MODULE 2

THE PERIODIC TABLE

Learning Tasks and Performance Indicators:

1. Trace the development of the periodic table;

2. Differentiate the old from the modern periodic law;
3. Identify periods and groups in the periodic table;
4. Infer the periodicity of the properties of the elements;
5. Predict some properties of the elements based from their valence electrons;
6. Describe the periodic table based from its features;
7. Relate the physical and chemical behaviour of elements to the environment;
8. Identify and trace the trends of the periodic properties of the elements;

Course Outline:

1. Development of the Periodic Table

2. Periodic Classification of Elements
3. Features of the Periodic Table;
4. Uses of the Periodic Table;
5. Periodic Trends
6. Modern Periodic Law
7. The Beneficial and Harmful Elements to the Environment

DEVELOPMENT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Before the modern periodic table, various attempts were made to organize the known
elements. One notable example is the triads proposed by Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner in the early
19th century, where he grouped elements into sets of three with similar properties.

During the mid-nineteenth century, scientists began to look for order in the increasing amount
of chemical information that had become available. They knew that certain elements had properties
that were very similar to those of other elements, and they sought reasons for these similarities in the
hope that these similarities would suggest a method for arranging or classifying the elements.

In 1864, English chemist John Newlands proposed the Law of Octaves, where he arranged
elements in order of increasing atomic mass and noted that every eighth element had similar
properties to the first, much like the octaves in music.

In 1869, these efforts culminated in the discovery of what is now called the periodic law,
proposed independently by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev and the German chemist Julius
Lothar Meyer. Given in its modern form, the periodic law states that when elements are arranged in
order of increasing atomic number, elements with similar chemical properties occur at periodic
(regularly recurring) intervals.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scientists discovered the periodicity of various properties
of elements, such as atomic size, ionization energy, and electronegativity. This led to the realization
that the properties of elements repeated periodically with increasing atomic number, rather than
atomic mass.
 A periodic table is a visual representation of the behavior described by the periodic law. A
periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the elements in order of increasing atomic number such
that elements having similar chemical properties are positioned in vertical columns. The most
commonly used form of the periodic table is shown below. Within the table, each element is
represented by a rectangular box that contains the symbol, atomic number, and atomic mass of the
element. Elements within any given column of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior.

PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Groups and Periods of Elements
The location of an element within the periodic table is specified by giving its period number and
group number.
Period
• is a horizontal row of elements in the periodic table
• for identification purposes, the periods are numbered sequentially with Arabic numbers,
starting at the top of the periodic table
• period numbers are found on the left side of the table
• there are only two elements in Period 1, H and He
• the elements Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl, and Ar are all members of Period 3, the third row of
elements
• Period 4 is the fourth row of elements, and so on
 Group
• is a vertical column of elements in the periodic table
• two notations are used to designate individual periodic-table groups
o in the first notation, which has been in use for many years, groups are designated
by using Roman numerals and the letters A and B
o in the second notation, which an international scientific commission
recommended several years ago, the Arabic numbers 1 through 18 are used
**Note that in Figure 3.3 both group notations are given at the top of each group. The
elements with atomic numbers 8, 16, 34, 52, and 84 (O, S, Se, Te, and Po) constitute
Group VIA (old notation) or Group 16 (new notation).

Periodic Table Groups with Special Names

1. Alkali Metals
• (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr)
• is a general name for any element in Group IA of the periodic table, excluding
hydrogen
• are soft, shiny metals that readily react with water.

2. Alkaline Earth Metals

• (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra)
• is a general name for any element in Group IIA of the periodic table
• also soft, shiny metals, but they are only moderately reactive toward water

3. Halogens
• (F, Cl, Br, I, At)
• is a general name for any element in Group VIIA of the periodic table
• are reactive elements that are gases at room temperature or become such at
temperatures slightly above room temperature
•
4. Noble Gases
• (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)
• is a general name for any element in Group VIIIA of the periodic table
• are unreactive gases that undergo few, if any, chemical reactions.

