FELLING AND CONVERSION OF TIMBER

Felling - is the process of cutting down mature trees and prepared for conversion

Conversion - is the process of cutting of logs into marketable or commercial sizes required by
users.

Methods of Conversion

i) Through and Through Sawing ( Slab Sawing)

ii) Quarter Sawing ( Plain Sawing)

iii) Tangential Sawing ( Radial Sawing)

i) Through and Through Sawing ( Slab Sawing)

Advantages of Through and through sawing

- Suitable for rapid mass production

- Minimising the amount of waste

- The method produces boards of uniform sizes

- It is a quick method since the log does not have to be turned during the cutting

- The method is simple and less expensive than other methods of conversion
Disadvantages of Through and through sawing

- Producing timber with waney edge

- Timber may warp or shrink unevening

- The boards produced will have a lot of sapwood. This exposes the timber to insect and fungal
attack

- This method can be more challenging when cutting curved or irregularly shaped logs.

ii) Quarter Sawing ( Plain Sawing)

Advantages of Quarter Sawing

- The heartwood and softwood can easily be separated

- Boards can take nails without splitting because of the position of the annual rings.

- Boards season quickly

- There is little wastage

- The method produces boards with flame figure

Disadvantages of Quarter Sawing

- Quarter-sawn wood can be more expensive because it's harder to produce.

- Boards produced using this method are prone to cupping

- Boards produced by this method tend to shrink in width

- The method is slow as the board has to be turned through 90° after each cut

iii) Tangential Sawing ( Radial Sawing)

Advantages of Tangential Sawing

- There is less waste when you cut wood this way.

- Tangential sawing is a faster way to cut wood.

- This method is often cheaper than other ways of cutting wo

- Seasons more rapidly(fast)

Disadvantages of Tangential Sawing

- Wood cut this way might bend or war

- The wood might not be as stable as wood cut other ways.

- The wood might not have a nice pattern.

- The wood might be weaker than wood cut other ways.

SEASONING OF TIMBER
Seasoning of timber- is the process of drying timber to remove excess moisture and improve its
quality, stability, and durability.

Methods of seasoning of timber

- Air/ Natural Seasoning

- Kiln/ Artificial Seasoning

- Chemical and pre- steaming seasoning

- Water seasoning

i) Air/ Natural Seasoning

- Air seasoning is a natural method of seasoning that uses circulating air from the atmosphere
to dry timber. In this method boards are stacked under a shed with a sloping roof and open
sides which allowed to dry using naturally circulating air. The roof also protects the timber from
sun and weather. The timber should be stacked 25 to 50mm apart so that they are vertically
aligned. Each layer of timber is separated by spacing strips (stickers) to enable fresh air to enter
from the sides. The boards that are to be seasoned are painted using water proof paint on their
end grain. This is done to prevent rapid evaporation of moisture through the end grain.

Advantages of Air seasoning

- No expensive equipment needed

- Cheap and simple to use

Environmentally friendly since no energy other than air is used.

- Easy to implement

Disadvantages of Air seasoning

- It takes time ( very slow process)

- Timber is liable to insects attack while be seasoned

- Poor quality of timber is produced

- Difficult to Achieve Uniform Drying

- Limited control over drying rate

Kiln/ Artificial Seasoning

Kiln seasoning is sometimes called the artificial method of seasoning. Kiln seasoning uses heat
that is circulated in the kiln to dry timber. A Kiln is simply a large oven in which timber is dried.
For kiln seasoning to be achieved three things are required. These are a heat source, forced air
circulation and humidity control. The kilns are built out of materials that do not allow heat to
escape. Some of the materials used to construct the kilns include heat resistant brick, masonry,
refractory ceramics, aluminum or sheet metal. These materials are then insulated with thermal
insulators like glass wool or polyurethane foam.

Types of Kilns seasoning

- Compartment Kiln seasoning - is a type of kiln that consists of multiple compartments or
chambers. Each compartment is designed to maintain a specific temperature and humidity
level, allowing for precise control over the seasoning process.

- Progressive Kiln seasoning - In a progressive kiln, the wood is loaded into a single chamber,
but the temperature and humidity levels are gradually changed over time to simulate a natural
drying process

Advantages of Kiln seasoning

- Quick method of drying timber

- Exact moisture content achieved in the timber

- Insects are killed during the process

- Uniform circulation of air( uniform drying of timber)

Disadvantages of Kiln seasoning

- Requires skilled labor

- Risk of Over-Drying, leading to brittle or cracked timber.

