SOLUTION
When different non-reacting substances are mixed, they can form three types of
mixtures:
Coarse Mixture: Examples include sand + salt or sugar + salt, where the components
remain visibly separate.
Colloidal Dispersion: Examples include gum + water or fine clay + water, where
particles are mixed but do not fully dissolve.
True Solution: An example is salt + water, where the substances completely dissolve
to form a uniform mixture.
In coarse mixtures, there is visible separation (heterogeneity). True solutions are fully
uniform (homogeneous). Colloidal dispersions are somewhat in between; they appear
uniform but have microscopic heterogeneity.
Distinguishing Solute and Solvent
Phase Method: If one substance is a solid (A) and the other a liquid (B), the solvent
and solute are determined by the resulting phase:
If the resulting mixture is solid, then B is the solute and A is the solvent.
If the resulting mixture is liquid, then A is the solute and B is the solvent.
Amount Method: Here, the substance present in a larger amount by mass is
considered the solvent, while the substance in smaller proportion is the solute.
Example: For a solid mixture of A and B, if the mass of A is greater than that of B,
then A is the solvent, and B is the solute.
In solutions of solids in liquids, the liquid (usually present in excess) is typically the
solvent, and the solid is the solute.
Example: In a mixture of acetone and water, the substance in larger quantity acts as
the solvent.
Saturated, Unsaturated, and Supersaturated Solutions
Saturated Solution: A solution that contains the maximum amount of solute that can
dissolve at a specific temperature is called a saturated solution.
Unsaturated Solution: A solution with less solute than the maximum amount it can
dissolve at a given temperature is called an unsaturated solution.
Supersaturated Solution: A solution that contains more solute than it can typically
hold at a certain temperature is known as a supersaturated solution.
Types of Binary Solutions (Tabular Form):
S. Solute Solvent Example of Solution
No.
1 Solid Solid Alloy (e.g., Bronze)
2 Liquid Solid Amalgam (Mercury in
Gold)
3 Gas Solid Hydrogen in Palladium
4 Solid Liquid Salt in Water
5 Liquid Liquid Vinegar (Acetic Acid in
Water)
6 Gas Liquid Soda Water (CO₂ in
Water)
7 Solid Gas Airborne Dust
8 Liquid Gas Aerosol (Perfume Mist)
9 Gas Gas Oxygen in Nitrogen (Air)
Concentration of Solutions
The concentration of a solution refers to the quantity of solute dissolved in a specified
amount of solvent or solution. There are several ways to express the concentration of
a solution, as outlined below:
Percentage of Solution
The percentage of a solution indicates the amount of solute present in a solution as a
percentage of the total solution or solvent. It can be expressed in different forms:
Weight/Weight Percentage (w/w %): Represents the mass of solute in grams per
100 grams of solution.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑤/𝑤 % = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
* 100 %
Weight/Volume Percentage (w/V %): Indicates the mass of solute in grams per 100
mL of solution.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑤/𝑉 % = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐿)
* 100 %
Volume/Volume Percentage (V/V %): Used for liquid solutes and represents the
volume of solute per 100 mL of solution.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑉/𝑉 % = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝐿)
* 100 %
Strength: The strength of a solution is the amount of solute present per litre of
solution, expressed in g/L.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝐿)
Molarity (M): Molarity is a measure of the concentration of a solution, defined as the
number of moles of solute present in one litre of solution.
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝐿)
Dilution Formula: For dilutions, molarity and volume are related as: M1V1 = M2V2
Molality (m): Molality is a measure of the concentration of a solution, defined as the
number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent.
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔)
Normality (N): Normality is a measure of concentration defined as the number of
gram equivalents of solute per litre of solution.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑁 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖𝑛 𝐿)
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 𝑛−𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
where the n-factor depends on the type of reaction the solute undergoes:
For acids: The n-factor is the number of H+ ions the acid can donate.
● For example: HCl has an n-factor of 1 and H2SO4 has an n-factor of etc.
For bases: The n-factor is the number of OH- ions the base can donate.
● For example: NaOH has an n-factor of 1 and Ca(OH)2 has an n-factor of 2 etc.
For salts and redox reactions: The n-factor is the number of electrons transferred in
the reaction.
