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Draft A Plan
- To help you develop your thesis and focus your thinking, try listing and organizing
supporting ideas, whether informally or formally, to group and order your ideas.

Drafting the body

- As you draft the body of your essay, you might naturally ask: what should I say? How
will I write an entire essay on my topic? You will find the process easier if you have a
WORKING THESIS to guide the drafting process.
- If the thesis suggests a plan or if you have sketched a preliminary outline, try to organize
your paragraphs accordingly.
- Draft the body of your essay by writing at least one paragraph about each supporting
point you listed in the planning stage.

Asking Questions as you draft

- As you draft, keep asking questions like the ones on the following page.
- Continue to try to anticipate what your readers may want to know or need to know to
follow your train of thought or your trail of evidence.

Questions to ask as you draft

- Who are my readers?
- What is my purpose?
- What does my thesis promise readers?
- What is my position on the topic?
- How will I support my position?
- What information do my readers need to understand my ideas?

N/B- Remember, first drafts aren’t finished drafts. They are just, first, a place to begin. Find
your momentum and keep writing.
Writing paragraphs
- A paragraph is a group of sentences that focuses on one main point or example.
- Except for special-purpose paragraphs, such as introductions and conclusions.
- Paragraphs are units of organization that develop and support an essay’s main point or
thesis. Aim for paragraphs that are well-developed, organized, coherent, and neither too
long nor too short for easy reading.
1. Focus on the main point.

- An effective paragraph is unified around a main point. The point should be clear to
readers, and all sentences in the paragraph should relate to it.
a. Stating the main point in a topic sentence
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- A clear topic sentence, a one-sentence summary of the paragraph’s main point, acts as a
signpost pointing in two directions: backward towards the thesis statement of the essay
and forward towards the body of the paragraph.
- ALL THE TIMES, the topic sentence comes first in the paragraph.
- In college writing, topic sentences are often necessary for advancing or clarifying lines of
an argument and introducing evidence from sources.
b. Sticking to the point
- Sentences that do not support the topic sentences destroy the unity of a paragraph.
- Writing paragraphs supports a thesis, opens with a topic sentence, focuses on and
develops a main point, and holds together as a unit.

As you build and revise your paragraphs, as these questions

- Does each paragraph support the thesis?
- Does each paragraph open with a clear topic sentence?
- Does each paragraph focus on a main point and develop the point?
- Is each paragraph organized and coherent?
- Is each paragraph the right length for its topic?
- Does each paragraph contain a transition to help readers move from sentence to sentence
and between paragraphs?

Develop the main point

- Though an occasional short paragraph is fine, particularly if it functions as a transition or
emphasizes a point, a series of brief paragraphs suggests inadequate development.
- How much development is enough? That varies, depending on the writer’s purpose and
audience.

c. Make paragraphs coherent.

- When sentences and paragraphs flow from one to another without noticeable bumps,
gaps, or shifts, they are said to be COHERENT.
- Coherence can be improved by strengthening the ties between old information and new.
A number of techniques for strengthening those ties are detailed below:
i. Linking idea clearly
- Readers expect to learn a paragraph’s main point in a topic sentence early in the
paragraph. Then, as they move into the body of the paragraph, they expect to encounter
specific details, facts, or examples that support the topic sentences-either directly or
indirectly.
- If a sentence does not support the topic sentence directly, readers expect it to support
another sentence in the paragraph and, therefore, to support the topic sentence indirectly.

ii. Repeating keywords.

- Repeating keywords is an important technique for gaining coherence.
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- To prevent repetitions from becoming dull, you can use variations of keywords (hike,
hiker, hiking), pronounces referring to the word (gambler…they), and synonyms (run,
spring, race, dash).

iii. Using parallel structures

- Parallel strctures are frequently used within sentences that underscore the similarity of
ideas. They may also be used to bind together a series of sentences expressing similar
information.

iv. Providing transitions

- Transitions are bridges between what has been read and what is about to be read.
- They help readers move from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph.
- Sentence-level transitions – Certain words and phrases signal connection between or
within sentences.
- Paragraph-level transitions – Paragraph-level transitions usually link the first sentence,
as summed up in its topic sentence, with the first sentence of the previous paragraph. In
other words, the topic sentences signal global connections. Look for opportunities to echo
the subject of a previous paragraph as summed up in its topic sentence in the topic
sentence of the next one.
Common transitions:
 To show addition-also, also, and besides, further, furthermore, in addition,
moreover, next, too, first, second.
 To give examples – for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, to illustrate.
 To compare- Also, likewise, similarly.
 To contrast – Although, but, even though, however, in contrast, nevertheless,
on the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet
 To summarize or conclude – In conclusion, in other words, in short,
therefore, to summarize.
 To show time – after, as, before, during, finally, immediately, later,
meanwhile, next, since, then, when, while
 To create a connection – as a result, because, consequently, for this reason, if,
since, so, therefore, thus.