- Expensive methods of seasoning

Combined Air and Kiln seasoning

- This method of seasoning combines air seasoning and Kiln seasoning. Timber is first seasoned
using air seasoning for several months before putting it in kilns where it is further dried to
specific moisture content. Some species of timber may develop a defect called collapse if they
are subjected to too much rapid drying. These species are first dried up using air seasoning to
remove the combined moisture from the cell walls. They are then transferred to kilns when
finally dried to specific moisture content.

Chemical seasoning

- This method of seasoning is sometimes called salt seasoning. In this method, the timber is
submerged in a solution of chemicals such as Urea or sodium nitrate to remove moisture from
the wood cells. The method uses the principal of osmosis to drive moisture from the wood cells
into the solution. The timber is then further dried using air or Kiln seasoning.

Water seasoning

- Water seasoning also known as water soaking or hydrothermal treatment, is a method of

seasoning wood by soaking it in water. This process involves submerging the wood in water for
an extended period, usually several weeks or months. The water helps to: Reduce warping and
cracking by relieving internal stresses. Improve stability and durability. Enhance the wood's
natural color and texture. Maximum sap is washed up by this process.

Reasons for seasoning Timber before using it

- To make timber lighter by reducing the weight caused by excess moisture

- To reduce rusting on ironmongery

- To prevent bending, warping, cracking and checks

- To allow penetration of paints, glue and preservatives

- To make the timber resistant to insect attack

- To increase the strength of timber. Drying timber increases its compression, tensile, bending
and stiffness strength

- To increase holding power of nails

- Seasoned timber is easier to work with

- Dry timber has better heat insulation properties than green timber

- Drying timber to about 12% moisture content increases its electrical insulation properties.

Terms related to the seasoning of timber

i) Equilibrium moisture content - This is when the moisture is evaporated until the moisture
content in the timber is equal to the moisture in surrounding air

ii) Fibre Saturation Point - The point in drying wood at which all free moisture has been
removed from the cells itself, while the cells remain saturated with absorbed moisture.

iii) Moisture Content - The amount of wetness of moisture in the timber. Formula: MC (%) =
((Wet Weight - Dry Weight) / Dry Weight) x 100

iv) Free Moisture - Moisture which is present in the cell cavities of wood

v) Moisture gradient - The difference in moisture content between areas of a board.

vi) Shrinkage - The contraction of wood due to water loss below fiber saturation point.

v) Green timber - Refers to freshly cut wood that has not been dried or seasoned.
METAL PROPERTIES

Metal- refers to a type of material that is typically hard, shiny, and has good electrical and
thermal conductivity.

Examples of metals include:

- Iron, Copper, Aluminum, Steel, Gold, Silver, Titanium

Metals can be categorized into different types, such as:

- Ferrous metals (containing iron)

- Non-ferrous metals (not containing iron)

- Alloys (mixtures of different metals)

Physical properties of metals

- High Melting and Boiling Points: Metals typically have high melting and boiling points,
indicating strong bonds between atoms.

- High Density: Metals are generally dense, meaning they have a high mass per unit volume.

- High Thermal and Electrical Conductivity: Metals are excellent conductors of heat and
electricity, due to their free electrons.

- Malleability and Ductility: Metals can be pounded into various shapes (malleability) and
stretched into thin wires (ductility).

- Luster: Metals often exhibit a shiny appearance, due to the reflection of light off their surface.

- Corrosion Resistance: Some metals, like gold and platinum, are resistant to corrosion, while
others, like iron, are more prone to rust.

Mechanical properties of metals

- Strength: Ability to withstand stress and pressure without breaking.

- Ductility: Ability to be stretched into thin wires or sheets without breaking.

- Malleability: Ability to be pounded into various shapes without breaking.

- Elasticity: Ability to return to original shape after deformation.

- Plasticity: Ability to undergo permanent deformation without breaking.

- Hardness: Resistance to scratching, abrasion, and indentation.

Thermal properties of metals

- Thermal Expansion: Change in length or volume of a metal in response to temperature

changes, measured in parts per million per degree Celsius (ppm/°C).

- Thermal Conductivity: Ability to conduct heat, measured in Watts per meter-Kelvin (W/m·K).

