2 – Forces & Motion

Vectors and Scalars

A vector is a quantity has both magnitude and a specific direction. For example:
 Displacement
 Velocity – Speed in a specific direction
 Acceleration
 Force
 Weight
 Momentum
 Energy
A scalar is a quantity has only a magnitude
 Speed – Distance travelled every second
 Mass
 Time

Distance Time Graphs

Speed (m/s) = Distance (m) / Time (s)

Acceleration
Rate of change of velocity
Acceleration (m/s2) = change in velocity (m/s) / time taken (s)

v2 – u2 = 2 * a * x

final velocity2 – initial velocity2 = 2 x acceleration x distance

Resultant Forces
 To work out the resultant of two forces:
o if the forces are acting in the same direction you add them.
o if they are acting in opposite directions then you subtract one from the other.
 If the resultant force is zero (the arrows in the diagram are the exact same size) then the forces are
balanced.
 If the resultant force is a non-zero value (the arrows in the diagram are of different sizes) then the
forces are unbalanced.

Newton’s First Law

Objects will remain at rest, or move with a constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force

 This means if the resultant force acting on an

object is zero:
o The object will remain stationary if it
was stationary before
o The object will continue to move at
the same velocity if it was moving
 When the resultant force is not zero
o The speed of the object can change
o The direction of the object can
change

Newton’s Second Law

The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional
to the object's mass

Force (N) = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)

F = ma

 Newton's second law explains the following

important principles:
o An object will accelerate (change its velocity)
in response to a resultant force
o The bigger this resultant force, the larger the
acceleration
o For a given force, the greater the object's
mass, the smaller the acceleration
experienced

Newton’s Third Law

Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Whenever two bodies interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal opposite

 Newton's third law explains the following

important principles about forces:
o All forces arise in pairs - if object A exerts a
force on object B, then object B exerts
an equal and opposite force on object A
o Force pairs are of the same type - for example,
if object A exerts a gravitational force on
object B, then object B exerts an equal and
opposite gravitational force on object A
 Newton's third law explains the forces that enable
someone to walk
Practical: Investigating Acceleration

Mass and Weight

Mass is the quantity of matter there is in an object – only changes if the object itself changes.
Weight is the force acting on the object due to gravitational attraction.
W = mg = mass (kg) x gravitational field strength (N/kg)

Circular Motion
When an object travels along a circular path, its velocity is always changing
 The speed of the object moving in a circle might be constant - that is, it is travelling the same distance
every second
 However, the direction of travel is always changing as the object moves along the circular path
This means that an object moving in circular motion travels at a constant speed but has a changing
velocity

Centripetal Force
The resultant perpendicular force towards the centre of the circle required to keep a body in uniform
circular motion

Momentum
Momentum (kg m/s) = mass (kg) x velocity (m/s)
p = mv
force = change in momentum / time = (mv – mu) / t
In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event
Elastic Collision - Collide and move in opposite directions
Inelastic Collision - Collide and move in the same direction together

Stopping Distances
Stopping distance = Thinking distance + braking distance
This is when thinking distance is the distance a vehicle travels in the time it takes for the driver to apply the
brakes after realizing they need to stop.
Braking distance is the distance a vehicle travels in the time after the driver has applied the brake.

Reaction Times

Reaction times vary from person to person, but are typically 0.2 s to 0.9 s. A driver’s reaction time can be
affected by:

 tiredness
  drugs
 alcohol
 distractions

Longer reaction times increase the thinking distance when stopping from a given speed.

There are different ways to measure reaction times. One simple method involves dropping a ruler between
someone’s open thumb and forefinger. The higher the reaction time needed to grasp the falling ruler, the
further the ruler falls before being stopped. The ruler can be adjusted to measure in seconds rather than in
millimetres.

Braking Distance

The breaking distance of a vehicle can be increase by:

 Poor road conditions - gravel and poor weather conditions - wet or icy roads. They create less
friction between tyres and the road.
 Poor vehicle conditions - worn brakes or worn tyres. This causes less friction between brakes and
wheels.
 More mass in the vehicle - extra passengers or cargo in the vehicle. The braking friction has to work
for greater distances to remove the larger kinetic energy generated.

When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, there is work done by the friction between the brakes
and the wheel. This reduces the kinetic energy of the vehicle, slowing it down and causing the
temperature of the brakes to increase.

