Civil Engineering Materials
Laboratory Practical Work
Characterization of Timber Materials:
Flexural Test
CE2627 Construction Materials & Sustainability
Module leader: Dr Mohamed Ismail
1 Introduction
During this practical session students will have a chance to learn how to
examine timber by means of mechanical testing (flexural strength test, i.e. 3-
point bending test). Specimens will be demonstrated. There will be a chance to
observe practical issues related with flexural characterization of timber materials.
Figure 1: Directions of testing timber
specimens. (Softwood indicated. In some
hardwoods the growth rings are not visible).
2 Procedure
For small clearance flexural test on timber, the static 3-point bending test shall be
carried out by the central loading method. Standard test piece dimensions are 20 x
20 x 300 mm3. In central loading method the distance between the points of support
of the test piece are 28 cm. and load is applied as shown in Figure 2. Standard rate
of loading is 6 mm/min.
Figure 2: Test arrangement for small clearance flexural test.
Each group will be introduced to two types of specimens: clear and with
defects for visualization of their influence on test results.
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3 Calculations
Equivalent fiber stress at maximum load: Modulus of elasticity:
b - breadth P - maximum load
h - depth P`- Load at limit of proportionality
L - span D - Deflection at mid length at limit of
proportionality
Note - Limit of proportionality shall be taken as that point in the stress-strain diagram
at which the curve deviates from the straight line.
Figure 3: The Flexural load VS Flexural extension.
To do:
This is an individual assignment: all the graphs and reports have to be
done individually. Although, the results are given in groups. There are 2 groups (G-1
to G-2)
6) in total and you only need to present and discuss your group’s results. The groups
and raw data are provided in an Excel file uploaded on Brightspace CE2627 folder.
Students will be given 4 pictures of timber, and any visible defects in the excel
sheet to be uploaded to Brightspace.
In the next step, students have to:
1. Calculate flexural stress using test data provided in excel file. Present results
in Mega pascal (MPa).
2. Calculate modulus of elasticity using test data provided in excel file. Present
results in Giga Pascal (GPa).
3. Use the test results and sample drawings to describe influence of the defects
on the mechanical properties.
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References:
1. BS 373: Methods of testing small clear specimens of timber.
2. Dodge, Y. “The Oxford Dictionary of statistical Terms”.
3. William D. Callister, Jr. “Fundamentals of material science and engineering” John
Wiley & Sons, Inc.
APPENDIX:
Calculation of flexural strength
3𝑃𝐿
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2𝑏ℎ2
Where;
b: breadth (mm), L: Span length (mm)
h: depth (mm), P: Maximum load (N)
σ max: Maximum stress (MPa)
Table.1: Flexural stress
Sample
Name Type b (mm) h (mm) L (mm) P (N) max (Pa)
Sample 2 20.3 20.29 280 1,471 73.91
Clear
Sample 3 20.4 20.29 280 1,799 89.94
Sample 1 20.1 20.28 280 1,369 69.57
Defect
Sample 4 20.22 20.28 280 1,069 53.98
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Calculation of Modulus of elasticity:
P′ · 𝐿2
E=
4Δ · bh2
Where;
b: breadth (mm), L: Span length (mm)
h: depth (mm), P’: Load at limit of proportionality (N) (obtained from the graph: elastic limit
(see arrows above on the graph))
Δ: Deflection at mid length at limit of proportionality (mm)
E: Modulus of elasticity (GPa)
Table.2: Modulus of elasticity
Sample
Name Type b (mm) h (mm) L (mm) P’ (N) (mm) E (GPa)
Sample 2 20.3 20.29 280 800 4 0.469057
Sample 3 Clear 20.4 20.29 280 1000 3.5 0.666797
Sample 1 20.1 20.28 280 760 3.8 0.474191875
Sample 4 Defect 20.22 20.28 280 680 2.9 0.552649694
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Civil Engineering Materials
Laboratory Practical Work
Method of producing and characterization of
hardened concrete:
Concrete specimens testing
CE2627 Construction Materials & Sustainability
Module leader: Dr Mohamed Ismail
1 Introduction
During this practical demo-session students will learn how to perform compressive
strength tests of concrete specimens. Testing should reveal differences in
specimens’ strength influenced by different composition. Students will be able to
characterize and describe those differences and will be able to describe the most
influential components on concrete strength. During the first stage specimens will be
examined for defects and their weights will be measured. In a consecutive stage,
compression equipment will be set up and a sample will be subjected to compressive
load until failure. From gathered data, students will be able to make necessary
calculations in order to draw conclusions and create the required report.