Mole Fraction: Mole fraction is a way of expressing concentration as the ratio of the
moles of one component to the total moles of all components in the solution.
For a solution with two components, such as a solute (component 1) and solvent
(component 2), the mole fractions are:
Mole fraction of solute (XA):
𝑛𝐴 𝑛𝐴
𝑋𝐴 = 𝑛𝑇
= 𝑛𝐴+𝑛𝐵
Mole fraction of solvent (XB):
𝑛𝐵 𝑛𝐵
𝑋𝐵 = 𝑛𝑇
= 𝑛𝐴+𝑛𝐵
(Since the sum of mole fractions in a solution equals 1)
Solubility of Gases in Liquids
Gases can dissolve in liquids to form true solutions, with the extent of solubility
depending on factors such as the nature of the gas, the nature of the solvent,
pressure, and temperature. Some gases, like oxygen and argon, dissolve only slightly
in water, while others, like sulphur dioxide and hydrogen fluoride, are highly soluble.
The high solubility of gases like sulphur dioxide and hydrogen fluoride is due to
chemical reactions with the solvent, forming sulphurous acid and hydrofluoric acid,
respectively.
At the same pressure and temperature:
● O₂ and CO are more soluble in ethanol (C₂H₅OH) than in water (H₂O).
● SO₂ and HF are more soluble in water (H₂O) than in acetone (C₃H₆O).
These examples show that gases dissolve better in solvents with similar chemical
characteristics. For instance, nonpolar gas molecules, like ethane vapours, dissolve
more readily in nonpolar solvents such as benzene or hexane than in water.
Conversely, polar gases like HF are more soluble in polar solvents like water than in
nonpolar solvents like toluene.
Factors Influencing Solubility of Gases in Liquids
The solubility of gases in liquids depends on several factors, primarily the nature of
the solute and solvent, temperature, and pressure. Here’s a detailed explanation of
each factor:
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent
The chemical nature of both the gas (solute) and the liquid (solvent) plays a
significant role in determining solubility. In general, the rule “like dissolves like”
applies, meaning polar gases tend to dissolve better in polar solvents, while nonpolar
gases are more soluble in nonpolar solvents.
Polar Gases in Polar Solvents: Gases that are polar or can form hydrogen bonds
tend to dissolve well in polar solvents like water. For example:
Ammonia (NH₃) and hydrogen chloride (HCl) are highly soluble in water
because both gases can form hydrogen bonds with water, enhancing their
solubility.
Sulphur dioxide (SO₂) dissolves well in water because it reacts chemically to
form sulphurous acid, which further increases solubility.
Nonpolar Gases in Nonpolar Solvents: Nonpolar gases dissolve more easily in
nonpolar solvents like benzene or hexane.
Oxygen (O₂) is more soluble in organic solvents like ethanol or benzene than in
water.
Methane (CH₄) is also more soluble in organic solvents due to the lack of strong
interactions with water molecules.
2. Temperature
Temperature has an inverse relationship with the solubility of gases in liquids. As
temperature increases, gas solubility in liquids typically decreases. This is because
higher temperatures give gas molecules more kinetic energy, making them more
likely to escape from the solvent.
Example: Oxygen (O₂) is less soluble in warm water than in cold water. This is why
aquatic life can struggle in warmer waters, as there is less dissolved oxygen available.
Another Example: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) in soda or carbonated beverages is more
soluble at lower temperatures. When these drinks are warmed, the CO₂ escapes more
easily, leading to the beverage going "flat.’’
3. Pressure (For Gases Only)
For gases, pressure directly affects solubility. According to Henry’s Law, the solubility
of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas above the liquid.
An increase in pressure forces more gas molecules into the solution, increasing
solubility.
Example: In carbonated beverages, CO₂ gas is dissolved in the liquid under high
pressure. When the container is opened and the pressure is released, CO₂ bubbles out,
as the gas solubility decreases at atmospheric pressure.
Another Example: In deep-sea diving, nitrogen gas dissolves in the blood at higher
pressures. As divers ascend and the pressure decreases, nitrogen solubility also
decreases, which can lead to the formation of nitrogen bubbles in the bloodstream, a
condition known as decompression sickness or "the bends."
