PREFACE XVII

CONTENTS

1
General Principles 3

Chapter Objectives 3
1.1 Mechanics 3
1.2 Fundamental Concepts 4
1.3 Units of Measurement 7
1.4 The International System of Units 9
1.5 Numerical Calculations 10
1.6 General Procedure for Analysis 12

2
Force Vectors 17

Chapter Objectives 17
2.1 Scalars and Vectors 17
2.2 Vector Operations 18
2.3 Vector Addition of Forces 20
2.4 Addition of a System of Coplanar
Forces 32
2.5 Cartesian Vectors 43
2.6 Addition of Cartesian Vectors 46
2.7 Position Vectors 56
2.8 Force Vector Directed Along a Line 59
2.9 Dot Product 69

XVII
 2.5 CARTESIAN VECTORS 43

2.5 Cartesian Vectors z

The operations of vector algebra, when applied to solving problems in

three dimensions, are greatly simplified if the vectors are first represented
in Cartesian vector form. In this section we will present a general method 2
for doing this; then in the next section we will use this method for finding
y
the resultant force of a system of concurrent forces.
x

Right-Handed Coordinate System. We will use a right-

handed coordinate system to develop the theory of vector algebra that
follows. A rectangular coordinate system is said to be right-handed if the Fig. 2–21
thumb of the right hand points in the direction of the positive z axis
when the right-hand fingers are curled about this axis and directed from
the positive x towards the positive y axis, Fig. 2–21.
z
Rectangular Components of a Vector. A vector A may have
one, two, or three rectangular components along the x, y, z coordinate
axes, depending on how the vector is oriented relative to the axes. In Az
general, though, when A is directed within an octant of the x, y, z frame,
Fig. 2–22, then by two successive applications of the parallelogram law, A
we may resolve the vector into components as A = A⬘ + Az and then
A⬘ = Ax + Ay. Combining these equations, to eliminate A⬘, A is
represented by the vector sum of its three rectangular components,

Ay
A = Ax + Ay + Az (2–2) y

Cartesian Unit Vectors. In three dimensions, the set of Cartesian Ax

unit vectors, i, j, k, is used to designate the directions of the x, y, z axes, A¿
respectively. As stated in Sec. 2.4, the sense (or arrowhead) of these x
vectors will be represented analytically by a plus or minus sign, depending
on whether they are directed along the positive or negative x, y, or z axes. Fig. 2–22
The positive Cartesian unit vectors are shown in Fig. 2–23.

i y
j

Fig. 2–23
 44 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

z Cartesian Vector Representation. Since the three components

of A in Eq. 2–2 act in the positive i, j, and k directions, Fig. 2–24, we can
Az k write A in Cartesian vector form as
A
A = Axi + Ay j + Azk (2–3)
2

There is a distinct advantage to writing vectors in this manner.

k Separating the magnitude and direction of each component vector will
j Ay j
y simplify the operations of vector algebra, particularly in three dimensions.
i
Ax i

Fig. 2–24
Magnitude of a Cartesian Vector. It is always possible to
z obtain the magnitude of A provided it is expressed in Cartesian vector
form. As shown in Fig. 2–25, from the blue right triangle, A = 2A⬘2 + A2z ,
Azk
and from the gray right triangle, A⬘ = 2A2x + A2y . Combining these
equations to eliminate A⬘ yields
A

Az
A A = 2A2x + A2y + A2z (2–4)

Ayj Hence, the magnitude of A is equal to the positive square root of the sum
y
Axi of the squares of its components.
Ax
A¿

Ay
x

Fig. 2–25
Direction of a Cartesian Vector. We will define the direction of
z A by the coordinate direction angles a (alpha), b (beta), and g (gamma),
measured between the tail of A and the positive x, y, z axes provided they
Azk are located at the tail of A, Fig. 2–26. Note that regardless of where A is
directed, each of these angles will be between 0° and 180°.
A
To determine a, b, and g, consider the projection of A onto the x, y, z
uA axes, Fig. 2–27. Referring to the blue colored right triangles shown in
each figure, we have
g
b
a Ay j Ax Ay Az
y cos a = cos b = cos g = (2–5)
A A A
Axi

x
These numbers are known as the direction cosines of A. Once they
have been obtained, the coordinate direction angles a, b, g can then be
Fig. 2–26 determined from the inverse cosines.
 2.5 CARTESIAN VECTORS 45

z z z

90⬚
2

Az
A g A
A

b 90⬚
a
90⬚ y y y
Ay
Ax

x x x

Fig. 2–27

An easy way of obtaining these direction cosines is to form a unit

vector uA in the direction of A, Fig. 2–26. If A is expressed in Cartesian
vector form, A = Axi + Ay j + Azk, then uA will have a magnitude of one
and be dimensionless provided A is divided by its magnitude, i.e.,