- Melting Point: Temperature at which a metal changes state from solid to liquid.

Electrical properties of metals

- Electrical Conductivity: Ability to conduct electricity, measured in Siemens per meter (S/m).

- Resistance: Opposition to the flow of electric current, measured in Ohms (Ω).

Chemical properties of metals

- Corrosion resistance: Ability to withstand chemical attack from environments, such as air,
water, and acids.

- Reactivity: Ability to react with other elements, such as oxygen, water, and acids.

- Oxidation: Tendency to lose electrons and form ions with a positive charge.

PLASTIC PROPERTIES
Plastics- These are man-made materials, made from natural raw materials like natural
petroleum gas, oil, and coal. They also made from animal and plant by products.

Classification of plastics

i) Thermoplastic - These are plastics that can be melted, Cooled and reheated again. Examples:
Polyethylene (for plastic bags, containers), Polyvinyl Chloride ( for pipes) and Polystyrene ( for
Foam cups)

ii) Thermosetting - These are plastics which can only be heated once during their manufacturer.
They can not be melted and reformed. Examples: Melamine, Silicone, Epoxy resin and Formica.

Physical properties of plastic materials

- Colour: Plastic materials are made in a variety of colours that give a good surface finish.

- Density: Plastic materials have low density when compared to metals

- Melting point: Plastic materials have low melting points. They should not be used where
temperature or heat is high.

- Resistant to corrosion: Plastic are generally resistant to acids and other chemicals

- Resistant to moisture: Plastic are waterproof. They are generally unaffected by dampness.

- Weather resistance: Plastic materials are able to resist weather effects

- Lubrication: Some plastic like nylon are self lubricating. They are therefore used to make gears
and bearings.

Mechanical properties of plastics

- Malleability: Plastic materials are malleable. They can be formed into large sheets.

- Elasticity: Most plastic resist deforming and return to their original size or shape when the
deforming force is removed.
- Ductility: Plastic have low ductility. This means that plastic members may fail without prior
warning. Plastic materials can be stretched, bent, or drawn into various shapes without
breaking.

- Toughness: Plastic materials can absorb energy and deform without breaking.

CERAMIC PROPERTIES

Ceramic - Is an inorganic and non-metallic compound obtained from clay minerals or other
inorganic compounds.

Classification of ceramics

i) Traditional ceramics - made from clay and other natural materials. Examples: Sandstone,
Grinding stone, oil stone, roof tiles, glass, bowls, cups ceramics plates.

ii) Advanced ceramics - made from synthetic materials. Examples silicone carbide, Alumina,
Titanium Dioxide, Ceramic matrix composite.

Physical properties of ceramics

- Density: is the mass per unit volume of a ceramic material. Ceramics are generally heavier
than plastics but lighter than steels

- Melting point: Ceramics have high melting point that range from 600°c to 4000°c . They are
therefore, able to withstand very high temperatures.

- Porosity : Most ceramics are porous. They allow water to pass through.

- Wear resistance: is the ability of a ceramic material to withstand abrasion, erosion, or other
forms of wear.

- Rigidity: is the ability of a ceramic material to resist deformation under stress

Mechanical properties of ceramics

- Brittleness: Most ceramics are brittle at room temperature, they break suddenly when
subjected to pulling force.

- Strength: Ceramics have high compressive strength and low impact and tensile strength

- Ductility: The ductility of ceramics is low

- Hardness: Most traditional ceramics are not hard. However, Advanced ceramics may be
extremely hard that they are used in making grinding materials.

Thermal properties

- Ceramics are generally poor conductors of heat. They are therefore used as insulators.

Electrical properties

- Ceramics are poor conductors of electricity. They are therefore used as electrical insulators to
block the flow of electricity.

Magnetic properties

- Most ceramics are non-magnetic

FINISHES PURPOSES

Wood finishing - refers to the process of enhancing and protecting the appearance of wood
surfaces. It involves applying a protective coating on wood to achieve a desired color, texture,
and level of durability.

Types of wood finishes

1) Paint: is a liquid coating used to protect and decorate wood surfaces. It is available in a wide
range of colors and sheens, from flat to glossy. Paint can be used to cover up imperfections in
the wood, and it is often used on furniture, cabinets, and other decorative items. There are two
main types of paint: latex-based and oil-based. Paints are finishes that consist of the following
ingredients, pigments or color, solvents, binders and additives.
2) Varnish: is a clear, transparent coating used to protect and enhance the appearance of wood
surfaces.

