Multimedia Communications
Module - 5
MULTIMEDIA INFORMATION NETWORKS
Introduction, LANs, Ethernet, Token ring, Bridges, FDDI High-speed
LANs, LAN protocol.
TEXT BOOK:
1. Multimedia Communications: Applications, Networks, Protocols and
Standards, Fred Halsall, Pearson Education, Asia, Second Indian reprint 2002.
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With the rapid paradigm shift from conventional circuit-switching telephone
networks to the packet-switching, data-centric, and IP-based Internet, networked
multimedia computer applications have created a tremendous impact on computing
and network infrastructures. More specifically, most multimedia content providers,
such as news, television, and the entertainment industry have started their own
streaming infrastructures to deliver their content, either live or on-demand.
Numerous multimedia networking applications have also matured in the past few
years, ranging from distance learning to desktop video conferencing, instant
messaging, workgroup collaboration, multimedia kiosks, entertainment, and
imaging.
What is a LAN?
A LAN is a high-speed, fault-tolerant data network that covers a relatively
small geographic area. It typically connects workstations, personal computers,
printers, and other devices. LANs offer computer users many advantages, including
shared access to devices and applications, file exchange between connected users,
and communication between users via electronic mail and other applications.
Three LAN implementations are used most commonly:
LAN Protocols and the OSI Reference Model
LAN protocols function at the lowest two layers of the OSI reference model, as
discussed in Chapter 1, ―Internetworking Basics,‖ between the physical layer and the
data link layer. Figure 2-2 illustrates how several popular LAN protocols map to the
OSI reference model.
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Figure 2-2 Popular LAN protocols mapped to the OSI reference model.
LAN Media-Access Methods:
LAN protocols typically use one of two methods to access the physical
network medium: carrier sense multiple access collision detect (CSMA/CD) and token
passing. In the CSMA/CD media-access scheme, network devices contend for use of
the physical network medium. CSMA/CD is therefore sometimes called contention
access. Examples of LANs that use the CSMA/CD media-access scheme are
Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 networks, including 100BaseT.
In the token-passing media-access scheme, network devices access the
physical medium based on possession of a token. Examples of LANs that use the
token-passing media-access scheme are Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 and FDDI.
LAN Transmission Methods:
LAN data transmissions fall into three classifications: unicast, multicast, and
broadcast. In each type of transmission, a single packet is sent to one or more nodes.
In a unicast transmission, a single packet is sent from the source to a destination on a
network.
First, the source node addresses the packet by using the address of the
destination node. The package is then sent onto the network, and finally, the
network passes the packet to its destination. A multicast transmission consists of a
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single data packet that is copied and sent to a specific subset of nodes on the
network. First, the source node addresses the packet by using a multicast address.
The packet is then sent into the network, which makes copies of the packet and
sends a copy to each node that is part of the multicast address. A broadcast
transmission consists of a single data packet that is copied and sent to all nodes on
the
network. In these types of transmissions, the source node addresses the packet by
using the broadcast address. The packet is then sent into the network, which makes
copies of the packet and sends a copy to every node on the network.
LAN Topologies:
LAN topologies define the manner in which network devices are organized.
Four common LANtopologies exist: bus, ring, star, and tree. These topologies are
logical architectures, but the actual devices need not be physically organized in these
configurations. Logical bus and ring topologies, for example, are commonly
organized physically as a star. A bus topology is a linear LAN architecture in which
transmissions from network stations propagate the length of the medium and are
received by all other stations. Of the three most widely used LAN implementations,
Ethernet/IEEE 802.3 networks including 100BaseT, implement a bus topology,
which is illustrated in Figure 2-3.
A ring topology is a LAN architecture that consists of a series of devices
connected to one another by unidirectional transmission links to form a single closed
loop. Both Token Ring/IEEE 802.5 and FDDI networks implement a ring topology.
Figure 2-4 depicts a logical ring topology.
A star topology is a LAN architecture in which the endpoints on a network
are connected to a common central hub, or switch, by dedicated links. Logical bus
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and ring topologies are often implemented physically in a star topology, which is
illustrated in Figure 2-5.