The faster a vehicle travels, the greater the b raking force needed to stop it in a certain distance. A greater
braking force produces a greater deceleration. Large decelerations may cause the brakes to overheat, and
the driver may also lose control of the vehicle.

Work done (J) = force (N) x distance moved in the direction of the force (m)
Kinetic Energy (J) = ½ x mass (kg) x speed2 (m/s)2

 When a vehicle stops, the kinetic energy is transferred to other energy stores by the braking force.
 This idea can be used to calculate the braking distance of a vehicle.
 The braking distance of a car depends on its kinetic energy, so it depends on the square of its velocity.
 This means that if the velocity doubles, the braking distance is multiplied by 2^2 which is 4.

Crash Hazards
When there is a car crash, the car, its contents and the passengers decelerate rapidly. They experience
great forces because of the change in momentum which can cause injuries.
These features reduce injuries to the people in the car by absorbing energy from the impact. They increase
the time taken for the change in momentum on the occupants' bodies, and so reduce the forces involved
and any subsequent injuries.

Seat Belts
Seat belts stop you tumbling around inside the car if there is a collision. However, they are designed to
stretch a bit in a collision. This increases the time taken for the body's momentum to reach zero, and so
reduces the forces on it.
Air bags
Air bags increase the time taken for the head's momentum to reach zero, and so reduce the forces on it.
They also act as a soft cushion and prevent cuts.

Crumples Zones
Crumple zones are areas of a vehicle that are designed to crush in a controlled way in a collision. They
increase the time taken to change the momentum of the driver and passengers in a crash, which reduces
the force involved.

7 - Astronomy
Red Shift
 Light appears red-shifted from galaxies which are moving away from Earth
 The emission spectrum shows the different wavelengths emitted from a star, with black absorption
lines showing absorbed wavelengths.
 The spectra from distant galaxies show the black lines in the emission spectrum shifted towards the
red end of the emission spectrum, showing a red shift.
 The red shift increases as the distance away from the earth increases which is evidence of an
expanding universe.

Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)

 Initially, the universe all matter was condensed in a single point and when it exploded, it emitted lots
of short wavelength radiation
 This radiation stretched to become microwaves as the universe expanded over time.
 This background radiation is present wherever you point a telescope in the sky, proving that the hot
young universe has cooled and expanded since showing that it began from a single point

Life Cycle of a Star

 All stars start from a giant cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called nebula.
 The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it forms a hot ball of gas,
known as a protostar.
o As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will increase, resulting in
more frequent collisions between the particles which causes the temperature to increase.
 Once the protostar becomes hot enough, fusion reactions occur within its core causing thermal
expansion and the force of the gravity keeps the star in equilibrium.
o Here the protostar becomes a main sequence star.
o During the stage, the star is in equilibrium and stable.
o The inward force due to gravity is equal to the outward pressure force from nuclear fusion
 When the star runs out of fuel, the core collapses because the force of gravity is greater than the force
of pressure and heats up.
o As the core collapses, the outer part of the star expands and then it becomes a red giant – red
because the outer surface needs to cool.
 The star will eventually become unstable and eject the outer layer of dust and gas as planetary nebula.
o The core, which is left behind will collapse due to pull of gravity, and the star will become a white
dwarf
o The white dwarf cools down and the amount of energy it emits will decrease and becomes black
dwarf
For Massive Stars (After main sequence)
 After the massive main sequence star, the star expands and becomes a red supergiant.
 For massive stars, the core of the star collapses suddenly and rebound causing a gigantic explosion
called a supernova.
 Then at the center of the explosion a dense body called a neutron star will form.
 In case of the largest stars, the neutron star that forms at the center will continue to collapse under
the force of gravity until it forms a black hole - an extremely dense point in space that not even light
can escape from