A Ax Ay Az
uA = = i + j + k (2–6)
A A A A

where A = 2A2x + A2y + A2z . By comparison with Eqs. 2–5, it is seen that
the i, j, k components of uA represent the direction cosines of A, i.e.,
uA = cos a i + cos b j + cos g k (2–7)
Since the magnitude of a vector is equal to the positive square root of
the sum of the squares of the magnitudes of its components, and uA has a
magnitude of one, then from the above equation an important relation
among the direction cosines can be formulated as

cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 1 (2–8)

Here we can see that if only two of the coordinate angles are known,
the third angle can be found using this equation.
Finally, if the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of A are
known, then A may be expressed in Cartesian vector form as

A = AuA
= A cos a i + A cos b j + A cos g k (2–9)
= Axi + Ay j + Azk
 46 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

z Sometimes, the direction of A can be specified using two angles, u and

f (phi), such as shown in Fig. 2–28. The components of A can then be
determined by applying trigonometry first to the blue right triangle,
Az
which yields

2 Az = A cos f
f A
and

Ax O A⬘ = A sin f
Ay
u
y Now applying trigonometry to the gray shaded right triangle,
x
A¿
Ax = A⬘ cos u = A sin f cos u
Fig. 2–28
Ay = A⬘ sin u = A sin f sin u

Therefore A written in Cartesian vector form becomes

A = A sin f cos u i + A sin f sin u j + A cos f k

You should not memorize this equation, rather it is important to

understand how the components were determined using trigonometry.

z
2.6 Addition of Cartesian Vectors
The addition (or subtraction) of two or more vectors is greatly simplified
(Az ⫹ Bz)k if the vectors are expressed in terms of their Cartesian components. For
example, if A = Axi + Ay j + Azk and B = Bxi + By j + Bzk, Fig. 2–29,
R
then the resultant vector, R, has components which are the scalar sums of
the i, j, k components of A and B, i.e.,
B
(Ay ⫹ By)j R = A + B = (Ax + Bx)i + (Ay + By)j + (Az + Bz)k
A y

If this is generalized and applied to a system of several concurrent

(Ax ⫹ Bx)i forces, then the force resultant is the vector sum of all the forces in the
system and can be written as
x

Fig. 2–29 FR = ⌺F = ⌺Fxi + ⌺Fy j + ⌺Fzk (2–10)

Here ⌺Fx, ⌺Fy, and ⌺Fz represent the algebraic sums of the respective
x, y, z or i, j, k components of each force in the system.
 2.6 ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS 47

Important Points

• Cartesian vector analysis is often used to solve problems in three

dimensions.
2
• The positive directions of the x, y, z axes are defined by the
Cartesian unit vectors i, j, k, respectively.
• The magnitude of a Cartesian vector is A = 2A2x + A2y + A2z .
• The direction of a Cartesian vector is specified using coordinate
direction angles a, b, g which the tail of the vector makes with
the positive x, y, z axes, respectively. The components of the unit
vector uA = A>A represent the direction cosines of a, b, g. Only
two of the angles a, b, g have to be specified. The third angle is
determined from the relationship cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 1.
• Sometimes the direction of a vector is defined using the two
angles u and f as in Fig. 2–28. In this case the vector components
are obtained by vector resolution using trigonometry.
• To find the resultant of a concurrent force system, express each
force as a Cartesian vector and add the i, j, k components of all
the forces in the system.

EXAMPLE 2.8
Express the force F shown in Fig. 2–30 as a Cartesian vector.

