Computer Networking Concepts

Guided Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cable is a cable commonly used for data transferring. It is a part of a guided medium. A
twisted pair cable is made up of two copper wires twisted in a spiral pattern and these are covered by a
plastic shield. A twisted pair cable is used because the twists in the wires prevent external interference in
the data stream.

There are two types of twisted pair cable:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP)

It does not contain any shield around the copper wire except the plastic cover.

There are seven types of unshielded twisted pair cable.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (STP)

It is a twisted pair cable consisting of the same construction as normal twisted pair cable but it
has an insulating shield over the twisted copper wires.
The shield is made up of braided metal or mesh.

Coaxial Cable
The coaxial cable is a part of a guided medium. The coaxial cable is also known as coax. The coaxial cable
transmits data in an electrical form. The coaxial cable is a type of electrical cable made up of a centralized
conductor which is covered by dielectric medium, foil shield, braided shield, and outer jacket.

Transmission characteristics of coaxial cable:

Used to transmit both analog and digital signals.

Superior frequency characteristics compared to twisted pair.

Less susceptible to interference than twisted pair cable.
Can support higher frequency and data rates than twisted pair cable.

Advantages of coaxial cable:

Low cost and high signal quality.

Relatively easy to install.

High bandwidth.
Highly insensitive to electrical interference.

Disadvantages of coaxial cable:

Limited in network size.

More expensive than twisted pair cable.

 Less flexible.
Relatively used in short distances.

Optic Fiber Cable

Optic fiber cable is a part of guided medium. It uses light to transmit data over long distances with high
speed and bandwidth. Optic fiber cable is a glass cabling media that sends network signals using light.
Light is the form of electromagnetic energy and it travels fastest. Cable consists of thin strands of glass or
plastic fiber which allows for the more efficient transmission of data through the principle of internal
reflection.

Transmission characteristics of fiber optic cable:

Fiber optic cable provides high speed data transfer up to 100 Mbps to 2 GB.
Fiber optic cables can transmit data over a long distance.

Optic fiber cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.

The installation of optic fiber cables is difficult.

Fiber optic cable is made up of:

Core
Cladding

Coating

Strengthening fiber

Cable jackets

Advantages of fiber optic cable:

Higher data rate

Lightweight

More secure

More reliable

Disadvantages of fiber optic cable:

Installation and maintenance need expertise

Propagation of light is unidirectional

Installation cost is higher

Cost of optic fiber cable is more than other cables

Applications of fiber optic cable:

Medical

Defense / Government
 Data storage

Telecommunication

Wireless Transmission Media

Radio Wave Transmission

Radio is the transmission of signal through free space by modulation of electromagnetic waves with
frequency below those of visible light.

The radio waves have a frequency between 3 KHz to 1 GHz. Radio waves are omnidirectional i.e., they can
travel in one direction from the source.

Radio waves are widely used for AM and FM radio, TV, cordless telephone, cellular phone, paging, and
wireless LAN. Radio waves can penetrate through buildings easily. They are widely used for
communication both indoor and outdoor.

Advantages:

Simpler than microwave

Cheaper and no licenses needed

High-speed bandwidth and covers large area

Disadvantages:

Travels in a straight line so repeated stations may be needed

Limited number of frequency bands

Greater power consumption

Limited spectrum of frequencies

Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves having frequency between 1 GHz and 300 GHz are called microwaves.

Microwaves are unidirectional and are part of unguided transmission media or wireless transmission
media.

Microwave communication is widely used for long-distance telephone communication, cellular

telephone, television distribution, and other uses.

Microwave transmission is line-of-sight transmission. The transmitter must be in visible contact with the
receiver station. This sets a limit of distance between stations depending upon local geography.

There are two types of microwave data communication systems, namely terrestrial microwave
transmission and satellite microwave transmission.

Advantages of microwave:

They require no right of way acquisition between towers

 They can carry high quantities of information due to high operating frequency

Low cost land purchase as towers occupy a small area

High-frequency short wavelength signals require small antenna

Disadvantages of microwave:

Less susceptible to interference by physical objects like birds, rain, snow, and fog

Reflected by flat surfaces like water and metal

Refracted by atmosphere thus causing beams to be projected away from the receiver

Splits around solid objects

Satellite Transmission
A satellite is a body that revolves around Earth in the same way Earth revolves around the sun. A satellite
can be artificial (man-made).

Satellites are widely being used for communication purposes as they cover maximum area on Earth for a
particular transmission.

The path in which a satellite moves is called an orbit. The orbit can be equatorial, inclined, or polar.

