Problem Soils
Glossary of terms
1. Calcareous soils: A calcareous soil has abundance of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). If
a calcareous soil is added with hydrochloric acid, the soil will effervesce and give off
carbon dioxide and form bubbles because of the chemical reaction.
2. Clayey soils: A soil that contains a high percentage of fine particles and colloidal
substance and becomes sticky when wet.
3. Degraded soils: Soil degradation is the decline in soil condition caused by its
improper use or poor management, usually for agricultural, industrial, or urban
purposes. Such soils are called as degraded soils.
4. Permeability: It may be defined as; “It is a measure of the ease with which water
flows through soils and/or rocks. Soils which allow flow of water is called permeable
soils, while those restrict its movement with ease are termed as impermeable soils.
5. Problem Soils: The soils which possess characteristics that make them uneconomical
for the cultivation of crops without adopting proper reclamation measures are known
as problem soils.
6. Sandy soils: Sandy Soil is light, warm, dry and tends to be acidic and low in
nutrients. Sandy soils are often known as light soils due to their high proportion of
sand and little clay (clay weighs more than sand). These soils have quick water
drainage and are easy to work with.
7. Waterlogged soils: Waterlogging is the saturation of soil with water. Soil may be
regarded as waterlogged when it is nearly saturated with water much of the time such
that its air phase is restricted and anaerobic conditions prevail.
Occurrence
India, the second most populous country in the world faces severe problems in agriculture.
It is estimated that out of the 328.8 m ha of the total geographical area in India, 173.65 m
ha are degraded, producing less than 20% of its potential yield.
Major problematic soils of India
S. No. Problematic Soils Key Diagnosis Major constraints
1. Clay soils Dominated by clay particles
Water logging, compaction,
poor aeration, difficult to
cultivate
2. Sandy soils Dominated by Coarse sand poor fertility, low SOM, low
particles water holding capacity,
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erosion
3. Acid soils Soil pH is less than 6.5 Fe, Al toxicity (Strong acid
soil)
4. Salt affected soils
a. Saline soils ECe is greater than 4.0 dS/m High osmotic potential,
nutrient imbalance
b. Sodic soils ESP is greater than 15 Deteriorated physical
condition, Na toxicity,
nutrient imbalance
c. Saline sodic soils ECe is greater than 4.0 dS/m High osmotic potential,
and ESP is greater than 15 deteriorated physical
condition, nutrient imbalance
5. Calcareous soils CaCO3 is greater than 5.0 % P, Fe deficiency
6. Water logged soils Water Stagnation, Low Poor aeration
infiltration rate
7. Degraded soils Based on soil analysis -
8. Compacted soils High bulk density Poor aeration, poor root
penetration, water logging
9. Impermeable soils Low hydraulic conductivity Poor aeration, water logging
(HC) and infiltration rate
Introduction
The problem soils are those which owing to land or soil characteristics cannot be
economically used for cultivation of crops. These soils require remedial measures and
management practices for satisfactory crop production.
Types of problem soils
1. Physical problem soils:
a. Highly eroded soils, ravines and soils on sloping lands
b. Soil physical constraints
2. Chemical Problem soils:
i. Saline soils
ii. Saline alkali soils
iii. Alkali soils
iv. Acid soil
3. Biological Problem soils
i. Soil organic carbon (SOC) and microbial population
ii. Soil Respiration
iii. Soil Enzymes
4. Nutritional problem soils
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1. Physical nature:
a. Highly eroded soils, ravines and soils on sloping lands: The areas affected by this
problem are Western Rajasthan, Saurashtra region of Gujarat, Maharashtra, ravines
along the Yamuna and Chambal rivers. Kotar lands in Gujarat, steep slopes of hilly
areas. The erosion is mainly caused by wind, water and landslides.
Wind erosion: It occurs in arid and semiarid areas devoid of vegetation due to high
wind velocity. Soil particles are lifted and blown off and when the velocity of the dust
bearing wind is retarded, coarser soil particles are deposited in the form of dunes and
thus fertile lands are unfit for cultivation.
Water erosion: Water removes a thin covering of soil from large area uniformly
during every rain which produces runoff. Its existence can be detected by muddy
colour of the runoff from the fields. This is called sheet erosion. Later on, the silt
laden runoff forms a well-defined but minute finger shaped grooves over the entire
field. Such thin channelling is known as rill erosion. The tiny grooves develop in to
wider and deeper channels which may assume a huge size is known as gully erosion.
Landslides or slip erosion: The outward and downward movement of the slope
forming material composed of natural rocks, soil etc. is known as landslides or slip
erosion. The main cause of land slides are topography, geological structure, type of
rocks and their physical characteristics.
Agronomic measures for soil and water conservation
Interception of rain drops reduces the splash effect. The overland runoff can be
reduced through use of contour cultivation, mulches, dense growing crops, strip
cropping and mixed cropping.