2 Compression strength of concrete
The compressive strength is given by the equation:
Where:
fc - is the compressive strength, in MPa (N/mm²);
F - is the maximum load at failure, in N;
Ac - is the cross-sectional area of the specimen on which the compressive
force acts, calculated from the designated size of the specimen (see EN
12390-1) or from measurements of the specimen in mm2.
The compressive strength shall be expressed to the nearest 0.1 MPa (N/mm²).
3 Procedure
1. Before testing for compressive strength, the dimensions of the specimen are
measured in several positions and the mean values calculated. The cross-
sectional area of the loading faces is calculated. The specimen is weighted in dry
state followed by the calculation of density (i.e. mass/volume – Kg/m3).
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2. Sulphur compound end capping will be applied in order to ensure the contact
surfaces are smooth and uniform.
3. Wipe the excess moisture from the surface of the specimen before placing in the
testing machine.
4. Position the cylindrical specimens so that the load is applied perpendicularly to
the direction of casting.
5. Select a constant rate of loading within the range 0.6 ± 0.2 MPa/s (N/mm²·s).
After the application of the initial load, which does not exceed approximately 30%
of the failure load, apply the load to the specimen without shock and increase
continuously at the selected constant rate ± 10 %, until no greater load can be
sustained.
6. Record the maximum load indicated in kN.
4 Test results
Fig.1 All four exposed faces are cracked approximately equally, generally with little
damage to faces in contact with the platens.
To do:
This is an individual assignment: all the graphs and reports have to be done
individually. Although, the results are given in groups. There are 2 groups (G-1 to
G-2) and you only need to present and discuss your group’s results. The groups and
raw data are provided in an Excel file uploaded on Brightspace CE2627 folder. For
each group, raw data is provided using 4 types of aggregates in 2 different curing
conditions (i.e. air curing and water curing). For each mix, six specimens (A to F) have
been tested.
1. Describe the test procedure.
2. Draw graphs for the average strength (6 specimens) for Shape & Size
of Aggregates and Water & Air cured specimens.
3. Draw graphs for the average density (6 specimens) for Shape & Size
of Aggregates and Water & Air cured specimens.
4. Explain why certain sample compositions have different compressive strength.
5. Discuss the correlation between the density and compressive strength of
each category.
*For points 3 and 4 you can find the template in the appendix to use as an example.
Supplementary links:
[Link]
References:
1. EN 12350-1: Testing fresh concrete - Part 1 sampling,
2. BS EN 12390-1: Testing hardened concrete - Part 1: Shape, dimensions and
other requirements for specimens and moulds,
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3. BS EN12390-2: Testing hardened concrete - Part 2: Making and curing specimens
for strength tests,
4. BS EN12390-3: Testing hardened concrete - Part 3: Compressive strength of test
specimens.
APPENDIX:
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Table 1. Average (6 specimens) compressive strength
Sample type Air curing (MPa) Water curing (MPa)
10 mm., Sharp sand 25.71 33.44
10 mm., Fine sharp sand 10.09 12.86
20 mm., Sharp sand 12.56 26.34
20 mm., Fine sharp sand 17.59 20.94
Figure 1. Average compressive strength VS Aggregate types
Figure 2. Average Density VS aggregate types
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Civil Engineering Materials
Laboratory Practical Work
Characterization of Composite Materials:
Tensile Test
CE2627 Construction Materials & Sustainability
Module leader: Dr Mohamed Ismail
1 Introduction
During this practical session students will have a chance to examine composite
materials by means of mechanical testing in tensile mode. Glass fiber composite
prepared in the previous practical session will be examined. Tensile tests will be
performed on the coupons (Fig.1) cut out from composite panels.
