Psychology Assignment
Name: Syeda Malaika Hasan Rizvi
Department: English
Historical Background of Psychology
1. Greek Period
Thales (625–545 BC)
• First to propose natural causes instead of supernatural ones.
• Considered water as the fundamental element (physis) of the universe.
Pythagoras
• Emphasized harmony in bodily elements for good health.
• Believed mathematics governs the universe and human life.
Empedocles (495–435 BC)
• Proposed four elements: earth, fire, air, water.
• Explained change through forces of love (attraction) and strife (separation).
• Introduced a theory of perception based on emanations from objects.
Democritus (460–370 BC)
• Proposed atomism: all matter (including the mind) consists of indivisible atoms.
• Advocated a deterministic view of behavior.
Hippocrates (460–377 BC)
• “Father of Medicine”; emphasized natural causes of disease.
• Described four humors (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile) affecting personality and
health.
Socrates (469–399 BC)
• Advocated for self-knowledge through introspection.
• Employed inductive reasoning to uncover abstract virtues like justice and truth.
Plato (427–347 BC)
• Proposed the Theory of Forms: perfect abstract ideals vs. flawed reality.
• Divided the soul into three parts: rational, emotional, and appetitive.
Aristotle (384–322 BC)
• Emphasized empirical observation.
• Proposed four causes of existence and three types of soul: vegetative, sensitive, rational.
2. Medieval Period
European Thinkers (Neo-Platonism)
• Plotinus (204–270 AD):
Structured the universe hierarchically (One → Spirit → Soul).
• St. Augustine (354–430 AD):
Advocated introspection to understand God; emphasized soul-body dualism.
Muslim Scholars
• Ibn-Sina (Avicenna):
Explained internal senses like imagination, memory, and common sense.
• Al-Kindi:
Integrated Greek philosophy and theological reasoning.
• Al-Farabi:
Introduced a hierarchy of soul faculties; connected imagination with prophecy.
• Al-Razi:
Emphasized rationality, rejected the authority of prophecy.
• Al-Ghazali:
Prioritized divine illumination (ilham) over logic.
• Ibn-Rushd (Averroes):
Reconciled religion and reason; believed the active intellect survives death.
3. Renaissance Period
• A major intellectual shift from religious authority to scientific observation.
Key Figures
René Descartes:
Introduced mind-body dualism; “Cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am).
Francis Bacon:
Promoted inductive method; identified common errors in reasoning.
Thomas Hobbes:
Saw humans as mechanical beings driven by desire and fear.
John Locke:
Described the mind as a tabula rasa (blank slate); knowledge from experience
David Hume:
Distinguished between impressions and ideas; proposed laws of association.
4. Modern Period
Key Contributors
Weber & Fechner:
Studied psychophysics and the relationship between stimuli and perception.
Gall:
Founded phrenology localization of mental functions in the brain.
Helmholtz:
Measured neural impulse speed; contributed to visual theory.
Wundt (1832–1920):
Founded first psychology lab (1879); studied consciousness via introspection.
Major Schools of Thought
1. Structuralism (Titchener)
Aim: Break down conscious experience into basic components.
Method: Introspection.
Critique: Too subjective and non-scientific.
2. Functionalism (James, Dewey)
• William James: Described consciousness as a stream.
• John Dewey: Focused on adaptation and holistic behavior.
• Emphasis on the purpose of behaviour
3. Behaviorism
Classical Behaviorism (Watson)
• Emphasized observable behavior only.
• Rejected internal mental states.
Neo-Behaviorism
• B.F. Skinner: Developed operant conditioning.
• Edward Tolman: Introduced cognitive maps.
• Clark Hull: Proposed drive-reduction theory.
Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
• Demonstrated observational learning via the Bobo doll experiment.
• Introduced the concept of self-efficacy.
4. Gestalt Psychology (Wertheimer, Köhler)
• Belief: “The whole is more than the sum of its parts.”
• Explained perception through laws like proximity, closure, and similarity.
• Köhler’s insight learning in chimpanzees emphasized sudden problem-solving.
5. Psychoanalysis (Freud)
• Introduced the unconscious mind and its impact on behavior.
• Personality divided into id, ego, and superego.
• Emphasized dream analysis and defense mechanisms.
Neo-Freudians
• Jung: Introduced archetypes and the collective unconscious.
• Adler: Focused on the inferiority complex and social interest.
• Horney: Emphasized cultural factors and rejected Freud’s male-centric theories.
• Erikson: Developed psychosocial stages of development.
6. Humanistic Psychology (Maslow, Rogers)
• Emphasis on self-actualization and free will.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
• Rogers’ person-centered therapy stressed empathy and unconditional positive regard.
7. Cognitive Psychology
• Studies mental processes like memory, perception, problem-solving.
• George Miller’s theory on short-term memory (7±2).
• Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.
• Integration with AI and cognitive neuroscience.
8. Evolutionary Psychology
• Behavior as a result of natural selection.
• Investigates survival-based instincts like aggression, mate selection, and parental
investment.
9. Positive Psychology (Seligman)
• Focused on happiness, strengths, resilience, and well-being.
• Explores concepts like flow (Csikszentmihalyi) and post-traumatic growth.
Contemporary Perspectives
Physiological Influences
• Fechner, Weber: Psychophysical relationship.
• Broca, Wernicke: Brain areas for speech/language.
• Helmholtz: Neurophysiology of vision and perception.
Structuralism vs. Functionalism
• Structuralism: Dissecting consciousness into parts.
• Functionalism: Focus on the utility of behavior in real-life adaptation.
Modern Approaches
• Biopsychosocial Model: Integration of biological, psychological, and social factors.
• Cross-Cultural Psychology: Differentiates universal behaviors from culture-specific ones.
Key Themes in Psychology
1. Nature vs. Nurture: Genetics vs. environment.
2. Conscious vs. Unconscious: Freud vs. cognitive psychology.
3. Free Will vs. Determinism: Humanism vs. behaviorism.
4. Theoretical vs. Applied Psychology: Lab research vs. real-world interventions.