SYSTEMATICS
LECTURE 2 – SYSTEMATICS AND
TAXONOMY
Lea M. Camangeg
Palawan State University
College of Sciences
CS 03 Rm
BSBIO MEDBIO 1B1 and 1B2 - 2025
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Definition of Terms
Systematics
Taxonomy
Classification
Identification
2. Coverage of Systematics
3. Systematics in Biological Science
4. Systematics in Modern Biology
5. History of Taxonomy – Next Meeting
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Systematics - Simpson (1961), study of the kinds and diversity
of organisms and the relationships.
▪ 20th century recognized as formal field of study.
Taxonomy – theory and practice of identifying, describing,
naming and classifying organisms. This includes bases,
principles, rules and procedures.
“taxis” – Greek word means arrangement and
“nomos” - laws or rules
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Classification - arrangement of the organisms into groups
such as taxa on the basis of their relationship.
Identification – the recognition of the essential character
of an organism, can take place only after a classification has
been established.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
▪ Cladistic - a system of biological taxonomy that defines taxa uniquely
by shared characteristics not found in ancestral groups.
▪ uses inferred evolutionary relationships to arrange taxa in a branching
hierarchy such that all members of a given taxon have the same
ancestors.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
▪ Phylogenetics - is the study of evolutionary relationships among biological entities
– often species, individuals or genes (which may be referred to as taxa).
AIM AND COVERAGE OF SYSTEMATICS
Provide RELIABLE and FIRM categories for
understanding organisms.
3 SCHOOLS of Systematics
1. Phenetic / Numerical
2. Synthetic / Traditional
3. Cladistic / Phylogenetic
1. PHENETICS OR NUMERICAL
TAXONOMY
▪ The method that uses overall similarity is phenetics, or numerical [Link]
measuring similarity, pheneticists use a variety of techniques and methods but
all use the following steps:
▪ 1. A data matrix is constructed listing the character states (in coded
numerical form) for all the characters among all of the organisms or
taxa under study.
▪ 2. This descriptive information is converted into a measure (called a
coefficient) of similarity between every pair of taxa.
▪ 3. Taxa are clustered based on their similarity coefficient so that
those with higher similarity are placed together in a tree (called a
phenogram).
▪ For example: consider five species of bugs (A-E):
1. PHENETICS OR NUMERICAL
TAXONOMY
1. Pointed nose
consider five species of bugs (A-E): 2. Four legs
3. Toes on legs
4. Large eyes
5. Triangular shield on back
6. Front legs stripped
7. Five spots on the back
8. Palps on posterior end
9. Antennae thick
10. Antennae covered with hairs so that
they look stripped
1. PHENETICS OR NUMERICAL
TAXONOMY
▪ Ten characteristics (and the character states in parentheses)are noted:
1. Pointed nose (present or absent)
2. Four legs (present or absent)
3. Toes on legs (present or absent)
4. Large eyes (present or absent)
5. Triangular shield on back (present or absent)
6. Front legs stripped (present or absent)
7. Five spots on the back (present or absent)
8. Palps on posterior end (present or absent)
9. Antennae thick (present or absent)
10. Antennae covered with hairs so that they look stripped (present
or absent)
2. SYNTHETIC OR TRADITIONAL
SYSTEMATICS
▪ The basic assumption of the synthetic taxonomist is that the fossil record and
diversity of living organisms can be explained by and interpreted in light of
evolutionary mechanisms and scenarios as generally described in the modern
synthesis.
▪ Consider our example --
Five species of five species of bugs:
3. CLADISTICS OR PHYLOGENETIC
SYSTEMATICS
▪ The method that groups organisms that share derived characters is
called Cladistics
▪MORE AND DEEPER DISCUSSION NEXT MEETING
Apomorphy and Plesiomorphy ???
Outgroup??
Ingroup??
Parsimony??
SYSTEMATICS IN BIOLOGICAL SCIENCE
▪ Systematics plays a central role in biology by providing the
means for characterizing the organisms that we study
▪ Major components of Systematics
▪ Taxonomy and Phylogenetics
▪ Systematics in Ecology
▪ Systematics in Biology
▪ Systematics in Genetics
▪ Systematics in Molecular Biology
SYSTEMATICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY
▪ What are the roles and products of systematics in modern biology?
We can identify specific roles for systematic studies and the patterns they
produce, as follows:
1. Systematists identify and document Earth’s biodiversity, and organize this
information in a form that can be utilized by others.
▪ A long-standing role for systematists is that of going into the field and
collecting samples of organisms, then comparing them with known specimens
in order to determine whether something significantly different has been found
-- a new species.
SYSTEMATICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY
2. Systematic patterns are hypotheses of the history of life and form
the basis for modern classifications.
▪ Once we know what organisms exist, we can then ask questions
about how they came to be as they are today.
▪ Phylogenetic analysis allows us to combine data from extant
organisms with data from fossils to provide hypotheses of
relationship -- to actually reconstruct the history of life.
SYSTEMATICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY
[Link] patterns that result from systematic studies, and classifications
derived from them, have predictive value.
▪ Common ancestry means that organisms will share more or fewer character
states depending upon how closely related they are.
▪ This principle can be put to immediate use when one seeks additional taxa that
may possess a feature of interest found in a specific taxon.
4. Systematics provides a basis for biodiversity conservation priorities.
With increasing pressures from a growing world population and resulting
pressure on biotic resources, we now and in the future have to make difficult
decisions about what parts of the Earth will be maintained in a “natural” state in
order to conserve the biodiversity present there.
SYSTEMATICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY
[Link] provides independent evidence for patterns of geological
change.
▪ The continents have not always held the positions on the Earth that they do
today, nor have they been the same size and shape.
▪ Geologists use data from the Earth itself to reconstruct past arrangements of
land masses.
SYSTEMATICS IN MODERN BIOLOGY
6. Systematists and systematic collections provide identification services and
documentation of identity.
▪ Another crucial role for systematists is that of identification specialists.
▪ They are in a unique position to provide this service, with experience and the
necessary tools.
▪ The importance of correct identification cannot be overstated -- when a life,
for instance, hangs in the balance depending on whether the plant or
mushroom that has been ingested is poisonous or not, this service is critical.
▪ By constructing organismal phylogenies and mapping on current distributions
of taxa, and doing this for many groups, general patterns emerge that may best
be explained by historical geological events
▪ The only lasting way to document identity is to deposit a voucher specimen in
an appropriate collection.