Chapter 10
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis
• process of converting solar energy into
chemical energy
• sunlight à carbohydrates
• occurs in plants, algae, certain other
protists, and some prokaryotes
• directly or indirectly nourishes the living
world
Photosynthesis
• Autotrophs- sustain themselves without
eating anything derived from other
organisms
• Producers- CO2 + inorganic molecules à
organic molecules
• Most plants are photoautotrophs
Photosynthesis
• Heterotrophs- obtain organic molecules
from other organisms
• Consumers
• Rely on autotrophs for food and O2
Chloroplast
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts Vein
Mesophyll
Stomata
CO2 O2
Chloroplast
Outer
membrane
Thylakoid Intermembrane
Stroma Granum Thylakoid space
space Inner
membrane
1 µm
Photosynthesis
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy ® C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
Reactants: 6 CO2 12 H2O
Products: C6H12O6 6 H2O 6 O2
• splits H2O into hydrogen and oxygen,
incorporating the electrons of hydrogen into
sugar molecules and releasing oxygen as a
by-product
Photosynthesis
• Reverses direction of electron flow
compared to respiration
• A redox reaction
• H2O is oxidized
• CO2 is reduced
• An endergonic process;
• energy provided by light
Photosystem STROMA
Photon
Light- Reaction- Primary
harvesting center electron
complexes complex acceptor
Thylakoid membrane
e-
Transfer Special pair of Pigment
of energy chlorophyll a molecules
molecules
THYLAKOID SPACE
(INTERIOR OF THYLAKOID)
Chlorophyll STROMA
Thylakoid membrane
Protein
subunits THYLAKOID
SPACE
E
tra lect
ch ns ron
ai po
Primary n rt
Ele acceptor
Primary ctro 4 7
n tr
acceptor ans
por Fd
Pq t cha e-
2 in e- 8
e- e- NADP+
H2O Cytochrome
2 H+ NADP+ + H+
+ complex
3
reductase
1/ O2 NADPH
2
Pc
e-
e- P700
P680 5 Light
1 Light 6
ATP
Pigment
molecules
Photosystem I
(PS I)
Photosystem II
(PS II)
Page 195-196
e-
e- e-
Mill
makes
ATP NADPH
e-
e-
e-
n
Photo
e-
ATP
n
Photo
Photosystem II Photosystem I
Cyclic Phosphorylation
Primary
Primary acceptor
Fd
acceptor Fd
Pq NADP+
NADP+ + H+
reductase
Cytochrome NADPH
complex
Pc
Photosystem I
Photosystem II ATP
STROMA
(low H+ concentration) Cytochrome NADP+
complex reductase
Photosystem II Photosystem I
Light
Light 4 H+ 3
NADP+ + H+
Fd
Pq
NADPH
Pc
2
H2O
1 1/2 O2
THYLAKOID SPACE +2 H+ 4 H+
(high H+ concentration)
To
Calvin
Cycle
Thylakoid
membrane ATP
synthase
ADP
+ ATP
STROMA Pi
(low H+ concentration) H+
H2O
Light
NADP+
ADP
+Pi
Light
Reactions
Chloroplast
H2O
Light
NADP+
ADP
+Pi
Light
Reactions
ATP
NADPH
Chloroplast
O2
H2O CO2
Light
NADP+
ADP
+Pi
Calvin
Light Cycle
Reactions
ATP
NADPH
Chloroplast
O2
H2O CO2
Light
NADP+
ADP
+Pi
Calvin
Light Cycle
Reactions
ATP
NADPH
Chloroplast
O2 [CH2O]
(sugar)
The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy
of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar
• The Calvin cycle, like the citric acid cycle,
regenerates its starting material after molecules
enter and leave the cycle
• The cycle builds sugar from smaller molecules
by using ATP and the reducing power of
electrons carried by NADPH
• Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves as
a sugar named glyceraldehyde 3-phospate
(G3P)
• For net synthesis of 1 G3P, the cycle must take
place three times, fixing 3 molecules of CO2
• The Calvin cycle has three phases
– Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco)
– Reduction
– Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
Input
3 (Entering one
CO2 at a time)