The location of any element in the periodic table is specified by giving its group number and its
period number. The element gold, with an atomic number of 79, belongs to Group IB (or 11) and is in
Period 6. The element nitrogen, with an atomic number of 7, belongs to Group VA (or 15) and is in
Period 2.

Classification by Physical Properties

Metals
• is an element that has the characteristic properties of luster, thermal conductivity,
electrical conductivity, and malleability
• with the exception of mercury, all metals are solids at room temperature (258oC)
• are good conductors of heat and electricity
• most metals are ductile (can be drawn into wires) and malleable (can be rolled into
sheets)
• most metals have high luster (shine), high density, and high melting points.
• among the more familiar metals are the elements iron, aluminum, copper, silver, gold,
lead, tin, and zinc.
 Nonmetals
• is an element characterized by the absence of the properties of luster, thermal
conductivity, electrical conductivity, and malleability
• many of the nonmetals, such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and the noble gases, are
gases
• the only nonmetal that is a liquid at room temperature is bromine
• solid nonmetals include carbon, iodine, sulfur, and phosphorus.
• have lower densities and lower melting points than metals.

Selected Physical Properties of Metals and Nonmetals

Metals Nonmetals
1. High electrical conductivity that 1. Poor electrical conductivity (except
decreases with increasing temperature carbon in the form of graphite)
2. High thermal conductivity 2. Good heat insulators (except carbon in
the form of diamond)
3. Metallic gray or silver luster (except 3. No metallic luster
copper and gold)
4. Almost all are solids (Except mercury; 4. Solids, liquids, or gases
cesium and gallium melt on a hot summer
day (858oF) or when held in a person’s
hand)
5. Malleable (can be hammered into sheets) 5. Brittle in solid state
6. Ductile (can be drawn into wires) 6. Nonductile
 Periodic Table Locations for Metals and Nonmetals

Classification by Electronic Properties

1. Representative Elements
• an element located in the s area or the first five columns of the p area of the periodic
table
• the distinguishing electron in these elements partially or completely fills an s subshell or
partially fills a p subshell
• some representative elements are nonmetals, whereas others are metals
• the four most abundant elements in the human body—hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and
nitrogen— are nonmetallic representative elements.

2. Noble-gas Elements
• an element located in the far-right column of the periodic table
• these elements are all gases at room temperature, and they have little tendency to
form chemical compounds
• with one exception, the distinguishing electron for a noble gas completes the p
subshell; therefore, noble gases have electron configurations ending in p6
• the exception is helium, in which the distinguishing electron completes the first shell—a
shell that has only two electrons. Helium’s electron configuration is 1s2

3. Transition Elements
• an element located in the d area of the periodic table
• all are metals
• the most abundant transition element in the human body is iron

4. Inner Transition Elements

• an element located in the f area of the periodic table
• all are metals
• many of them are laboratory-produced elements rather than naturally occurring
elements
Summary:
 FEATURES OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
Atomic Number
• is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Because an atom has the same number of
electrons as protons, the atomic number also specifies the number of electrons present.

• symbol Z is used as a general designation for atomic number.

Atomic Symbol
• also known as the chemical symbol, is a shorthand notation used to represent an element in
chemistry
• it consists of one or two letters derived from the element's name, often in English or Latin
• the atomic symbol is typically based on the element's name in English or Latin, but in some
cases, it may be based on the element's name in another language

• Example:
o Hydrogen: H
o Helium: He
o Carbon: C
o Oxygen: O
o Sodium: Na (from the Latin "natrium")
o Potassium: K (from the Latin "kalium")

Atomic Mass
• is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
Thus the mass number gives the number of subatomic particles present in the nucleus.

• The mass of an atom is almost totally accounted for by the protons and neutrons present—
hence the term mass number.
• The symbol A is used as a general designation for mass number.
• The number and identity of subatomic particles present in an atom can be calculated from its
atomic and mass numbers in the following manner.