d. Adjust paragraph length

- Most readers feel comfortable reading paragraphs that range between one hundred and
two hundred words.
- Shorter paragraphs can require too much starting and stopping, and longer ones can strain
the reader’s attention span.
- There are exceptions to this guideline, however.
- Paragraphs longer than two hundred words frequently appear in scholarly writing, where
writers explore complex ideas. Paragraphs shorter than one hundred words occur in
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business writing and on websites, where readers routinely skim for main ideas; in
newspapers because of narrow columns’ and in informal essays to quicken the pace.
- In an essay, the first and last paragraphs will ordinarily be the introduction and the
conclusion.
- The special-purpose paragraphs are likely to be shorter than paragraphs in the body of the
essay. Typically, the body paragraphs will follow the essay’s outline: one paragraph per
point in short essays, several paragraphs per point in longer ones. Some ideas require
more development than others, however, so it is best to be flexible.
- If an idea stretches to a length unreasonable for a paragraph, you should divide the
paragraph, even if you have presented comparable points in the essay in single
paragraphs.
- Paragraph breaks are not always made for strictly logical reasons. Writers use them for all
of the following reasons:
Reasons for beginning a new paragraph
- To mark off the introduction and the conclusion
- To signal a shift to a new idea
- To indicate an important shift in time or place
- To emphasize a point (by placing it at the beginning of the end, not in the middle of a
paragraph).
- To highlight a contrast
- To signal a change of speakers (in dialogue)
- To provide readers with a needed pause
- To break up texts that look too dense

N/B- Beware, however, of using too many short, choppy paragraphs that read like a list.
Readers want to see your ideas connect, and they become irritated when you breathe their
momentum by forcing them to pause every few sentences. Here are some reasons you
might have for combining some of the paragraphs in a rough draft.

Reasons for combining paragraphs

- To clarify the essay’s organization
- To connect closely related ideas
- To bind together texts that look too choppy

e. Choosing a suitable strategy for developing paragraphs

- Although paragraphs and essays may be developed in any number of ways, certain
methods of organization occur frequently, either alone or in combination.
i. Illustrations- Illustrations are extended examples and can be a vivid and
effective means of developing a point.
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ii. Narration – A paragraph of narration tells a story or part of a story. Narrative

paragraphs are usually arranged in chronological order, but they may also
contain flashbacks and interpretations that take the story back to an earlier
time.
iii. Description – A descriptive paragraph sketches a portrait of a person, place,
or thing by using concrete and specific details that appeal to one or more of
the senses- sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch.
iv. Process- A process paragraph is structured in chronological order. A writer
may choose this pattern either to describe how something is made or done or
to explain to readers, step by step, how to do something.
v. Comparison and contrast – To compare two subjects is to draw attention to
their similarities, although the word compare also has a broader meaning that
includes a consideration of differences. To contrast is to focus only on
differences. Whether a paragraph stresses similarities or differences, it may be
patterned in one or two ways. Two subjects may be presented one at a time, or
a paragraph may proceed point by point, treating the two subjects together,
one aspect at a time.
vi. Analogy – Analogies draw comparisons between items that appear to have
little in common. Writers use analogies to make something abstract or
unfamiliar easier to grasp or to provoke fresh thoughts about a common
subject.
vii. Cause and effect – A paragraph may move from cause to effect or from an
effect to its causes.
viii. Classification- Classification is the grouping of items into categories
according to some consistent principle. The principle of classification that a
writer chooses ultimately depends on the writer’s purpose.
ix. Definition – A definition puts a word or concept into a general class and then
provides enough details to distinguish it from others in the same class.

Draft an introduction

- Introductions are often called hook because their purpose is to capture the attention of
readers and give them a reason to say “yes, I want to read your essay.”
- Your introduction will usually be a paragraph of 50 to 150 words (in a longer paper, it
may be more than one paragraph) and will include your thesis statement.
- Perhaps the most common strategy is to open with sentences that engage readers,
establish your purpose for writing, and lead readers to your thesis statement.
- As you draft your introduction, try to avoid broad, sweeping opening statements such as
“since the beginning of mankind….” Or “in today’s society…..”; such broad statements
do not hook readers or show them why your essay is worth reading.
- Also avoid dictionary definitions or a restatement of the assignment.

Strategies for drafting an introduction

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- Offer a surprising statistic or an unusual fact

- Ask a question
- Introduce a quotation
- Introduce a debate
- Establish a common ground with readers
- Provide historical background
- Define a key term or concept
- Point out a problem, contradiction, or a dilemma that needs resolution
- Use a vivid example or image

N/B- an effective way to hook the reader is with an engaging question.