10 – Electricity
Circuit Diagrams
Cell / battery - Provides the circuit with a source of potential difference - i.e. energy per unit of charge. A
battery is two or more cells
Switch - Turn the circuit on (closed), or off (open)
Fixed resistor - A resistor limits the flow of current. A fixed resistor has a resistance it cannot change
Variable resistor - A resistor with a slider that can be used to change its resistance. These are often used in
dimmer switches and volume controls
Thermistor - The resistance of a thermistor depends on its temperature. As its temperature increases, its
resistance decreases and vice versa
Light-dependent resistor (LDR) - The resistance of an LDR depends on the light intensity. As the light
intensity increases, its resistance decreases and vice versa
Motor - A device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy
Diode - A diode allows current to flow in one direction only. They are used to convert AC to DC current
Light-emitting diode (LED) - This is equivalent to a diode and emits light when a current passes through it.
These are used for aviation lighting and displays (TVs, road signs)
Ammeter - Used to measure the current in a circuit. Connected in series with other components
Voltmeter - Use to measure the potential difference of an electrical component. Connected in parallel with
the relevant component
 Electric circuit diagrams require the following to work correctly:
o An energy source – This is a source of potential difference so a current can flow. This can be a cell,
battery, or a power supply
o A closed path or a complete circuit – Electrons need to flow in a complete loop for a current to flow.
A circuit can be open and closed using a switch
o Electrical components – These could act as sensors that respond to the environment (LDR,
thermistor), or measure a value (ammeter, voltmeter), or transfer electrical energy to other forms
of energy (LED, lamp). These must be drawn with the correct circuit symbol
 Rules:
o An ammeter is always connected in series
o A voltmeter is always connected in parallel to the component when the voltage is being measured
 o The direction of current flow is always from the positive to the negative terminal of the power
supply

Current
Current is the rate of flow of charge. Measured in Amperes (A)
The wires in an electric circuit are made of metal because metal is a good conductor of electric current
The current in metals is a flow of electrons.
In the wires, the current is a flow of electrons
Series Circuit
 In a series circuit the current is the same value at any point.
Parallel Circuit
 The current splits at junctions however the total current remains the
same
 Current is conserved at a junction in a circuit
Potential Difference
Potential Difference is the amount of energy transferred per unit of charge passing through
the terminals. Measured in Volts (v)
In a series circuit the Potential Difference is shared across the components.
PD of power supply = sum of PD across each component
In a parallel circuit the Potential Difference is the same across every branch.

Resistance
Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current. Measured in Ohms (Ω)
 Fixed resistors have a resistance that remains constant
 Variable resistances can change resistance by changed the length of wire that makes up the circuit
o A longer length of wire has more resistance than a short length of wire
The larger the resistance, the smaller the current (and vice versa)
Series Circuit
 The total resistance is the sum of the resistance in each component R1 + R2 = R
 The resistance of two components is bigger than just one of them because the charge has to push
through both of them when flowing around the circuit
Parallel Circuit (Extension)
 The total resistance is the sum of the reciprocal of the resistance of each component
Summary

Difference Between Series and Parallel Circuit

In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end to
form a single path for current flow. In a parallel circuit, all
components are connected across each other with multiple
electrically common nodes with the same voltage across each
component.

I-V Graphs
Fixed Resistors
The current through a fixed resistor increases as the potential difference increases. The current and
potential difference are directly proportional.

Filament Lamps
Resistance of the filament lamp increases as the temperature of the filament
increases. The current and potential difference are not directly proportional.
The I–V graph for a filament lamp shows the current increasing at a
proportionally slower rate than the potential difference

 This is because as the current increases, the temperature of the filament

in the lamp increases
 The higher temperature causes the atoms in the metal lattice of the
filament to vibrate more
 This causes an increase in resistance as it becomes more difficult for free
electrons (the current) to pass through
 Resistance opposes the current, causing the current to increase at a
slower rate

Where the graph is a straight line, the resistance is constant, when the graph curves the resistance
increases.

Reversing the potential difference reverses the current and makes no difference to the shape of the curve

Diodes
A diode allows current to flow in one direction only – forward bias
In the reverse direction, the diode has a very high resistance and therefore no
current flows – reverse bias
When the current is in the direction of the arrowhead symbol, this is forward
bias
This is shown by the sharp increase in potential difference and current on the right side of the graph
In light-emitting diodes (LEDs) when the current flows in the right direction, the light is emitted. E.g. TV

Light Dependent Resistors – LDRs

The resistance of an LDR changes depending on the light intensity on it.
 As the light intensity increases the resistance of an LDR decreases and vice versa.
LDRs can be used as light sensors, so, they are useful in circuits which
automatically switch on lights when it gets dark, for example, street
lighting and garden lights
 In the dark, its resistance is very large (millions of ohms)
 In bright light, its resistance is small (tens of ohms)