SOLUTION z
Since only two coordinate direction angles are specified, the third
angle a must be determined from Eq. 2–8; i.e.,
F ⫽ 200 N
cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 1
45⬚
cos2 a + cos2 60⬚ + cos2 45⬚ = 1
a 60⬚
cos a = 21 - (0.5)2 - (0.707)2 = {0.5 y

Hence, two possibilities exist, namely,

a = cos-1(0.5) = 60⬚ or a = cos-1(-0.5) = 120⬚ x
By inspection it is necessary that a = 60⬚, since Fx must be in the +x
Fig. 2–30
direction.
Using Eq. 2–9, with F = 200 N, we have
F = F cos a i + F cos b j + F cos g k
= (200 cos 60⬚ N)i + (200 cos 60⬚ N)j + (200 cos 45⬚ N)k
= 5 100.0i + 100.0j + 141.4k 6 N Ans.
Show that indeed the magnitude of F = 200 N.
 48 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

EXAMPLE 2.9
EXAMPLE 2.1
Determine the magnitude and the coordinate direction angles of the
resultant force acting on the ring in Fig. 2–31a.
2 z FR ⫽ {50i ⫺ 40j ⫹ 180k} lb z
g ⫽ 19.6⬚

F2 ⫽ {50i ⫺ 100j ⫹ 100k} lb F1 ⫽ {60j ⫹ 80k} lb

F2 F1

b ⫽ 102⬚
y a ⫽ 74.8⬚ y

x x
(a) (b)

Fig. 2–31

SOLUTION
Since each force is represented in Cartesian vector form, the resultant
force, shown in Fig. 2–31b, is
FR = ⌺F = F1 + F2 = 5 60j + 80k 6 lb + 5 50i - 100j + 100k 6 lb
= 5 50i - 40j + 180k 6 lb
The magnitude of FR is

FR = 2(50 lb)2 + (-40 lb)2 + (180 lb)2 = 191.0 lb

= 191 lb Ans.
The coordinate direction angles a, b, g are determined from the
components of the unit vector acting in the direction of FR.

FR 50 40 180
uF R = = i - j + k
FR 191.0 191.0 191.0
= 0.2617i - 0.2094 j + 0.9422 k
so that
cos a = 0.2617 a = 74.8⬚ Ans.
cos b = -0.2094 b = 102⬚ Ans.
cos g = 0.9422 g = 19.6⬚ Ans.
These angles are shown in Fig. 2–31b.

NOTE: In particular, notice that b 7 90⬚ since the j component of uFR

is negative. This seems reasonable considering how F1 and F2 add
according to the parallelogram law.
 2.6 ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS 49

EXAMPLE 2.10
EXAMPLE 2.1
Express the force F shown in Fig. 2–32a as a Cartesian vector. z

SOLUTION F ⫽ 100 lb
2
The angles of 60° and 45° defining the direction of F are not coordinate
direction angles. Two successive applications of the parallelogram law
are needed to resolve F into its x, y, z components. First F = F⬘ + Fz,
then F⬘ = Fx + Fy, Fig. 2–32b. By trigonometry, the magnitudes of the 60⬚ y
components are
45⬚

Fz = 100 sin 60⬚ lb = 86.6 lb

x
F⬘ = 100 cos 60⬚ lb = 50 lb (a)
Fx = F⬘ cos 45⬚ = 50 cos 45⬚ lb = 35.4 lb
z
Fy = F⬘ sin 45⬚ = 50 sin 45⬚ lb = 35.4 lb
Fz
Realizing that Fy has a direction defined by –j, we have
F ⫽ 100 lb
F = 5 35.4i - 35.4j + 86.6k 6 lb Ans.

To show that the magnitude of this vector is indeed 100 lb, apply
Eq. 2–4, Fy
60⬚ y
45⬚
F = 2F2x + F2y + F2z Fx
F¿
= 2(35.4)2 + (35.4)2 + (86.6)2 = 100 lb
x
(b)
If needed, the coordinate direction angles of F can be determined from
the components of the unit vector acting in the direction of F. Hence,
z
F Fx Fy Fz
u = = i + j + k
F F F F F ⫽ 100 lb
35.4 35.4 86.6 30.0⬚
= i - j + k 111⬚
100 100 100
= 0.354i - 0.354j + 0.866k 69.3⬚ y

so that
a = cos-1(0.354) = 69.3⬚
x
b = cos-1(-0.354) = 111⬚ (c)

g = cos (0.866) = 30.0⬚

-1
Fig. 2–32

These results are shown in Fig. 2–32c.