Drafting a Conclusion
- A conclusion completes an essay, reminding readers of the essay’s main idea without
repeating it. By the end of the essay, readers should already understand your main
position,so the concluding paragraph is often relative short.
- An effective conclusion rounds out an essay by giving readers a sense of completion or
by issuing a call for actions.
- Always end your essay on a strong positive note. You do not need to use the phrases such
as In conclusion or In summary because your readers should understand that your essay
is concluding.
- The conclusion is your chance to have the last word on the subject and remind readers
why your essay was worth reading.

Strategies for drafting a conclusion

- In addition to echoing your main idea, a conclusion might do any of the following

- Briefly summarize your essay’s key points

- Return to the hook used in the introduction

- Propose a course of action

- Offer a recommendation

- Suggest the topic’s wider significance or implications

- Pose a question for future study

Revision
Global Revision
- Revision is more effective when approaching it in cycles, rather than attempting to
change everything all at once.
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- Focus on the big-picture elements – engaging your audience, sharpening your focus,
improving organization, and strengthening content – before revising and editing your
sentences.
Checklist for Global Revision
- Purpose and audience
 Does the draft address a question, a problem, or an issue that readers care
about?
 Is the draft appropriate for its audience? Does it address the audience’s
knowledge of an attitude towards the subject?
 Does the introduction hook readers and give them a reason to read the essay?
- Focus
 Is the thesis clear? Is it prominently placed?
 Does the thesis answer a reader’s “so what?” question?
 If the draft has no thesis, do you have a good reason for omitting one?

- Organization and paragraphing

 Is each paragraph unified around a main point?
 Does each paragraph support and develop the thesis with evidence?
 Have you stated the main point of each paragraph in a topic sentence?
 Have you presented ideas in a logical order?
 Does each paragraph flow from one to another without gaps or bumps?

- Content
 Is the supporting material relevant and persuasive?
 Which ideas need further development? Have you left your readers with any
unanswered questions?
 Have my major ideas received enough attention?
 Where might you delete redundant or irrelevant information?

- Point of view
 Is the dominant point of view – First person (I or We), second person (you), or
third person (he, she, it, one, or they) – appropriate for your purpose and
audience?

Revising Globally by Making a Reverse Outline

- Reread my draft. Write my main point in the margin.

- Number each paragraph or each part of my draft. Make notes in the margin about each
paragraph. What is the topic sentence? What is the main idea of the paragraph?
- Outlines are useful before you write a first draft to help you focus and structure your
ideas.
- They are useful, too, after you have written a draft to reveal the organization of your draft.
- Some writers revise globally by making a REVERSE OUTLINE.
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- A reverse outline allows you to examine the logical flow of ideas and to evaluate each
paragraph to see how it supports the flow of ideas and to evaluate each paragraph to see
how it supports your thesis.
- By going through your draft paragraph by paragraph, you can see how the parts work
together and determine whether each paragraph has a clear focus.
- Sometimes a reverse outline reveals that your draft has taken a different direction than
you planned and thus you need to revise your thesis.
- Sometimes it reveals gaps in support of paragraphs that need topic sentences.
- A reverse outline gives you a chance to rethink your thesis and support, to see how they
work together.

Revise and edit sentences

- When you revise sentences, you focus on clarity and effectiveness.

- When you edit, you check the correctness.
- Sentences that are wordy, vague, or rambling may distract readers and make it hard for
readers to focus on your purpose or grasp your ideas.
- A rambling sentence is a sentence that is too long and includes too many ideas that are
unrelated.
- Rambling sentences can be confusing and sound wrong because the thought wanders
from one topic to another.
- Read each sentence slowly to determine whether it communicates your meaning clearly
and specifically.
- You might find it helpful to read your work aloud and trust your ears to detect
awkwardness, wordiness, or jarring repetition.

Proofreading and formatting your work

- Proofreading is a special kind of reading: a slow and methodical search for misspellings,
typos, and omitted words or words endings.

Proofreading tips

- Remove distractions and allow yourself pure concentration – without a cell phone.
- Proofread out loud, articulate each word as it is actually written.
- Proofread your sentence in reverse order.
- Don’t rely heavily on spell checkers and grammar checkers. Before accepting changes,
consider the accuracy of the suggestions.
- Ask a volunteer (A friend, roommate, or a co-worker) to proofread after you. A second
reader may catch something you didn’t.

Reflecting on your writing

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- Reflection - the process of stepping back periodically to examine your decision,

preferences, strengths, and challenges as a writer.
- Reflection helps you recognize your progress as a writer.
- Thinking about who you are as a writer and what you’ve learned about writing makes it
possible for you to transfer your learning from one writing assignment to the next.
- When you complete a piece of writing, reflect on questions such as the following:
✓ What have you learned about yourself as a writer?