Phase 1: Carbon fixation
Rubisco
3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP)
Input
3 (Entering one
CO2 at a time)
Phase 1: Carbon fixation
Rubisco
3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP
6 ADP
Calvin
Cycle
6 P P
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
6 NADPH
6 NADP+
6 Pi
6 P
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction
1 P
G3P Glucose and
(a sugar) other organic
Output compounds
Input
3 (Entering one
CO2 at a time)
Phase 1: Carbon fixation
Rubisco
3 P P
Short-lived
intermediate
3P P 6 P
Ribulose bisphosphate 3-Phosphoglycerate
(RuBP) 6 ATP
6 ADP
3 ADP Calvin
Cycle
3 6 P P
ATP
1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate
6 NADPH
Phase 3:
Regeneration of 6 NADP+
the CO2 acceptor 6 Pi
(RuBP)
5 P
G3P
6 P
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Phase 2:
(G3P) Reduction
1 P
G3P Glucose and
(a sugar) other organic
Output compounds
Alternative mechanisms of carbon fixation
have evolved in hot, arid climates
• Dehydration is a problem for plants, sometimes
requiring trade-offs with other metabolic
processes, especially photosynthesis
• On hot, dry days, plants close stomata, which
conserves H2O but also limits photosynthesis
• The closing of stomata reduces access to CO2
and causes O2 to build up
• These conditions favor an apparently wasteful
process called photorespiration
Photorespiration:
• In most plants (C3 plants), initial fixation of
CO2, via rubisco, forms a three-carbon
compound (3-phosphoglycerate)
• In photorespiration, rubisco adds O2 instead of
CO2 in the Calvin cycle, producing a two-
carbon compound
• Photorespiration consumes O2 and organic fuel
and releases CO2 without producing ATP or
sugar
• Photorespiration may be an evolutionary relic
because rubisco first evolved at a time when the
atmosphere had far less O2 and more CO2
• Photorespiration limits damaging products of
light reactions that build up in the absence of the
Calvin cycle
• In many plants, photorespiration is a problem
because on a hot, dry day it can drain as much
as 50% of the carbon fixed by the Calvin cycle
C4 Plants
• C4 plants minimize the cost of photorespiration by
incorporating CO2 into four-carbon
compounds(malate or aspertate)in mesophyll cells
• This step requires the enzyme PEP carboxylase
• PEP carboxylase has a higher affinity for CO2 than
rubisco does; it can fix CO2 even when CO2
concentrations are low
• These four-carbon compounds are exported to
bundle-sheath cells, where they release CO2 that
is then used in the Calvin cycle
The C4 pathway
Mesophyll
cell CO2
PEP carboxylase
Oxaloacetate (4C) PEP (3C)
ADP
Malate (4C) ATP
Pyruvate (3C)
Bundle-
sheath CO2
cell
Calvin
Cycle
Sugar
Vascular
tissue
CAM Plants
• Some plants, including succulents, use
crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to fix
carbon
• CAM plants open their stomata at night,
incorporating CO2 into organic acids
• Stomata close during the day, and CO2 is
released from organic acids and used in the
Calvin cycle
Sugarcane Pineapple
C4 CAM CO2
CO2
1 CO2 incorporated
Mesophyll Organic acid (carbon fixation) Organic acid Night
cell
CO2 CO2
Bundle- 2 CO2 released Day
sheath Calvin Calvin
Cycle to the Calvin Cycle
cell
cycle
Sugar Sugar
(a) Spatial separation of steps (b) Temporal separation of steps
H2O CO2
Light
NADP+
ADP
+ Pi
Light RuBP 3-Phosphoglycerate
Reactions:
Photosystem II Calvin
Electron transport chain Cycle
Photosystem I
Electron transport chain
ATP
G3P
Starch
NADPH (storage)
Chloroplast
O2 Sucrose (export)