates. The main element
in these compounds is carbon. Carbon is not found only in living things. It is also found in the air in carbon
dioxide and under the sea in limestone. The carbon atoms in carbon dioxide were once carbon atoms in
living things. The carbon atoms in living things will eventually become carbon atoms in the air or carbon
atoms in limestone under the sea. The illustration at the top of the next page shows how nature constantly
recycles carbon atoms.
Plants take in carbon dioxide through their leaves and, in a process known as photosynthesis, use the
carbon dioxide and water to make starch. Starch is a compound made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. Plants use the starch to make other substances and for energy to grow. Animals eat plants or plant-
eating animals. The carbon atoms then become part of the animals’ bodies.
Carbon atoms in the bodies of living things return to the air in several ways: respiration, decomposition
and burning.
• Respiration is a process that occurs in the cells of every living thing, from a microscopic water plant to a
humpback whale. Respiration releases energy and produces carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide released
by the cells in your body is taken by your blood to your lungs. The carbon dioxide that you breathe out
contains carbon atoms that were once part of your body.

368 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

 The flow of carbon atoms through the environment

Plants absorb
Animals breathe some oxygen.
in oxygen. Plants absorb
Both plants CO2 during
and animals the day.
release CO2. Plants release
oxygen during Fossil fuels
the day. release CO2
when burned.

Animals absorb Petroleum Oil

carbon when
they eat plants.

Gas Coal

• Decomposition is what happens when plant or animal material breaks down, such as in a compost heap
or after something is buried. Microscopic living creatures called decomposers absorb some of the sub-
stances in the dead material and release carbon dioxide into the air by respiration.
• When substances containing carbon are burned, carbon dioxide is released. Coal, natural gas and oil are
all fuels formed from living things, and contain carbon atoms. When these fuels are burned in homes,
cars, factories and power stations, carbon dioxide is released into the air. Bushfires also release carbon
dioxide back to the air.

9.10 Exercise: Remember and think

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.

Remember
1. Recall and describe three different forms of the element carbon.
2. Recall where plants get the carbon from that they need to make starch.
3. Describe three ways in which carbon can return to the atmosphere.
4. Recall where respiration takes place.
5. Define the term ‘allotrope’.
6. Define the term ‘decomposition’.
7. What is amorphous carbon and how does it differ from graphite and diamond?

Think
8. Describe how animals obtain carbon.
9. Where does the carbon come from to form limestone at the bottom of the sea?
10. The amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere is increasing. Deduce why this is happening.
11. When sulfuric acid (chemical formula H2SO4) is added to sugar (chemical formula C12H22O11), it produces
steam (H2O) and a large amount of a black, cindery solid.
(a) Identify the elements present in
(i) sulfuric acid, (ii) sugar, (iii) steam.
(b) Given that none of the elements has vanished, deduce which elements are present in the black solid.
(c) Sulfur is generally a bright yellow powder. Deduce why it is not readily seen in the black solid.
12. Would it be possible for life to continue on Earth without plant life? Explain your answer.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 369

 Using data Material Carbon content (%) Heat production (therms)
13. Many different materials are Wood 11 8.5
used to provide heating. The
Peat 10 10
table at right shows how much
carbon there is in each of them. Lignite 30 12
The last column indicates how Black coal 80 17
much heat (in therms) that 50 kg Brown coal 73 14
of that material provides.
Natural graphite 90 18.5
(a) Draw a bar graph showing
the percentage carbon
content of each material.
(b) Deduce which is the best material to use to provide heat.
(c) Does the table indicate any relationship between the amount of carbon in a material and the amount of
heat that it provides? Explain your answer clearly.

Investigate
State
14. Investigate the greenhouse effect. How is it
related to carbon dioxide? Solid Liquid Gas
15. Fuels may be solids, liquids or gases. Search the Examples
internet or use a library to find as many examples Uses
as possible of solid, liquid and gas fuels, and
Advantages
complete a table like the one at right.
16. Fullerines and buckyballs are special allotropes Disadvantages
of carbon. Research what makes these carbon
lattices so special.