In satellite transmission, a signal from Earth's surface is sent toward the satellite. That signal is called an
uplink. The signal which is transmitted back to the receiving Earth station is called a downlink.

Advantages of satellite transmission:

Enables high-speed data transmission

Satellite communications are less susceptible to disturbance

Satellites can cover vast geographic areas across countries and continents

Satellites are flexible and can be easily expanded by launching additional satellites

Disadvantages of satellite communication:

Design, launch, and maintenance of satellite communication is highly costly

Weather conditions can disrupt satellite signals, leading to degraded service quality

Satellite signals can be interrupted easily, raising concern about unauthorized access

Infrared Communication
Electromagnetic waves having frequency from 300 GHz to 400 THz are called as IR waves or infrared
waves.

IR waves are used for short-range communication and use line-of-sight communication in controlled
environments.

IR communication is a wireless technology that utilizes infrared light to transmit data.

Used in remote controls for TVs, air conditioners, security systems, and so on.

Infrared communication involves the transmitter emitting infrared pulses that a receiver on another
device detects.

Advantages of IR communication:

Cheaper in cost

Devices consume less power

Highly secured communication

Low interference

Disadvantages of IR communication:

Works only on line-of-sight

Short-range communication

Blocked by people, walls, etc.

Low bandwidth

Line of Sight Transmission

In line-of-sight transmission, as the name implies, the minimum distance of salt space wave propagation
is also called line-of-sight propagation.

It is defined as the straight path between a transmitting antenna and receiving antenna when obstructed
by the horizon.

The line-of-sight transmission is a method of data transmission in which the transmitter and receiver
must have a clear unobstructed view of each other.

Advantages of line-of-sight transmission:

High data rate

High coverage

Low interference

Reliable in controlled environment

Disadvantages of line-of-sight transmission:

Susceptible to obstruction

Interference in crowded areas

Limited range
Installation complexity

Multiplexing and Switching Techniques

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is a process in which multiple data signals are combined over a single communication
channel. It allows multiple devices or applications to share the same transmission medium.

Multiplexing is a process in which multiple data channels are combined into a single data or physical
channel at the source.

Multiplexing involves the use of a multiplexer and demultiplexer, each having its own functionality.

Types of multiplexing:

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Advantages of multiplexing:

Allows multiple data streams to share a single communication channel

Reduces need for separate lines

Allows simultaneous transmission of different data

Disadvantages of multiplexing:

Ensuring that all data streams remain synchronized can be challenging, potentially leading to data
loss or error if not managed correctly

Can increase network complexity

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

FDM is a major multiplexing technique in which more than one signal or data stream is combined over a
shared medium.

In FDM, the total bandwidth is divided into sets of bandwidths that do not overlap with each other.

Each band has a different signal that is generated by the sending device.

The frequency bands in FDM are separated by strips of unused frequencies called guard bands to prevent
overlapping of signals.

The modulated signals are combined together using a multiplexer and transmitted over communication
channels.

At the receiving end, the individual signals are extracted from the combined signal by demultiplexing.

Advantages of FDM:

A large number of signals can be transmitted simultaneously.

Simultaneous transmission of multiple signals is done without time sharing.

FDM is inexpensive.
Disadvantages of FDM:

The communication channel must have a large bandwidth.

A large number of modulators and filters are required.

Suffers from the problem of crosstalk.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique in which the channel link is divided on the basis of time, not
frequency.

The total time available in the channel is divided between several users.

Each user is allocated a particular time interval called a time slot or time slice to transmit data.

In TDM, the data rate capacity of the transmission medium should be greater than the data rate required
by sending or receiving devices.

Advantages of TDM:

TDM systems are more flexible than FDM.

In TDM, the user gets full bandwidth of the channel.

Disadvantages of TDM:

Synchronization is required.
TDM is complex to implement.

Switching
Switching refers to the process of forwarding data packets between devices or networks.
Switching allows data to reach its intended destination efficiently by determining the best path for
transmission.
There are two types of switching in data communication:

Circuit Switched Network

Packet Switched Network

Circuit Switched Network

Circuit switching is a communication method where a dedicated communication path is established

between two devices before data transmission begins.

Circuit switched networks consist of a set of switches connected by physical links.

In circuit switching, two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path.

Advantages of Circuit Switching:

Dedicated path provides a guaranteed data rate.

 Data transmission is done without delay.

Less expensive and low latency.

No loss of packets or out-of-order delivery.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching:

Not suitable for data transmission.