Thermistors
The resistance of a thermistor changes depending on its
temperature
 As the temperature increases the resistance of a
thermistor decreases and vice versa
Thermistors are temperature sensors and are used in circuits
in ovens, fire alarms and digital thermometers
 As the thermistor gets hotter, its resistance decreases
 As the thermistor gets cooler, its resistance increases

Practical – Important!
Aim of the Experiment

 The aim of the experiment is to investigate the relationship between potential difference, current and
resistance for a resistor and a filament lamp

Variables:

 Independent variable = Potential difference, V

 Dependent variable = Current, I
 Control variables:
o Potential difference of the power supply
o Use of the same equipment e.g. wires

1) Set up the circuit as shown with the fixed resistor

2) Vary the voltage across the component by changing
the resistance of the variable resistor, using a wide range of voltages (between 8-10 readings). Check
the appropriate voltage reading on the voltmeter
3) For each voltage, record the value of the current from the ammeter 3 times and calculate the average
current
4) Increase the voltage further in steps of 0.5 V and repeat steps 2 and 3
5) Make sure to switch off the circuit in between readings to prevent heating of the component and
wires
6) Reverse the terminals of the power supply and take readings for the negative voltage (and therefore
negative current)
7) Replace the fixed resistor with the filament lamp and repeat the experiment from step 1

Analysis of Results

 Plot a graph of average current against voltage (an I–V graph) for each component
 If the I–V graph is a straight line through the origin, current is directly proportional to voltage. This
is expected from the fixed resistor:
o The equation that relates the voltage to the current is given by: V = IR
o This equation shows that V is proportional to I (i.e. if voltage increases, current increases at
the same rate) if R is constant, which is true for a fixed resisto
 If the I-V graph is curved, then current is not directly proportional to voltage
o This is expected from the filament lamp
o As the current increases through a filament lamp, its temperature increases
o This increases the resistance of the filament, so it does not remain constant
 Compare the results from the graphs obtained to the known I–V graphs for the resistor, filament
lamp and diode. The results should look like the graphs from above.

Experiment 2: Testing Series & Parallel Circuits

Aim of the Experiment

 The aim of the experiment is to test series and parallel circuits using resistors and filament
lamps. There are a variety of methods to test series and parallel circuits but this starts with a single
resistor / filament lamp in series with a cell, and builds on this circuit with an additional resistor in
series or in parallel.

Variables:

 Independent variable = Potential difference, V

 Dependent variable = Current, I
 Control variables:
o Potential difference of the power supply
o Use of the same equipment e.g. wires

1) Set up the circuit as shown with the single fixed

resistor
2) Record the voltage using the voltmeter and the
current using the ammeter
3) For each pair of voltage and current, calculate the resistance and record this
4) Change the resistor and repeat step 2 and 3
5) Arrange the two resistors in series as shown in the image, then repeat step 2
6) Arrange the two resistors in parallel as shown in the image, then repeat step 2
7) Replace the fixed resistor with a filament lamp and repeat the experiment from step 1

Analysis of Results

 The value of the resistance for each voltage and current reading is calculated using the equation:
o R=V/I
  In series, the total resistance of the two resistors is equal to the sum of the two individual
resistances
 In parallel, the total resistance of the two resistors is less than either of the two individual
resistances

Evaluating the Experiment

Systematic Errors:

 The voltmeter and ammeters should start from zero, to avoid zero error in the readings

Random Errors:

 In practice, the voltmeter and ammeter will still have some resistance, therefore the voltages and
currents displayed may be slightly inaccurate
 The temperature of the equipment could affect its resistance. This must be controlled carefully
 Taking multiple readings of the current for each component will provide a more accurate result and
reduce uncertainties

Heating Effect of Current

When electricity passes through a component (resistor, lamp) some of the electrical energy is turned into
heat therefore increasing the temperature

 The heat that is produced will dissipate into the environment via thermal conduction, convection
and radiation.
 This is used as an advantage to generate heat for electric hobs
 However, wasted thermal energy makes a device less efficient and if too much current flows
through a component, the heating effect can be very dangerous
o This can burn someone if they touch it or cause a fire
 The amount of heat produced depends on two factors:
o Current: The greater the current, the more heat that is produced
o Resistance: The higher the resistance, the more heat that is produced (for a given current)
 Note that reducing the resistance can cause the current to increase
o This could actually increase the amount of heat produced