Drafting analytical thesis statement

- An effective thesis statement for analytical writing responds to a question about a text or
tries to resolve a problem in the text.
- Remember that your thesis is not the same as the author’s thesis or main idea. Your thesis
presents your judgment of the author’s argument.
Problem with book review/analysis essay
- If a reviewer tells you that your draft contains “too much summary, not enough analysis,”
you might wonder how to revise.
‣ “Too much summary” means that you are describing and restating what a text says
without adding your own thought or insights. In summarizing, you might write
sentences such as X argues that __________ or Y explains her research study
___________.
‣ In analyzing, you go beyond description and summary to offer your judgement of
X’s arguments and Y’s research with sentences such as X’s arguments is convincing
but could also include ____________or we could draw a different conclusion from
Y’s research study ________.
- To help you revise an analysis essay, examine your thesis to see whether it communicates
a position and doesn’t just describe a fact of the text. Remember that your thesis isn’t a
restatement of the text’s thesis. Also try to examine the structure of your essay to make
sure it doesn’t follow the organization of the original text from beginning to end.
- A good strategy of academic writing is to keep your audience in mind as you develop an
analysis. Remember that readers are eager to hear what you take from a text; they want to
hear your observations, questions, and ideas. Some readers won’t necessarily interpret a
text as you do, nor will they necessarily draw the same conclusion.
- Through your careful reading of a text, you show your audience something they might not
have seen or understood about it.
- When you ask an interesting question about a text, you hook your readers and give them a
reason to read your essay. A how or why question is one that taps into a real debate about
a text or shows readers that something in the text is open to debate.

How to draft an analytical thesis statement

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- Analysis begins with asking questions about a text. As you draft your thesis, your
questions will help you form a judgement of the text. Let these steps guide you as you
develop an analytical thesis statement.

▻ Review your notes to remind yourself of the author’s main idea, supporting
evidence, and if possible, the author’s purpose (reason for writing) and audience
(intended reader).
▻ As what
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Academic Reading, Writing, and Speaking

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- How can being a better reader help me to become a better writer

Reading and writing critically

- One of the best ways to become a strong college writer is to become a critical reader.
- When you read critically, you read with an open, curious mind, trying to understand not
only what is said but also why and how it’s said.
- And when you write analytically, you respond to a text and its author with your
observation and insights.
- The more you take from your reading, the more you have to give as a writer.

Critical reading involves UNDERSTANDING

►what is being said
► Why is it being said
► How it’s being said.

Read actively
- Reading, like writing, is an active process that happens in steps.
- Most texts, such as the ones assigned in college, do not yield their meaning with one
quick reading. Rather, they require you to read and reread to comprehend their ideas and
the evidence used to support their claims.
- When you read actively, you ask questions about a text and pay attention to details you
would miss if you just skimmed the text.
- Active readers preview a text, annotate it, and then converse with it.

Previewing a text
- Start by previewing a text to help you understand its basic features and structure.
- A text’s title, for example, may reveal an author’s purpose; a text’s style and format,
either print or digital, may reveal what kind of text it is – a book, report, a scholarly
article, memo, or something else.
- The more you know about a text before you read it, the easier it will be to dig deeper into
it.
Annotating a text
- Annotating a text helps you read, actively and deeply, to understand what the text says
and why it was written.
- Think of annotating as an exchange you have with an author and a text.
- Your role in the exchange is to respond as a reader, inserting and adding your
observations and questions, your responses and reactions.
- As you read, you note the strengths and limitations of the text, comment on what’s clear
and what is confusing, and answer the basic question, “What is this text about?”
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- To annotate, you might circle, underline, or bracket the text’s thesis, key words, and
major pieces of evidence to help you distinguish the main ideas from the supporting
ideas.
- You might use the text’s margin to ask questions about the author’s purpose and
argument, and you might note what surprises or puzzles you about the text or where you
agree or disagree with it.
- Some writers like to use symbols such as asterisks (*), exclamation points (!) and
question marks (?) in the margins to help visualize their responses.
- The more you annotated a text with your own words, symbols and responses, the more
you make the text your own – and the easier it is for you to start writing about it.
Conversing with a text
- Conversing with a text is simply, responding to a text and its author – helps you move
beyond your initial notes to draw conclusions about what you’ve read.
- Perhaps you ask additional questions, examine the author’s assumptions, point out
something that doesn’t make sense, or explain how the author’s ideas suggest wider
implications.
- As you talk back to a text, you look more closely and skeptically at how the author works
through a topic, and you analyze the author’s evidence and conclusion to question their
effectiveness.
- Conversing takes your annotation to the next level. You might begin your conversation
with a text and its author using sentence starters such as these:
► But what about _______?
► Have you considered _____?
►Here’s why I find this text so important: ____?
► what’s missing here is ______?
►Couldn’t we also see it this way: _____?
► what if we conclude _____instead of _____?
The double-entry notebook strategy
- Many writers use a double-entry notebook to converse with a text and its author and to
generate ideas.
- To create one, draw a line down the center of a notebook page or create a two-column
table in a word or Google document.
- On the left side, record what the author says; include quotations, sentences, and key terms
from the text.
- On the right side, record your observations and questions.
- A double-entry notebook allows you to visualize the conversation between you and the
author as it develops.