Usually done using a fixed-rate stream.

No flow control or error control.

High bandwidth requirement.

Packet Switched Network

In packet switching, data is divided into smaller units called packets and transmitted over the network.

Each packet contains source and destination addresses along with routing information.

Packet switching moves packets across networks for quicker and efficient data transmission.

Packet-switched networks may be connection-oriented or connectionless.

The message is divided into packets that are individually routed from source to destination.

Advantages of Packet Switching:

Uses a digital network to transmit data.

Better utilization of network resources.

Efficient for large amounts of data.

Allows simultaneous use of the same channel by multiple users.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching:

Not suitable where low delay and high quality of service are required.
Complex protocols with high implementation cost.

High installation cost.

Delay or loss of packets may occur.

Wireless LAN (802.11)

802.11 Architecture
The IEEE 802.11 standard, commonly known as Wi-Fi, outlines the architecture and defines the MAC and
physical layer specifications for wireless LANs (WLANs).

Components of 802.11 Architecture:

1. Stations:
 Stations are components that connect wirelessly to networks. They are either access points or
endpoints, and each one is identified with a unique network address.

2. Basic Service Set (BSS):

A BSS is a group of stations that connects to the network. In ad hoc networks, the group of
stations is called an Independent BSS (IBSS).

3. Extended Service Set (ESS):

An ESS is created by connecting multiple BSS through a distribution system.

4. Distribution System:
The distribution system connects access points in an ESS. The connections can be wired or
wireless.

5. Access Points (APs):

The access point is the base station that serves as a hub that other stations connect to.

6. Bridge:
The bridge is used to connect a WLAN to a LAN or an access point.

7. Endpoint:
The endpoint is any end-user station, such as a computer, mobile device, printer, or Internet of
Things (IoT) device.

Advantages of WLANs:

Scalability: WLANs are highly scalable, which means they can easily be expanded to accommodate
more users or devices.

Installation: WLAN is easy to install because it gives connectivity over sites separated by physical or
geographical obstacles.

Mobility: Users can freely roam anywhere (within the WLAN range) and remain connected to the
WLAN.
Flexibility: WLANs can be used in several setups that contain mobile clients in one building or across
a number of metropolitan sites.

Disadvantages of WLANs:

Wireless LAN is less secure. WLANs vulnerable to hacking, which can result in the loss of sensitive
information.
WLANs have a limited bandwidth, due to the shared nature of the wireless medium, which can result
in slower speeds.

WLANs can be affected by network congestion, which can result in slow performance.

WLANs have a limited coverage area, which means that users can only connect to the network from
within the coverage area.

Components of Data Communication

 1. Message

2. Sender

3. Receiver

4. Transmission medium

5. Protocol

Needs of Computer Networks

1. Sharing of data and information over geographical wide areas

2. Communication between multiple computers

3. Sharing of resources across the globe

4. Exchange of expensive data and software

Advantages and Disadvantages of Computer Networks

Advantages:

Allows file sharing

Provides provision of resource sharing

Reduction in hardware cost

Allows Network Devices to connect with each other
Access to network devices across the Internet

Disadvantages:

Security issues are involved

Complex and time consuming setup

Virus can spread through devices

If the main server is down the entire network becomes useless

Applications of Computer Networks

1. Marketing and sales
2. Financial services

3. Manufacturing
4. Information Services
5. Electronic mail

Network Fundamentals
Protocol: Protocols are set of rules that governs the process of data communication and the
methods regarding them
 Bandwidth: Bandwidth refers to the maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over the
communication channel or medium

Data transmission rate: Data transmission rate refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted
from one device to another over a network within a given period of time

Bit rate: Bit rate is the number of bits transmitted in a single second. It is expressed as bits per
second (bps) it is unit of measurement of data transfer
BAUD rate: Baud rate is the number of times a signal level changes per second. It is less than or
equal to bit rate

Error Detection and Correction

Error Detection
Error detection is the detection of error caused by the noise or other impairments during transmission.