• Note that neutron count is obtained by subtracting atomic number from mass number.
The Shape of the Periodic Table
• the practice of arranging the elements according to increasing atomic number is violated in
Groups IIIB and IVB.
• element 72 follows element 57, and element 104 follows element 89
• the missing elements, elements 58 through 71 and 90 through 103 are located in two rows at the
bottom of the periodic table
• technically, the elements at the bottom of the table should be included in the body of the table,
however, in order to have a more compact table, they are placed at the bottom of the table

USES OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

1. Elemental Identification
• provides a systematic organization of all known chemical elements based on their
atomic number, enabling scientists to easily identify and categorize elements.

2. Chemical Properties
• it helps in predicting the chemical properties of elements based on their position in the
table, including reactivity, valence electron configuration, and tendencies to form
compounds.

3. Elemental Relationships
• reveals relationships between elements, such as similarities within groups/families and
trends across periods, allowing scientists to study patterns in atomic structure and
behavior.
 4. Elemental Naming and Symbolism
• provides standardized symbols and names for each element, facilitating communication
and collaboration among scientists worldwide.

5. Education and Learning

• serves as a fundamental teaching tool in chemistry education, helping students
understand the organization of elements and the principles underlying chemical
behavior.

6. Chemical Nomenclature
• aids in the naming of chemical compounds by providing information about the
elements' symbols, valence states, and atomic masses.

7. Elemental Abundance and Occurrence

• helps in understanding the distribution of elements in nature, including their abundance
in the Earth's crust, oceans, atmosphere, and living organisms.

8. Industrial Applications
• guides industrial processes by providing insights into the properties and behavior of
elements used in manufacturing, metallurgy, materials science, and other fields.

9. Drug Discovery and Pharmaceuticals

• supports drug discovery and pharmaceutical research by facilitating the study of
elements and their compounds for medicinal purposes.

10. Environmental Analysis

• aids in environmental analysis and monitoring by identifying elements present in
pollutants, soil, water, and air, helping to assess environmental impacts and develop
mitigation strategies.

11. Nuclear Chemistry

• plays a crucial role in nuclear chemistry by categorizing elements based on their
isotopes, radioactive properties, and nuclear reactions.

12. Space Exploration

• used in space exploration to analyze extraterrestrial materials, such as meteorites and
lunar rocks, and to understand the composition of celestial bodies.

PERIODIC TRENDS
Periodic trends are patterns or variations in the properties of elements that occur as you move
across a period (row) or down a group (column) in the periodic table. These trends help scientists
predict and understand the behavior of elements and their compounds. Some of the key periodic
trends include:

1. Atomic Radius
• the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron in an atom.
• across a period: atomic radius generally decreases from left to right due to increasing
nuclear charge and stronger attraction between the nucleus and outer electrons.
• down a group: atomic radius generally increases from top to bottom due to the
addition of new electron shells.
 2. Ionization Energy
• the energy required to remove an electron from an atom in its gaseous state.
• across a period: ionization energy generally increases from left to right due to increasing
nuclear charge and stronger attraction between the nucleus and outer electrons.
• down a group: ionization energy generally decreases from top to bottom due to
increasing atomic size and shielding effect.

3. Electron Affinity
• the energy change that occurs when an electron is added to an atom in its gaseous
state.
• across a period: electron affinity generally becomes more negative from left to right
due to increasing nuclear charge and electron-electron repulsion.
• down a group: electron affinity generally decreases from top to bottom due to
increasing atomic size and shielding effect.

4. Electronegativity
• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond.
• Across a period: Electronegativity generally increases from left to right due to increasing
nuclear charge and decreasing atomic size.
• Down a group: Electronegativity generally decreases from top to bottom due to
increasing atomic size and shielding effect.

5. Metallic Character
• Metallic character refers to the tendency of an element to exhibit metallic properties,
such as luster, conductivity, and malleability.
• across a period: metallic character generally decreases from left to right as elements
become more nonmetallic.
• down a group: metallic character generally increases from top to bottom as elements
become more metallic.

MODERN PERIODIC LAW

The periodic law states that when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number,
elements with similar chemical properties occur at periodic (regularly recurring) intervals.