Asking the “So What?” question

- As you read and annotated a text, make sure you understand its thesis, or central idea.
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- As yourself: “What is the author’s thesis?”

- Then put the author’s thesis to the “So what? Test- why does this thesis matter?
- Why does it need to be argued?
- What is at stake
- Perhaps you’ll conclude that the thesis is too obvious and doesn’t matter at all – or that it
matters so much that you feel the author stopped short and overlooked key details or
asked the wrong question.
- Or perhaps you’ll see many strengths in the author’s arguments but feel that a reasonable
person might draw different conclusions about the issue.
Guidelines to active reading
Preview a written text
- Who is the author? What are the author’s credentials?
- What is the author’s purpose: To inform? To persuade? To call to action?
- Who is the expected audience?
- When was the text written? Where was it published or posted?
- What kind of text is it: a report? A scholarly article? An online news report? A public
service video?
Annotated a written text
- What surprises, puzzles, or intrigues you about the text?
- What word or terms do you need to look up?
- What question does the text attempt to answer, or what problem does it attempt to solve?
- What is the author’s thesis, or main idea? What does the author want you to believe or
do?
- What type of evidence does the author provide to support the thesis?
- How persuasive is this evidence?
- If the text includes sound or images, what purpose do they serve?
- What do you notice about design details?

Converse with a written text

- What are the strengths and limitations of the text?
- If it is a multimodal text, has the author chosen the best combination of modes for the
message?
- Has the author drawn conclusions that you question?
- Do you have a different interpretation of the evidence?
- Does the text raise questions that it does not answer?
- Does the author consider opposing viewpoints? Does the author treat sources fairly?

Ask the “so what?” question

- Why does the author’s thesis need to be argued, explained, or explored? What’s at stake?
- What has the author overlooked or failed to consider in presenting this thesis or message?
What’s missing?
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- Is the thesis debatable? Could a reasonable person draw different conclusions?

RESEARCH WRITING

Thinking like a researcher; gathering sources

a. Manage the project- when you begin a research project, you will need to understand the
assignment, choose a direction, and ask questions about your topic.
i. Managing time – When you receive your assignment, set a realistic schedule of
deadlines. Think about how much time you might need for each step of your
project.
ii. Getting the big picture – As you consider a possible research topic, take time to
read a few sources to gain an overview of your topic. Ask yourself questions such
as
►What aspects of the topic are generating the most debate?
► Why and how are people disagreeing?
►Which argument and approaches seem worth exploring?
iii. Keeping a research log – Research is a process. As your research evolves, you
may find yourself asking new questions that require you to create a new search
strategy, find additional sources, or revise your initial assumptions. A research log
– a hard copy notebook or a digital file – helps you maintain records of the
sources you read and your questions and ideas about those sources.
b. Pose questions worth exploring- every research project starts with questions. Try using
who, what, when, how and why to form research questions for your project.
►Who is responsible for the contaminated drinking water in Flint, Michigan?
►What happens to the arts without public funding?
►How can nutritional food label be redesigned so that they inform rather than
confuse consumers?
►Why are boys diagnosed with attention deficit disorder more often than girls
are?
i. Choosing a focused question – If your initial question is too broad, given the length
of the paper you plan to write, look for ways to narrow and focus your question.
Broad topic: What are the benefits of higher tariffs on imported cars?
Narrower topic: Will higher tariffs on imported cars create new auto industry
jobs and help US carmakers become more profitable?

ii. Choosing a debatable question – Your research paper will be more interesting to
both you and your audience if you asked a question that is open to debate, not a
question that leads to a report or a list of facts. Why or how question most often leads
to a researched argument and engages you and your readers in a debate with multiple
perspectives.
Example
Too factual: What percentage of state police departments use body cameras?
16

Debatable: How has the widespread use of body cameras changed encounters
between officers and civilians?
iii. Choosing a question grounded in evidence – For most college courses, the central
argument of a research paper should be grounded in evidence, not in personal
preference or opinion. Your question should lead you to evidence, not to a defense of
your belief.
Example
Too dependent on personal opinion – Do medical scientists have the right to
experiment on animals?
Grounded in Evidence - How have technical breakthroughs made medical
experiments on animals increasingly unnecessary?