A tree topology is a LAN architecture that is identical to the bus topology,
except that branches with multiple nodes are possible in this case. Figure 2-5
illustrates a logical tree topology.
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LAN Devices:
Devices commonly used in LANs include repeaters, hubs, LAN extenders, bridges, LAN
switches, and routers.
Note Repeaters, hubs, and LAN extenders are discussed briefly in this section.
A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments
of an extended network. A repeater essentially enables a series of cable segments to
be treated as a single cable. Repeaters receive signals from one network segment and
amplify, retime, and retransmit those signals to another network segment. These
actions prevent signal deterioration caused by long cable lengths and large numbers
of connected devices. Repeaters are incapable of performing complex filtering and
other traffic processing. In addition, all electrical signals, including electrical
disturbances and other errors, are repeated and amplified. The total number of
repeaters and network segments that can be connected is limited due to timing and
other issues. Figure 2-6 illustrates a repeater connecting two network segments.
Figure 2-6 A repeater connects two network segments.
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A hub is a physical-layer device that connects multiple user stations, each via
a dedicated cable. Electrical interconnections are established inside the hub. Hubs
are used to create a physical star network while maintaining the logical bus or ring
configuration of the LAN. In some respects, a hub functions as a multiport repeater.
A LAN extender is a remote-access multilayer switch that connects to a host
router. LAN extenders forward traffic from all the standard network-layer protocols
(such as IP, IPX, and AppleTalk), and filter traffic based on the MAC address or
network-layer protocol type. LAN extenders scale well because the host router filters
out unwanted broadcasts and multicasts. LAN extenders, however, are not capable
of segmenting traffic or creating security firewalls. Figure 2-7 illustrates multiple
LAN extenders connected to the host router through a WAN.
Figure 2-7 Multiple LAN extenders can connect to the host router through a WAN.
TOKEN RINGS/BUSES, HIGH SPEED LANS AND BRIDGES:
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Token Bus
IEEE 802.4 Standard
Token: special-purpose frame that circulates when all
stations are idle.
Physically, token bus is linear or tree-shaped topology; logically, it
operates as ring.
5 4 3
token
6 1 2
PASSING THE TOKEN :
Z IN CSMA/CD (802.3) STARVATION MAY OCCUR, I.E., STATIONS CAN
WAIT FOREVER TO TRANSMIT.
Z IN TOKEN BUS, EVERY STATION HAS A CHANCE TO TRANSMIT
(TOKEN) THEREFORE - NO COLLISIONS. IT IS CONTENTION-FREE.
Z TOKEN PASSES AROUND IN PRE-DEFINED ORDER AND ONCE
STATION ACQUIRES TOKEN, IT CAN START TRANSMITTING.
Z WHEN COMPLETE, THE TOKEN IS PASSED ONTO THE NEXT
STATION.
STATIONS TRANSMITTING :
Z HOWEVER THERE IS LIMITED EFFICIENCY DUE TO PASSING OF THE
TOKEN. IT IS MOST COMMONLY USED MAC PROTOCOL FOR
RING TOPOLOGIES. IT ALSO USES A SPECIAL-PURPOSE,
CIRCULATING FRAME, OR TOKEN (3 BYTES).
Z STATION THAT WANTS TO TRANSMIT WAITS TILL
TOKEN PASSES BY.
Z WHEN STATION WANTS TO TRANSMIT:
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Y WAITS FOR TOKEN.
Y SEIZES IT BY CHANGING 1 BIT AND TOKEN BECOMES START-
OF-FRAME SEQUENCE.
Y STATION APPENDS REMAINDER OF FRAME.
Y WHEN STATION SEIZES TOKEN AND BEGINS
TRANSMISSION, THERE‟S NO TOKEN ON THE RING; SO
NOBODY ELSE CAN TRANSMIT.
Z TRANSMITTING STATION INSERTS A NEW TOKEN WHEN THE
STATION COMPLETES FRAME TRANSMISSION AND THE LEADING
EDGE OF FRAME RETURNS TO IT AFTER A ROUND-TRIP. UNDER
LIGHT LOAD, INEFFICIENCY DUE TO WAITING FOR THE TOKEN TO
TRANSMIT.