3) Stains: are colored liquids used to enhance the appearance of wood surfaces. Stains can be
applied to the wood surface using a brush, cloth, or spray gun.

4) Wax: is a type of finish used to protect and enhance the appearance of wood surfaces. It is
available in a range of types, including beeswax, carnauba wax, and furniture wax. The finishes
do not penetrate the wood surface but remain on the surface of the wood.

5) Oil: is a type of finish used to protect and enhance the appearance of wood surfaces. It is
available in a range of types, including tung oil, linseed oil, and teak oil.

6) Shellac: is a natural resin-based finish used to protect and enhance the appearance of wood
surfaces. Obtained from resins extracted from insects.

7) Lacquer: is a finish that is obtained from a sap of a tree mixed with solvents and pigments.

Reasons for finishing artefacts (Products)

i) Protection: Finishing helps protect the artefact from corrosion, rust, or oxidation, which can
damage the material and affect its performance.

- Finishing helps protect the artefact from the damaging effects of ultraviolet (UV) light, which
can cause fading, discoloration, or degradation.

ii) Aesthetics: Finishing enhances the appearance of the artefact, making it more attractive and
visually appealing.

iii) Durability: Finishing helps protect the artefact from wear and tear, reducing the risk of
scratches, dents, or other forms of damage.

iv) Functionality: Finishing can provide slip resistance, reducing the risk of accidents or injuries.

v) Sanitisation and hygiene: Finishing can provide a smooth, easy-to-clean surface, reducing
the risk of bacterial growth or contamination.
Factors to be considered when applying finishes

- Surface preparation: Ensure the surface is clean, dry, and free of imperfections.

- Material compatibility: Choose a finish compatible with the material (e.g., wood, metal,
plastic).

- Durability: Consider the level of wear and tear, and choose a finish that can withstand it.

- Aesthetics: Select a finish that complements the material's natural appearance and desired
color.

- Environmental factors: Consider temperature, humidity, and exposure to sunlight or

chemicals.

ADHESIVES

- Adhesives are substances that bond two or more materials together by creating a strong and
lasting attachment.

Types of adhesives (Glues)

i) Polyvinyl Acetate (PVA) / Wood or White Glue

- water - soluble polymer

- High strength and high optical transparency in water

- An interior adhesive which is used to join furniture used inside a building.

ii) Scotch Glue ( Animal Glue)

- Is prepared from the skins and borns of animals

- Has great strength and it does not stain the wood

- It is not water resisting

- Should not be used for joining members that are to be fixed externally

- Used for assembling wood, cabinet work, book binding, plywood manufacturing

iii) Casein Glue

- Made by mixing dry milk with chemicals to produce a powder

- It is strong and convenient to use. Used for general joinery assembly and join layers of veneers

- It is not entirely waterproof

- Liable to stain certain hardwoods

iv) Synthetic Resin Glue

- Is chemically produced and carbolic acid. Urea Formaldehyde and Phenol formaldehyde

- Obtained in the form of a liquid and powder

- Reliable waterproof

- Have a great strength and do not stain wood

v) Super Glue ( Cyanoacrylate)

- made from Cyanoacrylates esters

- It dries clear and is waterproof

- Strong bonds on materials such as metal, leather, rubber, Vinyl and plastic

vi) Epoxy Glue

- Epoxy Glue comprises of two parts: a liquid resin and a liquid hardener

- Has good gap filling properties

- Cause irritation to the eyes and skin

In connection with Glues, what do the following terms mean?

1) Strip heating: This is the use of metal strip to speed up the process of adhesion.

2) Thermosetting: These are adhesives that cannot be heated and melted after the initial cure.

3) Starved Joint: A glued joint containing insufficient or inadequate adhesive.

4) Radio Frequency heating: A means of obtaining heat to cure glue lines in wood to wood
joints.

5) Cramping Time: The time the job should be left in the cramps for glue to set before they are
safely removed.

6) Pot life: Is the amount of time a mixture can sit in a container (pot)

7) Shelf life: Is the time taken by an adhesive before use or the storage time

8) Curing: It allows the wood to release moisture, protects against decay and helps to prepare
the wood to receive surfaces finishes

9) Gap - filling: An adhesive capable of maintaining a bond between surfaces that are not close
fitting.