iv. Testing your research question – once you have a tentative research question, check
to see what it is interesting, provocative, and flexible enough to pursue.
►Does your question allow you to research a topic that interests you?
► Does your question give you (and your reader) an opportunity to think about
your topic in a new way?
► Is the question debatable and flexible enough to allow for many possible
answers?
►Can you answer the “so what” question to show why the question needs to be
asked and why the answer is worth knowing.
Finding a gap in a research debate
- Study the debate around the topic; identify the big burning questions others have asked.
- Think like a mediator; Is there any common ground that can bridge the disagreement?
- Think like a scientist, is there a group of people the research doesn’t address?
- Think like a lawyer; look closely at the evidence to see whether there are assumptions or
definitions I can challenge or question.
How to enter a research conversation
- A college research project asks you to be in conversation with writers and researchers
who have studied your topic- responding to their ideas and arguments and contributing
your own insight to move the conversation forward.
- As you ask preliminary questions, you may wonder where and how to step into a research
conversation
►Identify the expert and ideas in the conversation. Ask: who are the major writers
and most influential people researching your topic? What are their credentials? What
position have they taken? How and why do the experts disagree?
►Identify any gaps in the conversation – What is missing? Where are the gaps in
the existing research? What questions haven’t been asked yet? What position needs to
be challenged?
► Try using sentence starters to help you find a point of entry
17

o On one side of the debate is position X, and on the other side is Y, but there is
a middle position: __________
o The conventional view about the problem needs to be challenged because___
o Key details in this debate that have been overlooked are _______
o Researchers have drawn conclusion X from the evidence, but one could also
draw a different conclusion________
Mapping out research strategy
- Before you research for sources, think about what kind of sources will be appropriate for
your project.
- Considering the kinds of sources you need will help you develop a search strategy – a
systemic plan for locating sources.
- Try to cast a wide net in your search strategy to learn about what aspects of your topic are
generating the most debate.
- No single search strategy works for every topic. Some topics, it may be useful to search
for information in newspapers, government publications, films, and websites.
- For others, the best sources might be scholarly journals and books, research reports, and
specialized reference works. Still other topics might be enhanced by field research-
interviews, surveys, or observation.
Examples

1. Research question - Why should (or why shouldn’t) the government enact
laws to regulate healthy eating choices?
Search Strategy
i. search the web to locate current news, government publications, and
information from organizations that focus on government regulations of
food.
ii. Check a library database for current peer-review research articles
iii. Use the library catalog to search for a recent published book that was cited
by a source.
2. Research question – How can technology facilitate a shift from teacher-
delivered to student-centered learning?
Search strategy
i. Search Google Scholar and CQ researcher to see which aspects of the
question are generating debate.
ii. View a TED talk to deepen your understanding of education technology.
iii. Use a specialized database related to education and technology to search
for studied and scholarly articles.
3. Research question – To what extent should Major General Nathan Bedford
Forrest be held accountable for the massacre of Union troops at Fort Pillow?
Search strategy
i. Locate books through the library’s online catalog
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ii. Use a specialized history database to locate scholarly articles and

newspaper articles from 1864.
iii. Use the Library of Congress site and other websites to track down
additional primary documents mentioned in his sources.

Research efficiently: Master a few shortcuts to finding good sources

- You can save yourself time by becoming an efficient searcher of the library database and
the web.
Using the library – the website hosted by your college library links to databases and
other references containing articles, studies, and reports written by key researchers. Use
the library resources, designed for academic researchers, to find the most authoritative
sources for your project.
Using the web – when conducting searches, use terms that are as specific as possible. The
keywords you use will determine the quality of the result you see. Use clues in what you
find (such as websites of organizations or government agencies that seem informative) to
refine your search.
Using bibliographies and citations as shortcuts – Scholarly books and articles list the
works the author has cited, usually at the end. Skimming these lists is a useful shortcut for
finding additional reliable sources on your topic. Let one source lead you to the next.
Following the trail of citations may lead you to helpful sources and a network of relevant
research about your topic.
Check URLs for clues about sponsorship – Sometimes a web search brings you to a
page that looks useful, but you find it difficult to tell whether it's legitimate. You may find
it useful to shorten a longer URL to its root address, one that ends with .org, .edu,
or .com, for example, so that you can make a better judgement about the usefulness of the
content of the website or web page.
Determine whether you need primary or secondary sources: As you search for
sources, determine whether you are looking at a primary or a secondary source.
Primary sources
- Letters, diaries, film, legislative bill, laboratory study, filed research, report, speech,
eyewitness account, poem, short story, novel.
Secondary sources
- Commentary on or review or interpretation of primary sources by another writer.
- Although a primary source is not necessarily more reliable than a secondary source, it has
the advantage of being a firsthand account. You can better evaluate what a secondary
source says if you have read any primary source it discusses.