Henry's Law
Henry's Law is a fundamental principle in chemistry that relates the solubility of a gas
in a liquid to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid. Henry's Law states that
at a constant temperature, the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid.
Formula: 𝐶 = 𝑘𝐻 × 𝑃
Where,
C is the concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid (usually in mol/L).
kH is the Henry's Law constant (depends on the gas, solvent, and temperature,
typically expressed in mol/(L·atm) or similar units).
P is the partial pressure of the gas above the liquid (in atm, Pa, etc.).
Key Points:
Temperature Dependence: The value of Henry's law constant kH varies with
temperature. For most gases, as temperature increases, kHdecreases, meaning that
gas solubility decreases with increasing temperature.
Different kH Values for Different Gases: Different gases have different Henry's law
constants when dissolved in the same solvent, as their interactions with the solvent
vary.
Examples of Henry’s Law in Practice
Carbonated Beverages: In sodas, carbon dioxide (CO₂) is dissolved in the liquid
under high pressure. When the bottle or can is sealed, the CO₂ is kept at a high
pressure, maintaining solubility. Upon opening, the pressure is released, and the CO₂
escapes as bubbles.
Oxygen in Water for Aquatic Life: The solubility of oxygen in water depends on
atmospheric pressure. In higher altitudes, where atmospheric pressure is lower, less
oxygen dissolves in water, which can affect aquatic organisms.
Decompression Sickness: When divers are underwater, the pressure is higher,
leading to a higher solubility of nitrogen in their blood. As they ascend and pressure
decreases, nitrogen solubility decreases, and if they ascend too quickly, nitrogen gas
can form bubbles in the bloodstream, causing decompression sickness.
Limitations of Henry's Law
Non-Ideal Behaviour: Henry’s law is applicable mainly for ideal dilute solutions and
for gases that do not react chemically with the solvent.
High Pressure: At very high pressures, gases may not obey Henry's Law due to
deviations from ideal behaviour.
Vapour Pressure of a Binary Ideal Solution Containing Volatile Liquids
When we mix two volatile liquids to form a binary (two-component) solution, the
vapour pressure of the solution depends on the vapour pressures of each component
and their relative amounts. In an ideal solution, the interactions between the
molecules of the two components are similar to the interactions between molecules in
each pure liquid. This means that the components mix without any significant change
in energy or volume.
Vapour Pressure
The vapour pressure of a liquid is defined as the pressure exerted by its vapours
when they are in equilibrium with the liquid phase at a given temperature.
The rate of evaporation equals the rate of condensation.
The vapour pressure of a liquid depends on:
Nature of the Liquid: Stronger intermolecular forces result in lower vapour pressure
as fewer molecules can escape the liquid phase.
Temperature: As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the molecules
increases, leading to a higher number of molecules escaping the liquid surface and,
consequently, a higher vapour pressure.
The Clausius-Clapeyron equation describes the relationship between the vapour
pressure of a substance and its temperature. It is particularly useful for
understanding phase transitions, such as liquid to vapour, as well as for calculating
changes in vapour pressure with temperature.
𝑑𝑃 ∆𝐻
𝑑𝑃
= 𝑇Δ𝑉
where:
● dP/dT is the rate of change of vapour pressure with temperature.
● ∆H is the enthalpy of vaporization (a measure of the heat required to convert a
unit mass of the liquid into vapour without a temperature change).
● T is the absolute temperature.
● ∆V is the change in volume during the phase transition.
Vapour Pressure of a Solution
When two volatile liquids, A and B, are mixed to form an ideal solution, both A and B
will contribute to the vapour above the solution. This means that the vapour above
the solution will contain molecules of both A and B.
In an ideal solution, each component behaves as if it is in its pure state, meaning
that the contribution of each component to the vapour pressure is directly
proportional to its mole fraction in the solution.
Using Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure, the total vapour pressure of the solution is
the sum of the partial pressures of A and B:
𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵
Since this solution is dilute and behaves ideally, Raoult's Law can be applied, which
means each component’s partial pressure is proportional to its mole fraction in the
solution.