Explanation

 There is energy transferred to heat when electricity passes through a circuit. This is due to collisions
electrons flowing in the conductors and the lattice of atoms within the conductor
 When the electrons collide, they lose some energy by giving it to the ions, which start to vibrate more.
As a result of this, the metal heats up
 This heating effect is utilised in many appliances: Electric heaters, Electric ovens, Toasters, Kettles
 The amount of heat created in wires can be reduced in a couple of ways:
o Reduce the current in the wires
o Uses wires with a lower resistance
 Copper is used for wires as it has a low resistance and is fairly cheap

AC & DC
A direct current (d.c.) is a current that is steady, constantly flowing in the same direction in a circuit, from
positive to negative

 Travels in one direction

 DC power supply has a fixed positive and negative terminal

An alternating current (a.c.) is a current that continuously changes its direction, going back and forth
around a circuit

 An a.c. power supply has two identical terminals that switches between positive and negative, the
current is therefore defined as positive or negative, depending on which direction it is flowing at
that time
 The frequency of an alternating current is the number of times the current changes direction back
and forth each second
 In the UK, mains electricity is an alternating current with a frequency of 50 Hz and a potential
difference of around 230 V

Mains Electricity
Mains electricity is the electricity generated by power stations and transported around the country
through the National Grid

Live wire (Brown) – Carries the alternating potential

difference from the supply to a circuit. 230V

Neutral wire (Blue) – Forms the opposite end of the circuit to

the live wire to complete the circuit. 0V

Earth Wire (Green & Yellow strips) – Acts as the safety wire
to stop the appliance from becoming live. 0V
  The earth wire is an additional safety wire that can reduce the risk of electrocution when a live wire
comes into contact with metal case of an electrical appliance, if touched. It does this by:
 The earth wire provides a low resistance path to the earth
 It causes a surge of current in the earth wire and hence also in the live wire
 The high current through the fuse causes it to melt and break
 This cuts off the supply of electricity to the appliance, making it safe

Fuses

Fuses are safety devices designed to cut off the flow of electricity to an appliance if the current becomes
too large. Can be 3A, 5A, 13A. Calculate current and choose next one up. If the current becomes too large:

 The wire heats up and melts which causes the wire to break – stopping the flow of current.

Circuit Breaker

 A circuit breaker consists of an automatic electromagnet switch that breaks the circuit if the current
exceeds a certain value
 This has a major advantage over a fuse because:
o It doesn't melt and break, hence it can be reset and used again
o It works much faster
 For these reasons, circuit breakers are used in mains electricity in homes
 12 – Magnetism
Law of Magnetism

Permanent Magnets
 Permanent magnets produce their own magnetic field and cannot lose its magnetism
o Made out of permanent magnetic materials – e.g. steel
Induced Magnets
 Induced Magnets are magnetic materials that temporarily turn into magnets when placed in a
magnetic field
 When magnetism is induced on a magnet: either end will become the north or south pole
 Magnetic materials will always be attracted to a permanent magnet meaning that the end of the
material closest to the magnet will have the opposite pole closest to the material

Magnetic Fields
THE REGION AROUND A MAGNET WHERE A FORCE ACTS ON ANOTHER MAGNET OR ON A MAGNETIC MATERIAL

Magnetic Field Lines

 Magnetic field lines are used to represent the strength and direction of a magnetic field
 Direction is shown using arrows
 Strength of the magnetic field is shown by spacing of the magnetic field
o Closer = Stronger
o Far Apart = Weaker
 Rules:
o Always go from north to south
o Magnetic field lines must never touch or cross other field lines

Uniform Magnetic Field

 Uniform magnetic field will be produced in gaps between opposite poles
 In a uniform magnetic field, the strength and direction is the same at all points
o Equal Strength  Equal Spacing
o Same Direction  All Arrows point from North to South pole