Evaluating sources
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- You will often locate far more potential sources on your topic than you will have time to
read.
- Your challenge then is determining what kinds of sources you need and what you need
these sources to do – and to select a reasonable number of trustworthy sources.
- This kind of decision making is referred to as evaluating sources.

Evaluating the reliability and usefulness of a source

- Using reliable sources adds to your credibility and authority as a writer.
- Ideally you want to choose sources that are relevant, current, credible, and bias-free.

i. Relevance

- Is the sources clearly related to your research topic and your argument?
- Will your reader understand why you’ve included the sources in your paper?
- What does the source add to your understanding of the research conversation?
- How does it help you answer your research question?

ii. Currency

- How recent is the sources? Is the information up to date? Does your research topic require
current information? Will your research benefit from consulting older sources, including
primary sources from the historical period?

iii. Credibility

- Where does the source come from? Who is the author? What are the author’s credentials?
How accurate and trustworthy is the information? Who published the sources?

iv. Bias

- Does the author endorse political or religious views that could affect objectivity? Are
evidence and counter-evidence presented in a fair and objective way? Is the author
engaging in a scholarly debate or giving a personal point of view?

How to detect false and misleading sources

- Sources can distort information or spread misinformation by taking information out of

context or by promoting opinions as facts.
- As you evaluate sources, determine authenticity: can the information be verified? Is the
source reliable? You can verify facts and quotations by reading multiple sources and
gathering a variety of perspectives. Because information and misinformation live side by
side on the web, you need to read critically the truth.
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1. Consider the source: is more than one source covering the topic? Is the author
anonymous or named? What can you learn about the author’s credentials and the
mission of a site from checking the “About US” tab? Does the site present only one
side of an issue? Be skeptical if the source is an online one reporting the story.
2. Examine the source’s language. Is the language informal? Does the source overuse
superlatives such as most, best or worst? Does it use the second-person pronoun you?
3. Question the seriousness of the source. Is the source attempting to mimic a reliable
source? Is it possible that the source is satirical and humorous and is not intended to
be read as factual?
4. Fact-check the information. Can the fact be objectively verified? If the conclusions
of a research study are cited, find the study to verify; if an authority is quoted,
research the original source of the quotation, if possible, to see whether the quotation
was taken out of context. Also, be skeptical if a source reports a research study but
doesn’t quote the study’s principal investigator or other respected researchers.
5. Pay attention to the URL. Among the more credible sites are those sponsored by
higher education (.edu), nonprofit groups (.org), and government agencies (.gov).
Established news organizations have standard domain names. Fake sites often use
web addresses such as “Newslo” or “[Link]” that imitate the address of real sites, and
they package information with misinformation to make themselves look authentic.
6. Note the biases. If an article makes you angry or challenges your beliefs, or if it
confirms your beliefs by ignoring evidence to the contrary, take notice, and try to be
as objective as possible. Learn about an issue from reliable sources and from multiple
perspectives.

Determining whether a source is scholarly

Scholarly sources are written by experts for a knowledgeable audience and usually go into
more depth than books and articles for a general audience. Scholarly sources are sometimes
called referred or peer-reviewed because the work is evaluated by experts in the field before
publication.

To determine whether a source is scholarly, look for the following:

 Formal language and presentation

 Authors who are academics or scientists
 Footnotes or a bibliography documenting the works cited in the source
 Original research and interpretation (rather than a summary of other people’s
work)

Reading like a researcher

21

- To read like a researcher is to read with an open, curious mind, to find out not only what
has been written about a topic but also what is missing from the research conversation.
- Many of your college assignments will ask you to read and respond to arguments about
debatable issues. The questions being debated might be matters of public policy like:
Should corporations be allowed to advertise on public school property? Or they might be
scholarly issues: What role do genes play in determining behavior?
- On such questions, reasonable people may disagree.

-
1. Read carefully. Read to understand and summarize the main ideas of a source and an
author’s point of view. Ask questions: what does the source say? What is the author’s
central claim or thesis? What evidence does the author use to support the thesis? What
are the strengths of the source?
2. Read skeptically. Read to examine an author’s assumptions, evidence, and
conclusions and to pose counterarguments. Ask questions: Are any of the author’s
arguments or conclusions problematic? Is the author’s evidence persuasive and
sufficient? Does the author make leaps in logic? Note how and why you agree or
disagree with an author.
3. Read evaluatively. Read to judge the usefulness of a source for your research. You
may disagree with an author’s argument or use of evidence, but refuting the author’s
ideas will help you clarify your position. Ask questions: Is the author an expert on the
topic? Will the source provide background information, lend authority, explain a
concept, or offer counterevidence for your claim?
4. Read responsibly. Take time to read the entire source and to understand its author’s
arguments, assumptions, and conclusions. Avoid taking quotations from the first few
pages of a source before you understand whether the ideas are representative of the
work as a whole.
Recognizing logical fallacies
- When you evaluate an argument, examine its reasoning closely. Some arguments use
unreasonable argumentative tactics known as logical fallacies.
i. Hasty generalization: is a conclusion on insufficient or unrepresentative
evidence.