Raoult's Law
Raoult's Law describes the relationship between the vapour pressure of an ideal
solution and the vapour pressures of its individual components. It applies primarily to
ideal solutions where the intermolecular forces between the different components
are similar to those within each pure component.
Statement of Raoult’s Law
For an ideal solution, the partial vapour pressure of each volatile component is
directly proportional to its mole fraction in the solution. If a solution has two
components, A and B:
Partial Vapour Pressure of A:
𝑜
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑋𝐴 × 𝑃𝐴
Where,
● PA is the partial pressure of component A in the solution.
● XA is the mole fraction of A in the solution.
● PAo is the vapour pressure of pure A.
Partial Vapour Pressure of B:
𝑜
𝑃𝐵 = 𝑋𝐵 × 𝑃𝐵
Where,
● PB is the partial pressure of component B in the solution.
● XB is the mole fraction of B in the solution.
● PBo is the vapour pressure of pure B.
Total Vapour Pressure of the Solution:
According to Dalton’s Law, the total vapour pressure of the solution is the sum of the
partial pressures of A and B:
𝑜 𝑜
𝑃𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑃𝐴 + 𝑃𝐵 = 𝑋𝐴𝑃𝐴 + 𝑋𝐵𝑃𝐵
Ideal Solutions:
An ideal solution is one that obeys Raoult’s Law over the entire range of
concentration, meaning the partial vapour pressure of each component is directly
proportional to its mole fraction in the solution. In ideal solutions, the interactions
between different types of molecules (solute and solvent) are similar to the
interactions between molecules of the same type.
Characteristics of Ideal Solutions:
Obedience to Raoult’s Law: The vapour pressure of each component in an ideal
solution is directly related to its mole fraction. The total vapour pressure of the
solution is simply the sum of the partial pressures of the components.
No Enthalpy Change: When ideal solutions form, there is no heat absorbed or
released. This means the mixing process is neither endothermic nor exothermic, as
the intermolecular forces before and after mixing remain the same.
No Volume Change: The volume of an ideal solution is the sum of the volumes of its
individual components. No expansion or contraction occurs during mixing, as the
intermolecular distances do not significantly change.
Uniform Interactions: The interactions between different molecules (solute and
solvent) are similar to the interactions between the same molecules, leading to a
consistent and predictable solution behaviour.
Examples of Ideal Solutions:
✔ Benzene and Toluene: These two similar hydrocarbons form an ideal solution
because of their comparable molecular structure and intermolecular forces.
✔ n-Hexane and n-Heptane: These nonpolar alkanes have similar intermolecular
forces, resulting in ideal solution behaviour when mixed.
Non-Ideal Solutions
Non-ideal solutions are those that do not strictly follow Raoult’s Law across the entire
range of concentrations. In these solutions, the interactions between unlike molecules
(solute-solvent) differ from those between like molecules, leading to deviations from
ideal behaviour.
Characteristics of Non-Ideal Solutions:
Deviation from Raoult’s Law: Non-ideal solutions show either higher or lower vapour
pressures than expected by Raoult’s Law. This is due to the differences in the strength
of interactions between unlike molecules.
Enthalpy Change During Mixing: Mixing in non-ideal solutions can either absorb or
release heat. This means that non-ideal solutions can be endothermic (absorbing
heat) or exothermic (releasing heat), depending on the nature of the interactions.
Volume Change on Mixing: Unlike ideal solutions, non-ideal solutions may expand or
contract upon mixing. This volume change results from differences in intermolecular
distances due to varying strengths of interactions between unlike molecules.
Unequal Molecular Interactions: In non-ideal solutions, the interactions between
solute and solvent molecules differ from those within the solute or solvent alone. This
unequal interaction leads to changes in physical properties and deviations from
expected behaviour.
Types of Deviations in Non-Ideal Solutions
Non-ideal solutions can exhibit either positive or negative deviations from Raoult’s
Law:
Positive Deviation:
Occurs when the interactions between unlike molecules (solute-solvent) are weaker
than those between like molecules. This leads to a higher vapour pressure than
expected, as molecules escape more readily into the vapour phase. Positive deviation
is often associated with an endothermic mixing process (heat absorption) and volume
expansion.
