BONE is one third connective tissue and the remaining two third part is calcium salts.

Inorganic calcium salts (mainly Ca(PO4)3 and partly CaCO3) → hard and rigid,
& Can afford
Resistance to compressive force of weight bearing,
impact force of jumping
Organic connective tissue (collagen fibres) → tough and resilient (fexible) → resistance to
tensile forces.
If inorganic salt calcium hydroxy-apatite [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2] is removed by putting bone in
acid it becomes flexible (tied as knot) FUNCTIONS OF BONE
Organic tissue removed by burning → bone crumples. Shape and support, resist any form
of stress.
Bone → living tissue Surface for attachment of muscle,
highly vascular, tendon, ligament
has great regenerative power, Serve as lever for muscular action
subjected to disease, Store 97% of body calcium and
heals after fracture, phosphorus
characteristic pattern of growth Bone marrow manufactures blood
Moulds according to change in stress and cells and contains reticuloendotheial
strain cells which are phagocytic in nature
Disuse atrophy and take part in immune response.
Overuse hypertropy.
 Bone cells:- osteogenic - less differentiated cells
Acts as stem cells and form osteoblasts
Osteoblasts:- round cells with nucleus and basophilic cytoplasm
Form matrix - osteoid (collagen fibres and ground substance)
Secrete alkaline phosphatase for mineralization of osteoid
Help in calcification
Osteocytes:- along with bundles of collagen fibres in between them form the
lamellar bone.
Osteoclasts:- involved in bone resorption
origin and function of osteoclasts is similar to macrophages.
-
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PHYLOGENETIC
EXOSKELETON :- Remnants are present in human beings as nails, enamel of teeth.
ENDOSKELETON:- includes all the bones in the body
CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BASED ON SHAPE (MORPHOLOGICAL)
LONG Has elongated shaft (diaphysis) and two expanded ends (epiphyses) which are
smooth and articular.
Shaft has 3 surfaces separated by 3 border, central medullary cavity and a
nutrient foramen directed away from the growing end
A) TYPICAL LONG BONE - humerus, radius, ulna, femur, tibia, fibula
Has two secondary epiphyses
B) MINIATURE LONG BONE - metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges
Has one epiphysis
C) MODIFIED LONG BONE - clavicle
Have medullary cavity in medial two third part
Transmits weight from appendicular to axial skeleton.
FUNCTION:- levers for muscle
SHORT Length, width and thickness are equal.
Shape is usually cuboid or scaphoid (boat shaped).
Bones are pierced by blood vessels
Tarsals,carpals.
FUNCTIONS:- stability, support and slight movement
FLAT Resemble shallow plates
Form boundaries of certain body cavities
Bone in vault of skull (frontal, parietal,occipital) Bone of thoracic cage (sternum,
ribs, scapula).
 FUNCTION:- provides attachment to muscle and Protect internal organs
IRREGULAR BONES Atypical shape
Hip bone, bone at the base of skull ( temporal, sphenoid), first and
second cervical vertebrae, maxilla and mandible.
FUNCTION:- protect internal organs.
PNEUMATIC BONE Irregular bone with large air spaces lined by epithelium.
Bones around nose :- sphenoid, ethmoid,maxilla and frontal.
FUNCTION:- makes the skull light in weight
Helps in resonance of voice
Acts as air conditioning chambers for the inspired air
Improve timbre (quality) of the voice.
SESAMOID BONE Bony nodules found embedded in tendons or joint capsules.
No perisesteum, Haversian system, medullary cavity, ossify after birth.
Related to articular or non articular bony surface, surface of contact
covered with hyaline cartilage & lubricated by bursa or synovial membrane.
Patella in quadriceps tendon, labella in lateral head of gastrocnemius, pisiform
bone of wrist at 1st metatarasophalongeal joint.
FUNCTION:- Resists pressure and Minimise friction
Alters the direction of pull of the muscle
Maintains the local circulation and protects the vessels and nerves
 ACCESSORY/SUPERNUMERARY BONE
Not always present
May occur as ununited epiphyses developed from extra centers of ossification.
Can be mistaken as fractures, often bilateral, smooth surface without any callus
Common in hydrocephalic skulls
Sutural bone of skull, cervical ribs, lumbar ribs.
HETEROTROPIC BONE
Bone that form in soft tissue as a result of constant friction.
Eg:- Rider's bone in adductor longus muscles seen in horse riders.
DEVELOPMENTAL CLASSIFICATION
Cartilaginous Membrano- cartilaginous

>
Membrane/ dermal
Ossify in membrane Ossify in cartilage Ossify partly in membrane &
(intramembranous or (intracartilaginous or partly in cartilage.
mesenchymal ossification) endochondral ossification)
Derived from mesenchymal Derived from replacement Clavicle (sternal end ossifies
condensations. of preformed cartilaginous by endochondral ossification
models while the rest ossifies by
Eg:- bones of vault of skull Bones of limb(humerus,femur) intramembranous) mandible,
-

(frontal,parietal) Vertebral column & thoracic occipital,

sphenoid.
temporal and
Facial bone (maxilla) cage.
 Somatic bones Visceral bones
Most bones are somatic Few bones are visceral
Develop from pharyngeal arches
I Hyoid bone, part of mandible and ear ossicles
&

REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION
Axial skeleton Appendicular skeleton
Skull, vertebral column and thoracic cage
! Bones of limbs (pectoral girdle, free upper
limb and pelvic girdle, free lower limb)
STRUCTURAL CLAASIFICATION
Macroscopically
A) Compact bone Is dense in texture (like ivory), extremely porous.
Best developed in cortex of long bones. (Diaphysis)
Is an adaptation to bending & twisting force ( combination of
compression, tension, shear)
B) Cancellous bone Also called spongy/trabecular bones
Meshwork of rods Open in texture
Meshwork of plates Made up of mesh work of trabecular (rods and plates) between
Meshwork of rods which are marrow containing spaces.
and plates Adaptation of compressive force
 Microscopically

I
A) Lamellar bone Mature human bone (compact or cancellous) are composed of thin
plates of bony tissue called lamellae arranged as branching curved
plates in cancellous bone but in concentric cylinders in compact bone.
B) Woven bone Seen in fetal bone, fracture repair & cancer of bone.
Collagen fibre and bone crystals are arranged randomly.
C) Fibrous bone Found in young foetal bones, are also common in reptiles & amphibia.

D) Dentine In teeth
E) Cement In teeth
WOLFF'S LAW Trajectory theory of Wolff ( 1892)
Bone formation is directly proportional to stress & strain.
There are two force which can stimulate bone formation under proper conditions tensile and
compressive force.
Cancellous bone interpreted by trajectorial theory. Arrangement of bony trabeculae is
governed by the lines of maximal internal stress in bone.
Pressure lamellae arranged parallel to line of weight transmission. There compact
arrangement form bony buttress for additional support like calcar femorale.
Tension lamellae right angles to pressure lamellae. bone occipital
- Frontal (P.B)
(P B)
- bone
-Maxilla
.

(FB)
-Scapula
RibS (F -

B)
Clavicle-
(Mo L B)
.
.

- (L .)
Thoracic
Sternum Humerus - C
Cage
(F B)
-

vertebral
- column
.

Radius
Hip bone >
Radius (1 B) -

-
~ -
=
Ulna (l .

B) -una

- Carpal (S .

B)
(IR)
= Metacarpal
(M .
L .

B)
-
Phalanges
(m .
L -

B)

↓ femur (L .

D)

Patella -Fibula
&

-Tibia
Tibia (LB)
~
Fibula (( B)
=
.

-
Tarsal (S B) .

-metatarsal
(M .
L .

B)
 GROSS STRUCTURE OF ADULT LONG BONE
1 Shaft Composed of periosteum, cortex and medullary cavity.
A) Periosteum:- thick fibrous membrane covering external surface of bone.
Made up of outer fibrous layer & inner cellular layer which is osteogenic in
nature.
United to underlying bone by Sharpey's fibres, union particularly strong
over attachments of tendons & ligaments.
Most sensitive part of the bone as it has rich nerve supply.
Is continuous with the capsule of joint at articular boundary.
Absent in sesamoid bone.
Periosteal arteries nourish the outer as well as underlying cortex.
FUNCTION:- osteogenic, bone growth and repair and protective.
B) Cortex:- Made up of compact bone which gives it desired strength to withstand all
possible mechanical strains.
C) Medullary cavity:- Lined by endosteum which contains osteoblasts which help in bone
repair & remodelling.
Cavity filled with red and yellow bone marrow.
At birth only red bone marrow is present with active haemopoiesis
As we age at some places the marrow atrophies and gets replaced by
yellow marrow, fatty marrow which stores calories. Has no power of
haemopoiesis.
2 Two ends Made up of cancellous bone covered with hyaline (articular) cartilage.

PARTS OF A YOUNG GROWING BONE

A) Epiphysis:- Ends and tips of bone which ossify from secondary centres(centre appear
after birth)
According to number of epiphysis
A) Simple:- Ends of long bone develop from many epiphyses.
Fuse independently with shaft
Eg:- femur
B) Compound:- ends of bones develop from many centres which unite to form
single epiphysis which fuses with shaft.
Eg:- humerus
Based on function
A) Pressure epiphysis:- Is articular
takes part in transmission of the weight.
Eg:- head of humerus, lower end of radius
B) Traction epiphysis:- Is non-articular
Does not take part in transmission of the weight
Always provides attachment to one or more tendons
which exert a traction on the epiphysis.
Ossify later than pressure epiphysis
Eg:- trochanters of femur & tubercles of humerus
 I
C) Atavistic epiphysis:- Is phylogenetically an independent bone
In human becomes fused to another bone.
Eg:- coracoid process of scapula & Ostrigonum or lateral
tubercle of posterior process of talus
D) Aberrant epiphysis:- Not always present
Eg:- epiphysis at the head of the first meta carpal and
at the bases of other metacarpal bones.
E) Compound epiphysis:- 2-3 smaller epiphyses joins to form compound epiphysis
before these join the shaft.
Eg:- Upper end of humerus.
B) Diaphysis:- Elongated shaft of long bone which ossifies from primary centre of
ossification.
Receive blood supply from nutrient artery.
C) Metaphysis:- Epiphysial end of diaphysis are called metaphyses.
Zone of active growth
Before epiphysial fusion, metaphysis is richly supplied with blood
through end arteries forming hair pin bends.