Repetition Code

1. This is the easiest error correcting method

2. In this method each bit of data is repeated multiple times to ensure accuracy
3. For example you've seen the bit pattern 1011 the 4 bit block can be repeated three times producing
1011 1011 1011 1001

4. If this 12 bit pattern was received error has occurred or it has been detected
5. The repetition code is very insufficient and can be susceptible to problems if error occurs exactly in
the same place
6. The advantage of repetition code is that it is very simple and easy to use

Parity Bits

1. Parity check is done by adding an extra bit called parity bit to the data to make the number of 1's
either odd or even depending upon the type of parity
2. The process of parity check:
In case of odd parity: If the number of one is odd then parity bit value is zero, or if the number of
one is even the value of parity bit is one

In case of even parity: If the number of one is even then the parity bit value is zero, if the number
of one is odd the value of parity bit is one

Checksum

1. Checksum is an error detection technique in which the message is in a modular arithmetic sum of the
message code

2. In the process of checksum error detection the following procedure is applied:

Data is divided into fixed size or frame
 The sender adds the segment using its 1's complement to get the sum. It then complements the
sum to get checksum and sends it along with the data frame

The sender follows this step:

1. The data is divided into K section each of N bits

2. All the sections are added together to get the sum

3. The sum is complemented and gets the checksum
4. The checksum is sent with the data

The receiver follows this step:

1. The data is divided into K section of N bits

2. All the sections are added together to get the sum

3. The sum is complemented and gets the checksum
4. If the result is zero data is accepted otherwise rejected

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

1. CRC is the technique which involves binary division of the data bits being sent
2. The divisor is generated using polynomials

3. The sender performs division operation on bits being sent and calculates the reminder

4. Before this the sender adds the reminder to the back of the message
5. The actual database plus the reminder is called as a code word

6. The receiver performs division operation on the Code word using the same CRC Division

7. If the reminder contains all the zero data bits are accepted otherwise rejected

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

1. The automatic repeat request is an error control protocol used in data communication

2. It uses error detection code acknowledgment, negative acknowledgment message and timeouts to
achieve reliable data.

3. Working principle:
Sender transmits data frame

Receiver checks for error

If the data is correct receiver sends an acknowledgement

If the data is wrong or an error is found negative acknowledgement is sent

4. Types of ARQ:
Stop and wait ARQ: The sender sends one frame and waits for acknowledgement before sending
the next frame

Go back N: Sender sends multiple data frames

 Selective repeat: Sends errored or lost frame

Hamming Code
1. Hamming code is an error detection and error correction technique developed by Richard D
Hamming
2. It can detect up to 2 bit error and correct 1 bit error in the data transmission

3. Hamming code adds redundant bits at specific positions in the data stream. These parity bits are
placed at the position that are at powers of 2
4. Advantages:
Uses simple parity check
Includes redundant bits

Has a low overhead

5. Disadvantages:
Can correct only a single bit of error

Cannot correct two or more simultaneous errors

Not very effective against large amount of data

Computer Networking Models

Peer to Peer Computing Model

In a peer to peer computing model, all the devices or nodes have equal status. Can both act as a client
and as a server, meaning they can initiate requests and respond to the requests.

In a P2P network peer can share resources such as files or processing power, directly with one another,
without the need of a central server.

The structure of the P2P computing model is decentralized with each peer directly connected to other
peers. And each peer can provide and consume resources, data and services.

Peer to peer network is useful for small networks containing less than 8 to 10 computers on a single LAN
with each computer maintaining its own accounts and their security settings.

Characteristics of peer to peer computing model:

1. Decentralized control
2. Resource sharing

3. Scalability
4. Fault tolerance

Advantages of P2P network model:

1. No dedicated server required

 2. Less expensive
3. Scalability

4. Fault tolerance

Disadvantages of P2P Computing model:

1. Slow in speed
2. Not good for database applications
3. Less reliable

4. Limited expandability

Client Server Computing Model

The client server computing model is also known as servers based networks or called client server
networks.

In this computing model a centralized powerful host computer known as a server and users individual
workstation is known as a client.

In a server based network the server is the centralized location where the user shares and access network
resources.

Characteristics of client server networks:

1. Centralized location
2. Resource availability

3. Scalability

Advantages of client server computing model:

1. Faster than P2P model

2. Easier to control monitor and secure

3. Dedicated servers to provide reliable access to resources

4. Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms

Disadvantages of client server model:

1. High cost

2. If the server goes down the client loses access to the server
3. The simultaneous client request server severely gets overload forming traffic congestion

Network Topologies
Network topologies refer to the layout of a network and how different nodes in a network are connected
to each other and how they communicate. It defines how the devices are connected and communicate
within the network.
Bus Topology
In bus topology all the devices are connected to a central cable called the bus or backbone.

The data in the bus topology sent from one device travels through the bus and is received by all other
devices but the only intended recipient process it.