Magnetic Field Around a Bar Magnet

 The magnetic field lines are strongest at the poles – where the magnetic field lines are closest together
 The magnetic field becomes weaker as the distance from the magnetic increases – as the magnetic
field lines are getting further apart.
Plotting Magnetic Fields
1. Place a magnet on top of a piece of paper
2. Draw a dot at one end of the magnet – near the corner
3. Place a plotting compass next to the dot, so that one end of
the needle of the compass points away from the dot
4. Use a pencil to draw a new dot at the other side of needle
5. Move the compass so that it points away from the new dot
and repeat the process above until there is a chain of dots
going from one end of the magnet to the other
6. Then remove the compass and link the dots using a smooth
curve – this is the magnetic field line
7. Repeat this entire process to create several other magnetic
field lines.
Earth’s Magnetic Field Lines
On Earth, the north arrow on a magnetic compass will point
towards the geographic North Pole (in the Arctic Ocean)
 This is because the geographic North Pole is a magnetic
south pole (the magnetic field lines point out of the pole)
 The north pole of the magnetic compass is attracted to the
Earth's magnetic south pole
 The north pole of the magnetic compass is repelled from the
Earth's magnetic north pole
 The earth’s core is magnetic as there is a magnetic field from
magnetic north to magnetic south pole

Magnetic Field in Wires

 When a current flows through a conducting wire, a magnetic field is produced around the wire
o A conducting wire is any wire that has a current flowing through it
 The shape and direction of the magnetic field can be
investigated using plotting compasses
 The magnetic field is made up of concentric rings – a circular
field pattern indicates that the magnetic field around a current-
carrying wire has no poles
 As the distance from wire increases the circles get further apart
o This shows that the magnetic field is strongest closest to the
wire and gets weaker
 If there is no current flowing through the conductor there will be
no magnetic field
 Increasing the amount of current flowing through the wire will
increase the strength of the magnetic field
o This means the field lines will become closer together
Magnetic Field in a Solenoid
Solenoid – A wire coiled up into a spiral shape with a current
 The magnetic field is strong and uniform
 Inside a solenoid (an example of an electromagnet) the fields from individual coils
o Add together to form a very strong almost uniform field along the centre of the solenoid
o Cancel to give a weaker field outside the solenoid
 One end of the solenoid behaves like the north pole of a magnet; the other side behaves like the south
pole
 To work out the polarity of each end of the solenoid it needs to be viewed from the end
o If the current is travelling around in a clockwise direction, then it is the south pole
o If the current is travelling around in an anticlockwise direction, then it is the north pole
 If the current changes direction, then the north and south poles will be reversed
 If there is no current flowing through the wire, then there will be no magnetic field produced around
or through the solenoid
Factors Affecting
1. Increasing the size of the current which is
flowing through the wire
2. Increasing the number of coils
3. Adding an iron core through the centre of the
coils
a. The iron core will become an induced
magnet

Motor Effect
The motor effect occurs when a wire with current
flowing through it is placed in a magnetic field and
experiences a force
 The effect is a result of two interacting magnetic fields
1. Magnetic field around the wire due to current flowing through it
2. Magnetic field into which the wire is placed
 As a result of the interactions of the two magnetic fields, the wire will experience a force

Magnetic Forces
 Magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields
 Factors affecting the size of the force
o Increased by the amount current of flowing through the wire – as it increases the magnetic field
around the wire
o Use stronger magnets – increases magnetic field between the poles of the magnet
o Placing the wire at 90 degrees to the direction of the magnetic field lines between the poles of the
magnet - This will result in the maximum interaction between the two magnetic fields
 If the two magnetic fields are parallel, there will be no interaction between the two magnetic fields
and therefore no force produced

Flemings Left Hand Rule

 The size of the force acting on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field can be calculated using the
equation:

F=BxIxL

 Where:
o F = force acting on current-carrying wire in newtons (N)
o B = magnetic flux density (which is the strength of the magnetic field) in tesla (N/A m)
o I = current flowing through the conductor in amps (A)
o L = length of the conductor that is in the magnetic field in metres (m)

Electric Motor
A motor is used in every appliance that has a turning effect

How it works:

1. When the current is turned on, the coil experiences a force inside the magnetic field and moves
according to Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. Side A moves up and Side B moves down.
2. The commutator has now done a half turn and the other side of it is facing the + of the battery.
This means that the current has been reversed in the coil. Side A now moves down and Side B
moves up.
3. Once again, the commutator has turned and the whole cycle starts again.