Examples of Positive Deviation:
✔ Ethanol and Acetone: Ethanol molecules interact strongly with each other due
to hydrogen bonding, which is weakened in the presence of acetone, causing a
positive deviation.
✔ Carbon Tetrachloride and Methanol: The nonpolar CCl₄ and polar methanol do
not interact strongly, leading to higher vapour pressure than predicted by
Raoult’s Law.
Negative Deviation
Occurs when the interactions between unlike molecules are stronger than those
between like molecules. This leads to a lower vapour pressure than expected, as fewer
molecules escape into the vapour phase. Negative deviation is often associated with
an exothermic mixing process (heat release) and volume contraction.
Examples of Negative Deviation:
✔ Acetone and Chloroform: Strong hydrogen bonds form between acetone and
chloroform, leading to a more stable solution with lower vapour pressure.
✔ Water and Sulphuric Acid: Water and sulphuric acid have strong hydrogen
bonding, resulting in a lower vapour pressure than expected.
Summary of Ideal vs. Non-Ideal Solutions
Property Ideal Solution Non-Ideal Solution
Obeys Raoult’s Law Yes No
Enthalpy Change ΔHmix =0 ΔHmix≠O
(ΔH)
Volume Change (ΔV) ΔVmix =0 ΔVmix ≠O
Types of Deviations None Positive or Negative
Colligative Properties of Solutions
Colligative properties are properties of solutions that depend only on the number of
solute particles in a given amount of solvent, not on the identity or type of solute
particles. This means that these properties are influenced by how many particles
(molecules or ions) are present in the solution rather than the chemical nature of the
solute itself. Colligative properties are essential in various applications, including
determining molar masses and studying solution behaviours.
There are four main colligative properties:
1. Relative Lowering in Vapour Pressure:
Relative lowering in vapour pressure is a colligative property that occurs when a
non-volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent, leading to a decrease in the solvent’s
vapour pressure. The "relative lowering" refers to the reduction in vapour pressure
expressed as a fraction or ratio of the initial vapour pressure of the pure solvent.
When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a solvent, it reduces the number of solvent
molecules at the surface of the liquid. Since fewer solvent molecules can escape into
the vapour phase, the overall vapour pressure of the solution is lower than that of the
pure solvent.
This phenomenon depends only on the number of solute particles in the solution, not
on their nature or type. Thus, it is a colligative property and depends on the
concentration of solute particles relative to the solvent molecules.
Raoult’s Law and Relative Lowering in Vapour Pressure: According to Raoult’s Law
for an ideal solution, the vapour pressure of the solvent in a solution is directly
proportional to the mole fraction of the solvent. Mathematically, for a solution with a
non-volatile solute:
𝑜
𝑃 −𝑃
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑜 = 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑃
Where,
● Po is the vapour pressure of the pure component.
● P is the vapour pressure of the solvent in the solution.
● Xsolute is the mole fraction of the solute.
2. Elevation in Boiling Point
Elevation in boiling point is a colligative property of solutions that occurs when a
non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, causing the boiling point of the solution to
be higher than that of the pure solvent. This increase in boiling point depends only on
the concentration of solute particles, not on their identity.
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which its vapour pressure equals
the external atmospheric pressure. When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a
solvent, it causes a reduction in the vapour pressure of the solvent due to the relative
lowering in vapour pressure. Consequently, the solution must be heated to a higher
temperature than the pure solvent to reach the vapour pressure required for boiling.
This elevated temperature at which the solution boils is known as the elevated boiling
point of the solution.
The increase in boiling point is directly proportional to the molal concentration of the
solute particles in the solution, as given by the formula:
∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 × 𝑚
2
𝑅𝑇𝑏
[𝑘𝑏 = 1000𝑙𝑏
]
Where,
● ∆Tb is the elevation in boiling point.
● Kb is the boiling point elevation constant, which is specific to each solvent.
● m is the molality of the solution.
3. Depression in Freezing point:
Depression in freezing point is a colligative property observed when a non-volatile
solute is added to a solvent, resulting in a decrease in the freezing point of the
solution compared to the pure solvent. This property depends solely on the number of
solute particles, not their identity.