Assess web sources with special care

- Before using a web source in your paper, make sure you know who created the material
and for what purpose. Sources with reliable information can stand up to scrutiny. As you
evaluate sources, ask questions about their reliability and purpose.

i. Evaluating a website: Checking reliability

o A clear date of publication shows the currency
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o An “About Us” page confirms that this is a credible organization whose

credentials can be verified.
ii. Evaluating a website: Checking purpose
What kind of sources for my research

- Look for evidence to support my argument but also find evidence that challenges my
thinking (counterarguments).
- Use a source that will help me define any key terms.
- Think about how much background information my argument needs. Do I need a source
for that?
- Figure out what roles I need my sources to play. Sources have to do more than just
provide words to quote.

Constructing an Annotated Bibliography

- Constructing an annotated bibliography allows you to summarize, evaluate, and record
publication information for your sources before drafting your research paper.
- Constructing an annotated bibliography focuses your attention on the most promising
sources you’ve located, providing you with an opportunity to assess the usefulness of
these sources as you reflect on how and why they will help you answer your research
question.

Parts of an annotated bibliography

- Record: Record bibliographic information to keep track of publication details for each
source. Using whatever style your assignment requires, record the publication information
for your source. Include functional links where necessary.
- Summarize: Summarize each source to understand its main ideas. Start by identifying
the purpose and thesis of the source and the author’s credentials. Summarize the source’s
main idea and the evidence used to support these ideas. summarizing gives you an
opportunity to test your understanding of the source’s meaning.
- Evaluate: Evaluate each source to assess how it contributes to your research project. Ask
yourself what role a source might play and how it will contribute to your argument. Did it
shape your thinking? Provide key evidence? Lend authority? Offer a counterargument?
Evaluate how and why the source can help you answer your research question and
support your position.

Writing an annotated bibliography

Explore
- For each source, begin by brainstorming responses to questions such as the following.
o What is the purpose of the source? Who is the author’s intended audience?
o What is the author’s thesis? What evidence supports the thesis?
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o What qualifications and expertise does the author bring? Does the author have
any biases or make any questionable assumptions?
o Why do you think this source is useful for your project?
o How does this source relate to the other sources in your bibliography?

Draft
- The following tip can help you draft one or more entries in your annotated bibliography
o Arrange the sources in alphabetical order by author (or by title for work with
no author).
o Provide consistent bibliography information for each source.
o Start your summary by identifying the thesis and purpose of the source as well
as the credentials of the source’s author.
o Keep your research question in mind. How does this source contribute to your
project? How does it help you take your place in the conversation?
Revise
- To revise effectively, ask yourself these questions:
o Is each source summarized clearly? Have you identified the author’s main
idea?
o For each source, have you made a clear judgment about how and why the
source is useful for your project?
o Have you used quotation marks around exact words from a source?

Evaluating a source
Checking for signs of bias
- Does the author or publisher endorse political or religious views that could affect
objectivity?
- Is the author or publisher associated with special-interest groups?
- Are alternative views presented and addressed? How fairly does the author treat opposing
views?
- Does the author’s language show signs of bias?

N/B- Bias does not always render a source not useful. Acknowledging bias when you see it
helps you place the source in the context of the debate and in the context of your own purpose
and audience.
Assessing the writer’s (or organization’s) argument
- What is the author’s central claim or thesis?
- How does the author support this claim- with relevant and sufficient evidence or with just
a few anecdotes or emotional examples?
- Are statistics consistent with those you encounter in other sources? Does the author
explain where the statistics come from?
- Are any of the author’s assumptions questionable? Is the logic flawed?
24

- Does the author consider opposing arguments and refute them persuasively?

N/B- You want to find sources that both support your arguments and present other arguments,
but it helps to try to determine whether a source’s argument has merit and is based on
evidence.

MLA
- In English and other humanities courses, you may be asked to use the Modern Language
Association (MLA) system for documenting sources.
- When writing a research paper based on sources, you will follow three important
conventions:
1. Supporting a thesis statement
2. Citing your sources accurately and avoiding plagiarism
3. Integrating source materials effectively.
1. Supporting a thesis

- Once you have read a range of sources, considered your subject from different
perspectives, and chosen an entry point in the research conversation, you are ready to
focus your research paper by forming a thesis statement and supporting that thesis with
well-organized evidence.

Forming a working thesis statement: Revisited

- A thesis statement expresses your informed answer to your research question- an answer
about which people might disagree.
- Start by developing a working thesis statement to help you narrow your ideas and clarify
your purpose.