Split-Ring Commutator – Used to change the direction of

the current every half turn. This allows the motor to
continue to rotate in the same direction.

Carbon brushes are used to provide electrical contact

between the wire and the split ring commutator.

To Make a Motor More Power (Increase Force):

 Use a stronger Magnetic field

 Use a soft-iron core to increase the magnetic field
 Put more turns on the coil
 Increase the current flowing through the coil
 13 – Electromagnetic Induction
EM Induction – A voltage is induced in a conductor or coil when it moves through a magnetic field or when
a magnetic field changes through it

 A changing magnetic field induces a potential difference in a wire, and this causes a current to flow if
the wire is part of a complete circuit
o Magnet can move relative to the coil of wire or coil of wire can move relative to the magnet

Factors Affecting EM Induction – Size of Voltage Induced

 Number of turns on the coils of the wire

 Speed at which the wire, coil or magnet is moved
 Size of the coils – increasing the area
 Strength of the magnetic field
 The direction of an induced potential difference always opposes the change that produces it
o This means that the magnetic field produced from EM induction also opposes the original change –
the field will act so that it tries to stop the wire or magnet from moving.

Generator
The generator effect can be used to:

1. Generate alternating current in an alternator

2. Generate direct current in a dynamo

A generator consists of a coil of wire that is rotated inside a magnetic field. As the coil turns, a voltage is
induced in the wire. The ends of the coil are connected to slip rings. Electrical contact with an external
circuit is made using carbon brushes, which press on the slip rings. A generator like this produces an
alternating current –alternator

Dynamo – Since many appliances need direct current. A commutator switches over the current every half-
turn of the coil and so produces a form of direct current.

Microphones
 Microphones convert the pressure variations in sound waves into variations in current in electrical
circuits.
 When sound waves reach the microphone, the pressure variations cause the diaphragm to vibrate
o This causes the coil to move back and forth – through the magnetic field
 Therefore, the coil cuts through the field lines, inducing an alternating voltage in the coil and therefore
an alternating current

Loudspeakers and Headphones

 Loudspeakers convert variations in an electrical current into sound waves.

 A loudspeaker consists of a coil of wire which is wrapped around one pole of a permanent magnet
 An alternating current passes through the coil of the loudspeaker and this creates a changing magnetic
field around the coil
 The magnetic field produced around the coil interacts with the field from the permanent magnet
 The interacting magnetic fields will exert a force on the coil
o The direction of the force at any instant can be determined using Fleming’s left-hand rule
 As the magnetic field is constantly changing direction, the force exerted on the coil will constantly
change direction, this makes the coil oscillate
 The oscillating coil causes the speaker cone to oscillate, makes the air oscillate, creating sound waves

Transformers
A transformer is an electrical device that can be used to increase or decrease the potential difference of an
alternating current which is achieved using the generator effect
How it works

 An alternating current is supplied to the primary coil

 The current is continually changing direction meaning that it will produce a changing magnetic field
around the primary coil
 The magnetic field cuts through the iron core which makes it easier for the magnetic field to pass
through the secondary coil which induces an alternating potential difference
 If the secondary coil is part of a complete circuit it will cause an alternating current to flow

Role of Transformers

 A transformer can change the size of an alternating voltage

 They also have a number of other roles, such as:
o To increase the potential difference of electricity before it is transmitted across the national
grid
o To lower the high voltage electricity used in power lines to the lower voltages used in houses
o Used in adapters to lower mains voltage to the lower voltages used by many electronic
devices

 A step-up transformer increases the potential difference of a power source.

o A step-up transformer has more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
 A step-down transformer decreases the potential difference of a power source
o A step-down transformer has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil
National Grid
 When electricity is transmitted over large distances, the current in the wires heats them, resulting
in energy loss
o The electrical energy is transferred at high voltages from power stations
o It is then transferred at lower voltages in each locality for domestic uses

 To transmit the same amount of power as the input power, the potential difference at which the
electricity is transmitted should be increased
o This will result in a smaller current being transmitted through the power lines
o This is because P = IV, so if V increases, I must decrease to transmit the same power
 A smaller current flowing through the power lines results in less heat being produced in the wire
o This will reduce the energy loss in the power lines and improves the efficiency of the energy
transfer

An ideal transformer is
100% efficient: Input
power = Output power  Vp × Ip = Vs × Is