Advantages of bus topology:

1. Easy to install and setup

2. Cheaper in cost because it requires less cabling

3. Anyone computer or device bring down does not affect the other
4. Faster in speed

Disadvantages of Bus topology:

1. A failure in the main cable disrupts the entire network

2. Fault or break in the bus cable stops all data transmission

3. If the network traffic is heavy the performance decreases

Ring Topology
In ring topology the computer in the network are connected in a circular fashion which forms a ring.

In ring topology each computer is connected to the next computer with the last one connected to the 1st
each computer in ring topology acts as a repeater.
The message flows around the ring in only one direction.

Advantages of ring topology:

1. Requires less cabling

2. Less expensive
3. Easy to install

4. Better performance than bus topology

Disadvantage of ring topology:

1. If one node goes down it takes down the whole network

2. Slow in speed
3. Reconfiguration is needed to add notes and the whole network must be down first
4. In Ring Topology the traffic is unidirectional

Star Topology
In star topology each device has a dedicated point to point link on it to a central controller usually called
a hub for a switch.
The Devices In star topology are not directly connected to one another.
Each device on a star network first communicates with a central hub/switch that forwards the message
either to all the computers or a destination computer.
The communication is controlled by a central controller only star topology is generally used in LANs.

Advantages or Star topology:

1. Easy to install and reconfigure

2. Centralized management

3. Faster in speed
4. Multiple devices can transfer data without collision

Disadvantages of star topology:

1. If the central device goes down, the entire network goes down
2. More cabling is required than bus or ring topology

3. Performance is dependent on the capacity of central device

Mesh Topology
In mesh topology each of the network node computers and other devices are interconnected with one
another.
In mesh topology each node may send a message to a destination through multiple paths.
Mesh topology is used in WAN. Mesh topology employs one of two connection arrangements: 1) full
mesh topology, 2) partially connected mesh topology.

Advantages of Mesh topology:

1. Mesh topology is robust

2. Eliminates traffic problem

3. Each connection can carry its own data load due to dedicated link

4. Privacy because of dedicated line

Disadvantages of mesh topology:

1. Higher cost than other topologies

2. Requires more cabling

3. Installation and reconfiguration is very difficult

4. Setup and maintenance of mesh topology is very hard and difficult

Tree Topology
As its name implies in this topology a device makes a tree structure.
It is also called hierarchical topology.
Tree topology integrates the characteristics of star and bus topology.
In tree topology a number of star networks are connected using a bus.
Ethernet protocol is the most commonly used protocol in this topology.

Advantages of tree topology:

1. Easy to install and wire

2. Fast as compared to other topologies

3. Multiple devices can transfer data without collision

4. It eliminates traffic problems

Disadvantages of tree topology:

1. It relies heavily on the main bus cable

2. More expensive than other topologies

3. Cabling cost is more

4. Failure in the central hub brings the entire network to a halt

Hybrid Topology
A hybrid topology as the name suggests it's a mixture of two different things.
A hybrid topology combination of two or more network topology.
The two common examples of hybrid network are star-ring network and Star-bus Network.
Star-ring Network consists of two or more star topology connected using a multistation Access unit as a
centralized hub.
A star-bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus.

Advantages of hybrid topology:

1. Hybrid topology combines the strength of various topologies to create a more efficient and robust
network
2. Flexible allows for integration of multiple topologies based on specific needs

3. Hybrid topology supports scalability by adding new nodes for segments without disrupting the
network
4. By combining redundant topologies like mesh hybrid networks can offer great reliability

Disadvantages of hybrid topology:

1. Highly complex and time consuming for design and implementation

2. Expensive because requires more hardware

3. Sophisticated infrastructure compared to other topologies
4. Maintenance cost are higher due to complexity

Network Models

TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP reference model is a foundational framework for networking that defines how data is
transmitted over the Internet.
The TCP/IP model consists of four layers:

1. Network Access Layer

The network access layer is the lowest layer in TCP protocol

Functions:
It defines how a computer connects to a network
This layer allows the system to identify the topology use

It manages training and error detection

2. Network Layer
It is the second layer of TCP/IP model
It is responsible for logical addressing and routing of data packets

Functions:
It handles IP addressing
This layer routes packets

It manages fragmentation and assembly of packets

3. Host to Host Transport Layer

It is the third layer of TCP/IP model

The primary job of the host is to facilitate end-to-end communication

Functions:
It manages end-to-end communication
This layer provides error checking

4. Application Layer
It is the fourth layer of the TCP/IP networking model
Application Layer provides services that user applications use to communicate over the network

Functions:
It provides services such as manipulation of information
Retransferring the files of information, distribution of results

OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)