 50 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

EXAMPLE 2.11
EXAMPLE 2.1
z Two forces act on the hook shown in Fig. 2–33a. Specify the magnitude
F2 of F2 and its coordinate direction angles so that the resultant force FR
acts along the positive y axis and has a magnitude of 800 N.
2 120⬚
y
SOLUTION
60⬚
To solve this problem, the resultant force FR and its two components,
45⬚ F1 and F2, will each be expressed in Cartesian vector form. Then, as
F1 ⫽ 300 N shown in Fig. 2–33b, it is necessary that FR = F1 + F2.
x Applying Eq. 2–9,
(a)
F1 = F1 cos a1i + F1 cos b1 j + F1 cos g1k
= 300 cos 45 i + 300 cos 60 j + 300 cos 120 k
= 5 212.1i + 150j - 150k 6 N
F2 = F2x i + F2y j + F2z k
Since FR has a magnitude of 800 N and acts in the +j direction,
FR = (800 N)(+j) = 5 800j 6 N
z
We require
F2  700 N FR = F1 + F2
g2  77.6
800j = 212.1i + 150j - 150k + F2x i + F2y j + F2z k
b2  21.8 FR  800 N
y
800j = (212.1 + F2x)i + (150 + F2y)j + (-150 + F2z)k
a2  108
To satisfy this equation the i, j, k components of FR must be equal to
the corresponding i, j, k components of (F1 + F2). Hence,
F1  300 N
x 0 = 212.1 + F2x F2x = -212.1 N
(b) 800 = 150 + F2y F2y = 650 N
Fig. 2–33 0 = -150 + F2z F2z = 150 N
The magnitude of F2 is thus

F2 = 2(-212.1 N)2 + (650 N)2 + (150 N)2

= 700 N Ans.
We can use Eq. 2–9 to determine a2, b2, g2.
-212.1
cos a2 = ; a2 = 108 Ans.
700
650
cos b2 = ; b2 = 21.8 Ans.
700
150
cos g2 = ; g2 = 77.6 Ans.
700
These results are shown in Fig. 2–33b.
 2.6 ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS 51

PROBLEMS
FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS
F2–13. Determine the coordinate direction angles of the F2–16. Express the force as a Cartesian vector.
force.
z
F  50 lb 2

45
5
4 3

x
y

45 y

x 30 F2–16

F2–17. Express the force as a Cartesian vector.

F  75 lb

F2–13 z
F  750 N
F2–14. Express the force as a Cartesian vector.
z F  500 N

60
45
60
60
y

x F2–17
y
F2–18. Determine the resultant force acting on the hook.

z
F2–14 F1  500 lb
5
F2–15. Express the force as a Cartesian vector. 3
4
z
30 y
x
45 45

60 y
F  500 N
x F2  800 lb

F2–15 F2–18
 52 CHAPTER 2 F O R C E VE C T O R S

PROBLEMS

*2–60. The stock mounted on the lathe is subjected to a 2–63. The bolt is subjected to the force F, which has
force of 60 N. Determine the coordinate direction angle b components acting along the x, y, z axes as shown. If the
2 and express the force as a Cartesian vector. magnitude of F is 80 N, and a = 60 and g = 45, determine
the magnitudes of its components.
z

Fz

z g
F b
y
60 N Fy a

45⬚ Fx

60⬚ x

y Prob. 2–63
x
*2–64. Determine the magnitude and coordinate
Prob. 2–60
direction angles of F1 = 5 60i - 50j + 40k 6 N and
F2 = 5 - 40i - 85j + 30k 6 N. Sketch each force on an x, y,
z reference frame.

2–61. Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction 2–65. The cable at the end of the crane boom exerts a force
angles of the resultant force and sketch this vector on the of 250 lb on the boom as shown. Express F as a Cartesian
coordinate system. vector.

2–62. Specify the coordinate direction angles of F1 and F2

z
and express each force as a Cartesian vector.

z 70
30
F1 ⫽ 80 lb

y
30⬚ x
40⬚

F2 ⫽ 130 lb

x F  250 lb

Probs. 2–61/62 Prob. 2–65