For many years, there was no explanation available for either the periodic law or why the
periodic table has the shape that it has. It is now known that the theoretical basis for both the periodic
law and the periodic table is found in electronic theory. When two atoms interact, it is their electrons
that interact. Thus the number and arrangement of electrons determine how an atom reacts with other
atoms — that is, what its chemical properties are. The properties of the elements repeat themselves in
a periodic manner because the arrangement of electrons about the nucleus of an atom follows a
periodic pattern.

Key points of the modern periodic law include:

1. Atomic Number
• elements in the periodic table are arranged based on their atomic number, which
represents the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
• atomic number is a fundamental property of an element and determines its position
in the periodic table.
 2. Periodicity
• refers to the repeating patterns or trends observed in the properties of elements as
you move across a period (row) or down a group (column) in the periodic table.
• These periodic trends include variations in atomic radius, ionization energy, electron
affinity, electronegativity, and metallic character.

3. Groups and Periods

• the periodic table is divided into periods (horizontal rows) and groups or families
(vertical columns).
• elements within the same group have similar outer electron configurations and
exhibit similar chemical properties.
• elements within the same period have the same number of electron shells but may
vary in other properties.

4. Prediction of Properties
• the modern periodic law allows scientists to predict the properties of elements
based on their positions in the periodic table.
• by understanding the periodic trends in properties such as atomic size, reactivity,
and bonding behavior, scientists can infer the behavior of elements and their
compounds in chemical reactions and other processes.

THE BENIFICIAL AND HARMFUL ELEMENTS TO THE ENVIRONMENT

Beneficial Elements
1. Carbon (C)
• Essential for organic molecules, serving as the backbone of life and supporting biological
processes.

2. Oxygen (O)
• Crucial for respiration in organisms and the formation of ozone (O3) in the atmosphere,
which protects against UV radiation.

3. Nitrogen (N)
• Key nutrient for plant growth and an essential component of proteins, nucleic acids, and
chlorophyll.

4. Phosphorus (P)
• Essential for DNA, RNA, and ATP synthesis, supporting energy transfer and cell function in
organisms.

5. Calcium (Ca)
• Important for the formation of bones, teeth, and shells in animals, and for cell signaling
and muscle contraction.

6. Potassium (K)
• Essential for plant growth, regulating water uptake, enzyme activation, and osmotic
balance in cells.
•
7. Magnesium (Mg)
• Important for chlorophyll synthesis in plants, supporting photosynthesis, and enzyme
activation in cells.
 8. Iron (Fe)
• Essential for oxygen transport in hemoglobin, electron transfer in cellular respiration, and
photosynthesis.

9. Sulfur (S)
• Important for amino acid synthesis, protein structure, and enzyme function in organisms.

10. Zinc (Zn)

• Essential for enzyme function, cell division, and wound healing in organisms.

Harmful Elements
1. Lead (Pb)
• Toxic heavy metal that can cause neurological damage, developmental disorders, and
cardiovascular issues in humans and wildlife.

2. Mercury (Hg)
• Highly toxic element that bioaccumulates in aquatic ecosystems, leading to neurological
disorders and reproductive issues in humans and wildlife.

3. Arsenic (As)
• Naturally occurring toxic element found in groundwater and minerals, causing skin
lesions, cardiovascular diseases, and cancers.

4. Cadmium (Cd)
• Toxic heavy metal released from industrial activities and mining, accumulating in soils
and water bodies, and posing risks to human health and ecosystems.

5. Chromium (Cr)
• Can occur in toxic forms such as hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)), causing respiratory issues,
skin irritation, and an increased risk of lung cancer.

6. Nickel (Ni)
• Toxic metal that can cause allergic reactions, lung diseases, and DNA damage in
humans.

7. Copper (Cu)
• Essential micronutrient but toxic at high concentrations, causing liver and kidney
damage in humans and aquatic toxicity in ecosystems.

8. Aluminum (Al)
• Can be toxic to aquatic organisms at high concentrations, affecting fish gills and
impairing nutrient uptake.

9. Selenium (Se)
• Essential micronutrient but toxic at high concentrations, causing reproductive issues and
neurological disorders in humans and wildlife.

10. Fluorine (F)

• Essential for dental health but toxic at high concentrations, causing dental fluorosis,
skeletal fluorosis, and other health issues in humans and animals.