The OSI Model stands for Open System Interconnection Model and it was developed by ISO.
Following are the layers of the OSI Model:

1. Physical Layer
It coordinates the function required to carry a bit stream over a physical media
Function of Physical Layer:
It defines physical characteristics
 Representation of bit
Bit synchronization

2. Data Link Layer

The second layer of OSI Model is the Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer provides reliable and efficient communication

Function of Data Link Layer:
MAC, Media Access Control

Physical Addressing
Load-to-Load Delivery

3. Network Layer
The Network Layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
Functions of Network Layer:
Logical Addressing
Inter-Networking
Routing

4. Transport Layer
The Transport Layer is responsible for the process to process delivery for entire message

Function of Transport Layer:

Service Point Addressing
Segmentation and Reassembly

Error Control
Connection Control

5. Session Layer
The session Layer establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction among the
communication systems

Functions of Session Layer are:

Dialogue Control

Synchronization
Session Closure

6. Presentation Layer
The Presentation Layer is also called the Translation Layer
The Presentation Layer presents the data in a uniform format

Functions are:
Translation

Description
 Compression
Decompression

7. Application Layer
The Application Layer provides user interaction and support services such as email

Functions are:
Network Virtual Terminal
File Transfer Access and Management

Mail Services
Remote Login

Mobile Communication Generations

1G
The first generation of mobile network, 1G, was used for analog technology for basic voice calls
categorized by bulky phones.
Features:

Only voice calls were supported

Analog signal transmission

Poor voice quality and low security

Large and heavy mobile phones

2G
The second generation of mobile network, the 2G network generation introduced the concept of digital
modulation and interruption of text messages.
Features:

Digital voice calls

Text messaging (SMS) introduced

Better sound quality than 1G

Basic mobile internet with GPRS

3G
The 3rd generation of mobile networking was introduced in early 2000s, 3G brought faster data speed,
supporting video calling, mobile internet.
Features:

Faster mobile internet

Video calling supported

Mobile apps started working better
 Improved coverage and clarity

4G
The 4th generation was introduced in early to late 2010s, the 4G generation introduced off-wide high-
speed data and mobile broadband enabling faster than 5G.
Features:

High-speed internet access

HD video streaming supported
Smooth online gaming

Better connection stability

5G
The 5th generation was introduced in late 2019s, 5G introduced ultra-fast speed, low latency, improved
device connectivity, promising a future of inter-cardiac nearness and immersive use.
Features:

Very fast internet speed

Very low delay (latency)

Can connect many devices at once
Supports smart cities and advanced technology

Bluetooth Architecture
Bluetooth is a wireless technology that allows devices to communicate over short distances. It is made up
of PicoNet and ScatterNet.

1. PicoNet
A PicoNet is a small network with one main device (master) and up to seven connected devices
(slaves). The master device controls the network and manages communication with the slave
devices. Devices in a PicoNet can only talk to the master or other slaves in the same network.

2. ScatterNet
A ScatterNet is made when two or more PicoNets connect. In this network, a device can be a
slave in one PicoNet and a master in another, allowing more devices to communicate across
different networks.

Error in Computer Networks

An error can be defined as any flaw or deviation that occurs while information is transmitted from the
source to the destination in a computer network.

Single Bit Error occurs when an error is present in a single bit of the data being transmitted.

Burst Error happens when multiple bits of data are affected by errors during transmission.
Forward Error Correction (FEC) is a technique in which the receiver uses redundant bits to detect and
correct errors without needing to request the sender to retransmit the data.

Retransmission Correction is a method where the receiver detects errors and asks the sender to resend
the data to ensure it is received correctly.

Network Connection Devices

Switch
A switch is a small hardware device that connects multiple computers within a local area network (LAN). It
efficiently manages data traffic between devices, ensuring seamless communication within the network.

Router
Routers are networking devices that operate at Layer 3 (Network Layer) of the OSI model. They are
responsible for receiving, analyzing, and forwarding data packets between connected computer
networks, enabling communication across different networks.

Repeater
A repeater is a device used to amplify or regenerate signals in cases where signal strength needs to be
enhanced, particularly over long distances. It helps maintain the quality of data transmission in a network.

Bridge
A bridge is a networking device that connects and filters traffic between two or more network segments,
creating a single aggregate network. This function is known as network bridging.

Gateway
Gateways operate at all seven layers of the OSI model. They serve as an interface to connect different
network models, allowing data to flow between networks that may use different communication
protocols.

Modem
A modem operates at the physical layer of the OSI model. It is a