A simple practice of farming across the slope, keeping the same level as for as
possible is called contour farming. It reduces runoff, soil erosion and loss of plant
nutrients and increases crop yields.
Surface mulches are used to prevent soil from being blown and washed away to
reduce evaporation, increase infiltration, check weeds, improved soil structure and
eventually to increase crop yields.
Grow the crop which can provide and reduce runoff and soil losses. Legume furnishes
better cover and hence provides better protection to cultivated land against erosion
than ordinary crops.
Grow the crops in strips of suitable width across the slopes by alternating the strips of
soil protecting and erosion resisting crops.
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b. Soil physical constraints
1. Permeable soils:
Highly permeable coarse textured soils:
The high permeability of these soils is associated with their sand and loamy sand
texture. The soils has low bulk density and high hydraulic conductivity and
infiltration rate which results in to high permeability and low water retention capacity.
The fertilizer and water use efficiency is very low and nutrient losses are very high.
Soil compaction and clay mixing should be done to improve these types of soils.
Slowly permeable soils:
The slowly permeable soils occur in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, parts of
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Tamil Nadu.
The infiltration rate and hydraulic conductivity is low which results in to slow
permeability of the soil and possibility of submergence during rainy season.
The prevailing anaerobic conditions cause the accumulation of carbon dioxide and
other by products which restrict the plant growth.
These soils are associated with black clay soils. The black soils are sticky when moist,
therefore, could be cultivated only within limited soil moisture range.
These types of soils can be reclaimed by growing crops on raised beds, broad beds
with drainage furrow in between, deep tillage through ploughing and chiselling to
break the hard pan in sub-soil.
Crusting soils:
When the rain drop strikes the exposed dry soil surface, there is disintegration and
dispersion of soil aggregates.
The finer clay particles moves down along with infiltrating water and clog the soil
pores. As the water evaporates and soil dries, a thin layer of hard crust of soil is
formed. The crusts present a serious barrier for seedling emergence.
Crusting of alluvial soils is a serious problem all over the country especially in the
states of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar and West Bengal.
Application of farm yard manure or green manuring will improve these types of soils.
Chalka soils:
The red sandy loam soils “Chalka soils” which cover a large area in Andhra Pradesh
become very hard on drying with the result that growth of the crops are adversely
affected.
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Incorporation of slow decomposing crop residues and other materials such as
powdered ground nut shell, paddy husk improves these types of soils.
Sandy Soils:
Sandy soils are weakly developed because of slow chemical weathering in dry and hot
climate.
The coarse texture of sandy soils causes a low water holding capacity and high
infiltration rate which represents the main production constraint.
Nutrient content and nutrient retention are normally low, thus causing a low inherent
fertility status of the soil.
The poor soil structure makes the soil very susceptible to wind erosion. The
agricultural potential of sandy soils depends on the availability of sufficient water for
crop cultivation and the provision of nutrients.
If appropriately managed sandy soils can be highly productive.
2. Chemical Problem soils: (Below on notes)
i. Saline soils
ii. Saline alkali soils
iii. Alkali soils
iv. Acid soil
3. Biological Problem soils
i. Soil organic carbon (SOC) and microbial population
Biological problems often result from management practices and
anthropogenic influence.
Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the main source of energy for soil
microorganisms and a trigger for nutrient availability through mineralization.
Humus participates in aggregate stability, and nutrient and water holding
capacity.
Organic acids (e.g., humic acids, fulvic acids, oxalic acid), commonly released
from decomposing organic residues and manures, prevents phosphorus
fixation by clay minerals and improve its plant availability, especially in
subtropical and tropical soils.
An increase in SOM, and therefore total C, leads to greater biological diversity
in the soil.
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ii. Soil Respiration
Soil respiration reflects the capacity of soil to support soil life including crops,
soil animals, and microorganisms.
In the laboratory, soil respiration can be used to estimate soil microbial
biomass and make some inference about nutrient cycling in the soil.
Soil respiration also provides an indication of the soil's ability to sustain plant
growth.
iii. Soil Enzymes
Absence or suppression of soil enzymes prevents or reduces processes that can
affect plant nutrition.
Poor enzyme activity (e.g., pesticide degrading enzymes) can result in an
accumulation of chemicals that are harmful to the environment; some of these
chemicals may further inhibit soil enzyme activity.
4. Nutritional problem soils
In general, the most favourable pH range for crop is between 5.5 to 6.5 in
mineral soil and 5.0 to 6.0 in organic soil.
Acidity can also induce deficiencies of micronutrients such as Mo and B,
although a deficiency in the latter is more commonly seen in alkaline soils
where over-liming has occurred.
Acidic soil often causes the stunting and yellowing of leaves, resulting in the
decrease in growth and yield of crops as the pH levels falls.
Plants grown in adverse pH conditions may be more prone to disease and
fungal attack.
pH can affect the absorption of nutrients by plant roots pH values above 7.5
cause iron, manganese, copper, zinc and boron ions to be less available to
plants.