Figure 1: Test coupon shape and dimensions.
L3 – Overall length h – Thickness
R – Radius L0 – Gauge length
b2 – Width at ends L – Initial distance between grips
b1 – Width of narrow portion
2 Procedure
The static tensile test will be carried out according to the BS EN ISO 527-4 on
standard composite test pieces with nominal gauge length cross section of 30 mm 2,
and with the 2 mm/min cross head speed. Each group will examine specimens by
the steps provided as follows;
1. Remove specimens from the panels. Measure width and thickness of the
specimens within gauge length area (averages of three measurements). Write
down fibers orientation and any irregularities.
2. Test specimens in tension. Record fracture position and shape and any
irregularities during the test.
3. Plot Stress-Strain graph for specimens tested in your group.
4. Calculate tensile stress and present results in MPa.
5. Calculate tensile modulus of elasticity and present it in GPa.
6. Compare test results with literature values for the same type of glass
reinforcement and volume fraction. Discuss possible causes for the difference
between test and literature values.
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3 Calculations
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) sUTS Engineering strain e is defined
is defined by the relationship: according to equation:
UTS - Ultimate tensile stress in mega Pascals (MPa) l0 - the original length before any load is
applied
FMAX - Maximum force expressed in Newton (N) l1 - the instantaneous length
A0 - Cross section area in mm2
Note: Engineering strain is unit less, but meters per meter or inches per inch are often used;
the value of strain is obviously independent of the unit system. Sometimes strain is also
expressed as a percentage, in which the strain value is multiplied by 100.
Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called elastic deformation
as shown in Figure 2. The slope of this linear segment corresponds to the modulus
of elasticity E.
Figure 2: Typical proportional elastic portion of the tensile stress strain graph.
To do:
This is an individual assignment: all the graphs and reports have to be done
individually. Although, the results are given in groups. There are 2 groups (G-1 to
G-2) in total and you only need to present and discuss your group’s results. The
groups and raw data are provided in an Excel file uploaded on Brightspace CE2627
folder.
The specimens will be examined by the steps provided as follows:
1. Plot Stress-Strain graph for all the specimens (3 in total) presented for
your group.
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2. Use the width and thickness of the specimens within the gauge length
area provided in excel file.
3. Calculate tensile stress and present results in MPa.
4. Calculate tensile modulus of elasticity and present it in GPa.
5. Compare test results with literature values for the same type of glass
reinforcement and volume fraction. Discuss possible causes for the
difference between test and literature values.
References:
1. BS EN ISO 527-4: 1997 Plastics – Determination of tensile properties – Part 4: Test conditions for
isotropic and orthotropic fibre-reinforced plastic composites.
2. William D. Callister, Jr. “Fundamentals of material science and engineering” John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.
APPENDIX:
Table.1: Ultimate tensile stress
Sample
Name F max (N) A0 (mm2) UTS (Pa )
Sample 1 6309.921 23.352 270.208
Sample 2 6211.713 23.426 265.163
Sample 3 6661.678 23.476 283.766
Table.2: Engineering strain
ample Name l0 (mm) l1(mm)
Sample 1 50 54.39916 0.0879832
Sample 2 50 54.62405 0.092481
Sample 3 50 54.72068 0.0944136
Table.3: Modulus of elasticity
Sample
’’ ’ ’’ ’
Name
Sample 1 19.48971 9.38787 0.0026 0.00059 5025.791
Sample 2 14.99498 5.77578 0.0026 0.0006 4609.600
Sample 3 18.27188 7.40796 0.0026 0.00059 5404.935
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