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 9.6: Carbon (doc-12425)

9.11 Project: Science TV

Scenario
In the media world, programs that combine entertainment
and education are known as ‘edutainment’. With the success
of edutainment programs such as Mythbusters (SBS), Scope
(Network 10) and The FundaMentals (ABC), it seems that
science is attracting a bigger share of the television market
than many network executives would have expected. Now,
your local TV network — Channel 55 — has decided to
jump on the ‘science as edutainment’ bandwagon and has
announced that it will be developing a program called Sci-
ence TV next year.
To make Science TV more appealing to a younger audi-
ence, the developing executives of the program want it to be
presented by a team of school students, who will do all of
the introductions, explanations and experiments for each of

370 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

the segments. It is important that the right team of students is found or the program will be canned after
only a few episodes, so Channel 55 has announced that it is accepting online audition files from groups of
students who think they have what it takes to be the Science TV stars.

Your task
Your group is going to put together a video submission that you could send to the Channel 55 developers
to showcase how suitable you would be as the stars of Science TV.
The guidelines for the video submission from the Channel 55 website are as follows.
• The video must be between four and five minutes in length.
• The target audience of Science TV is between 8 and 14 years old.
• At least two people must be shown on camera.
• The video must be in the form of a chemistry segment that explains one of the following:
(a) What is the difference between a physical change and a chemical change?
(b) What are elements, compounds and mixtures?
(c) How would we separate a mixture of iron filings, sand, copper sulfate and chalk dust?
• At least one experiment must be shown being performed in the segment — the experiment must be rele-
vant to the segment and safe to perform (i.e. no explosions and no dangerous fumes produced).
The segment should be engaging and informative. It should have an introduction (either a scenario
played out or a discussion between the presenters), an experiment to either test or demonstrate an idea, an
explanation of the main concepts involved and a resolution that ties
back into the original scenario or discussion. Remember: the main
idea is to show that science is FUN!

Process
Research. Make notes of ideas that you can use in your segment,
including interesting facts, good experiments and ways in which you
could make your topic easier to understand — remember that the
audience of Science TV is between 8 and 14 years old.

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 371

 SUGGESTED SOFTWARE
• ProjectsPLUS
• Word processing software (e.g. Word)
• Movie Maker (PC) or iMovie (Mac) or other video editing software
• Internet access

9.12 Review
9.12.1 Study checklist
Atoms
• describe the structure of an atom 9.3
• compare the models of the atom put forward by Democritus, Dalton, Thomson,
Rutherford and Bohr 9.2
• recall the three main particles that make up an atom and where they are found in the atom 9.3
• explain what makes atoms different from each other 9.3, 9.4
• recall how an atom differs from a molecule 9.6–9.8

Elements
• contrast the characteristics of metals, non-metals and metalloids 9.5
• classify common elements as metals, non-metals or metalloids 9.5
• identify the chemical symbols for common elements 9.4–9.6
• distinguish between natural and synthetic elements 9.3–9.5
• define the term ‘allotrope’ 9.10
• describe what is meant by the term ‘alloy’ 9.9
• recall the metals that make up common alloys such as brass, steel and bronze 9.9
• describe how carbon is recycled in nature 9.10

372 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

Compounds
• describe how elements are different from compounds 9.6
• describe how compounds differ from mixtures 9.6
• recall examples of compounds that have different physical properties from the elements
they are made from 9.6, 9.7
• identify common compounds 9.6–9.8
• explain how compounds may be broken up into their component elements 9.6
• explain how molecules of elements differ from those of compounds 9.7
• recall what a polymer is and give two examples each of natural and synthetic polymers 9.8

Individual pathways

 ACTIVITY 9.1  ACTIVITY 9.2  ACTIVITY 9.3

Revising the structure of matter Investigating the structure of matter Investigating the structure of
doc-10561 doc-10562 matter further
doc-10563

ONLINE ONLY

FOCUS ACTIVITY
Imagine you are a scientist who is investigating what is produced when various chemicals are mixed together.−In one
reaction a hard, bright green solid is produced. You do not know what it is. Suggest some tests you could do to help
you decide whether it is an element or a compound.
Access more details about focus activities for this topic in the Resources tab (doc-10560).

9.12 Review 1: Looking back

To answer questions online and to receive immediate feedback and sample responses for every question, go
to your learnON title at [Link]. Note: Question numbers may vary slightly.
1. Copy and complete the following table, which describes the structure of atoms.
Part of atom Location Size and weight (relative) Electric charge
Large Positive
Neutron
Outside the nucleus

2. Complete the following table to summarise what you know about metals and non-metals.

Property Metals Non-metals

Conduct electricity well
Conduct heat well
Surface features
State at room temperature
Malleable
Ductile
Brittle

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 373

 3. Identify which of the following are (a) metals and (b) non-metals.
chlorine gas, sodium, silver, lead, sulfur, oxygen, silicon
4. Complete the table below to identify whether the substances listed are elements, compounds or mixtures.
Explain your decisions.