The freezing point of a liquid is the temperature at which the solid and liquid phases
of the substance coexist in equilibrium. When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a
solvent, it disrupts the formation of the solid crystal structure, requiring more energy
or a lower temperature to reach the point of solidification. Consequently, the freezing
point of the solution becomes lower than that of the pure solvent.
The decrease in freezing point is directly proportional to the molal concentration of
the solute particles in the solution, represented by the formula:
∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝐾𝑓 × 𝑚
2
𝑅𝑇𝑏
[𝑘𝑏 = 1000𝑙𝑏
]
Where,
● ∆Tf is the depression in the freezing point.
● Kf is the freezing point depression constant, which is specific to each solvent.
● m is the molality of the solution.
Osmotic Pressure:
Osmotic pressure (Π) is the pressure required to prevent the flow of solvent molecules
through a semipermeable membrane from a dilute solution (or pure solvent) into a
more concentrated solution. It is a colligative property, meaning it depends only on
the concentration of solute particles, not their identity.
Formula for osmotic pressure:
π = 𝐶𝑅𝑇
Where,
● ∏ is the Osmotic Pressure.
● C is the concentration of the solute.
● R is the gas constant.
● T is the temperature.
Osmosis
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules across a semi-permeable membrane
from an area of lower solute concentration to one of higher solute concentration. This
passive process equalizes solute concentrations on both sides of the membrane,
driven by the difference in water potential. Osmosis plays a crucial role in maintaining
cell turgor pressure, nutrient absorption, and waste removal. In animal cells, osmosis
helps regulate cell volume, while in plant cells, it maintains structural stability.
Osmosis is essential for many biological processes, such as kidney filtration, nutrient
uptake in plants, and water balance in various organisms.
Van't Hoff Factor (i)
The Van’t Hoff factor, represented as i, is an essential concept in physical chemistry
used to describe the degree of dissociation or association of solute molecules in a
solution. Named after the Dutch chemist Jacobus Henricus Van't Hoff, this factor is
applied particularly when calculating colligative properties—properties that depend
on the number of particles in a solution rather than the nature of the solute itself.
Examples of colligative properties include boiling point elevation, freezing point
depression, vapour pressure lowering, and osmotic pressure.
The Van’t Hoff factor, i, is defined as the ratio of the actual number of particles in
solution after dissociation or association to the number of formula units initially
dissolved in the solution:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑖= 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑠
Calculation of i:
The Van’t Hoff factor (i) formula differs depending on whether the solute undergoes
dissociation (breaking apart into ions) or association (molecules grouping together).
1. Dissociation
For a solute that dissociates into multiple particles (common with ionic compounds),
the formula for i is:
𝑖 = 1 + α(𝑛 − 1)
where:
● α = degree of association (fraction of molecules that associate).
● n = total number of ions or particles formed from one formula unit of the solute
upon complete dissociation.
Example:
If NaCl dissociates fully into Na+ and Cl−, n=2, so:
𝑖 = 1 + 1(2 − 1)
𝑖= 2
2. Association
For a solute that associates (where molecules combine, often to form dimers, trimers,
etc.), the formula for i is:
1
𝑖 = 1 − α(1 − 𝑛
)
where,
● α = degree of association (fraction of molecules that associate).
● n = number of individual molecules associating to form one larger unit (e.g. n=2
for dimerization).
Example
If acetic acid (CH3COOH) forms dimers (n=2) in a non-aqueous solvent with 50%
association (α=0.5), then:
1
𝑖 = 1 − 0. 5(1 − 2
)
𝑖 = 0. 75
Explanation of Terms
● If the solute completely dissociates: α=1
● If the solute partially dissociates: 0<α<1.
● If the solute does not dissociate (like non-electrolytes): α=0, so i=1.
Colligative Properties in terms of i:
𝑜
𝑃 −𝑃
● 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐿𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑖 × 𝑜 = 𝑋𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑃
● ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑖 * 𝐾𝑏 * 𝑚
● ∆𝑇𝑓 = 𝑖 * 𝐾𝑓 * 𝑚
● π = 𝑖𝐶𝑅𝑇