Substance Element, compound or mixture? Why do you think so?

Gold
Diamond
Carbon dioxide
Air
Sea water
Pure water
Iron
Ammonia
Table salt (NaCl)

5. Most of the substances around you are compounds and mixtures.

(a) Describe the differences between a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen and a compound of hydrogen and
oxygen.
(b) In your own words, explain the difference between a compound and a mixture.
(c) Deduce which elements you would be most likely to find in their pure form around the home.
6. Describe what diamonds, the ‘lead’ in pencils and coal have in common.
7. Identify which of the ‘structures of matter’ is represented by each of the cartoons below.

8. Each of the diagrams at right represents

A B C
one of the ‘bits of matter’ that make up
substances.
Identify which of the diagrams
represents:
(a) an atom of an element D E F
(b) a molecule of an element
(c) a molecule of a compound.
9. The famous crime writer Agatha Christie
mentioned the metalloid arsenic G H I
frequently in her novels. Propose why it
was important in her stories.
10. Identify which of the following
substances are elements, compounds
and mixtures. J K L
gold, air, carbon dioxide gas, sea water,
oxygen gas, sodium chloride, graphite,
orange juice, aluminium metal, ice-cream,
pure water

374 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4

11. Are all allotropes molecules? Explain.
12. Describe the plum pudding model of the atom.
13. What is an alloy? Identify the metals that make up the following alloys.
(a) Bronze
(b) Solder
(c) Stainless steel
(d) Brass
14. If a neutral atom has 12 protons, how many electrons does it have?
15. What takes up most of the volume in an atom?
16. Identify the one feature that every single atom of the element sodium has in common.
17. What is the atomic number of each of the following elements?
(a) Hydrogen
(b) Carbon
(c) Uranium
18. How many protons does each of the elements listed in question 17 have in their nuclei?
19. How many electrons does each of the elements listed in question 17 have in their nuclei?
20. Make a copy of the diagram of the atom at right and label an
electron and the nucleus. Answer the following questions.
(a) How many protons does this atom have?
(b) How many neutrons does this atom have?
(c) How many electrons does this atom have?
(d) What is the atomic number of this atom?
(e) Describe one use of the element that is made up of these +
atoms. +
21. What event must take place in order to separate a compound into
separate elements?
22. How are the molecules in polymers different from the molecules of
other compounds?
23. Respiration is a chemical reaction in which carbon dioxide is
produced.
(a) Where in your body does respiration take place?
(b) What is released during respiration apart from carbon dioxide?
(c) Suggest how the carbon atoms in carbon dioxide enter your body.
24. Why doesn’t water appear in the periodic table?

Test yourself
1. A compound is a substance that is
(A) made up of one type of atom.
(B) made up of different atoms mixed together.
(C) always a solid.
(D) able to be broken down into the elements it is composed of. (1 mark)
2. The central section of an atom is called the
(A) nucleus.
(B) electron.
(C) middle.
(D) neutron. (1 mark)
3. The chemical symbol for silver is
(A) Si.
(B) S.
(C) Ag.
(D) Sr. (1 mark)
4. The ‘plum pudding’ model of the atom was first proposed by
(A) Democritus.
(B) Ernest Rutherford.
(C) Niels Bohr.
(D) JJ Thomson. (1 mark)

TOPIC 9 The structure and properties of matter 375

 5. Imagine you are a scientist in charge of developing new materials. The Australian Space Agency has
approached you because they need a new substance to coat the outside of the space shuttles they are
designing. The substance must be:
• able to withstand the heat of the shuttle re-entering the Earth’s atmosphere
• flexible enough to bend when the wings of the shuttle bend
• strong enough to stand the vibration of take-off, landing and other movement
• light enough to be part of a flying spacecraft
• resistant to chemical attack
• able to reflect the solar radiation in space.
Your task is to design the coating for the space shuttle. Include:
(a) whether it will be solid, or an innovative liquid or gas coating. It could be a combination of these in layers
or as a mixture!
(b) what atoms, elements or compounds it will be made of
(c) how the coating of substances will work to meet the criteria from the Australian Space Agency. This will
include the properties of your substances and how they are put together.
(d) a drawing of your coating indicating its special features and how it works. (6 marks)

RESOURCES — ONLINE ONLY

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 9.7: Bits of matter puzzles (doc-12426)

Complete this digital doc: Worksheet 9.8: Bits of matter summary (doc-12427)

376 Jacaranda Core Science Stage 4