Z UNDER A HEAVY LOAD, ROUND-ROBIN IS FAIR AND EFFICIENT. IN
FACT THIS IS ONE OF THE MAJOR ADVANTAGES OF THE TOKEN
RING….
Z THE MONITORING STATION HOWEVER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR RING
MAINTENANCE (REMOVING DUPLICATES, INSERTING TOKEN)
TOKEN RING FRAME FORMAT
SD: STARTING DELIMITER; INDICATES STARTING OF FRAME.
AC: ACCESS CONTROL; PPPTMRRR; PPP AND RRR PRIORITY AND
RESERVATION; M MONITOR BIT; T TOKEN OR DATA FRAME.
FC: FRAME CONTROL; IF LLC DATA OR CONTROL.
DA AND SA: DESTINATION AND SOURCE ADDRESSES.
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FCS: FRAME CHECK SEQUENCE.
ED: ENDING DELIMITER; CONTAINS THE ERROR DETECTION BIT E;
CONTAINS FRAME CONTINUATION BIT I (MULTIPLE FRAME
TRANSMISSIONS).
FS: FRAME STATUS.
TOKEN RING PRIORITIES:
THERE IS AN OPTIONAL PRIORITY MECHANISM IN 802.5. IT HAS 3
PRIORITY BITS: 8 PRIORITY LEVELS.
Z SERVICE PRIORITY: PRIORITY OF CURRENT TOKEN.
Y STATION CAN ONLY TRANSMIT FRAME WITH PRIORITY >=
SERVICE PRIORITY.
Y RESERVATION BITS ALLOW STATION TO INFLUENCE
PRIORITY LEVELS TRYING TO RESERVE NEXT TOKEN.
Y GENERALLY A STATION WAITS FOR FRAME TO COME BACK
BEFORE ISSUING A NEW TOKEN. THIS CAN LEAD TO LOW
RING UTILIZATION.
Z THEREFORE THERE IS AN EARLY TOKEN RELEASE (ETR) OPTION
WHERE A STATION MAY RELEASE TOKEN AS SOON AS IT
COMPLETES TRANSMISSION.
TOKEN RING SUMMARY:
A TOKEN RING IS:
Y EFFICIENT AT HEAVY TRAFFIC.
Y GUARANTEED DELAY.
Y FAIR.
Y SUPPORTS PRIORITIES.
Y BUT, RING/TOKEN MAINTENANCE OVERHEAD.
X CENTRALIZED MONITORING.
HIGH-SPEED LANS – FDDI:
Z FIBER DISTRIBUTED DATA INTERFACE IS SIMILAR TO 802.5 WITH
SOME CHANGES DUE TO HIGHER DATA RATES.
Z 100-1000 MBPS, TOKEN RING LAN - SUITABLE FOR MANS WITH
FIBER OR TP AS TRANSMISSION MEDIUM.
Z UP TO 100 REPEATERS AND UP TO 2 KM (FIBER) OR 100M (TP)
BETWEEN REPEATERS.
Z BASIC DIFFERENCES TO 802.5:
Y STATION WAITING FOR TOKEN, SEIZES TOKEN BY FAILING
TO REPEAT IT (COMPLETELY REMOVES IT). ORIGINAL 802.5
TECHNIQUE IMPRACTICAL (HIGH DATA RATE).
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Y STATION INSERTS NEW FRAME AND EARLY TOKEN RELEASE
BY DEFAULT.
HIGH-SPEED LANS – FDDI:
TWO COUNTER-ROTATING FIBER RINGS; ONLY ONE USED FOR
TRANSMISSION; THE OTHER FOR RELIABILITY, I.E., SELF-HEALING RING.
High-Speed LANs - 100VG-ANYLAN:
z voice grade; ANYLAN: support multiple frame types.
z 802.12 (uses new MAC scheme and not CSMA/CD).
z Intended to be 100Mbps extension to Ethernet like 100BASE-T.
z MAC scheme: demand priority (determines order in which nodes share
network).
z Supports both 802.3 and 802.5 frames.
High-Speed LANs - 100VG-ANYLAN:
Topology: hierarchical star.
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High-Speed LANs - Fast Ethernet:
z 100 Mbps Ethernet.
z IEEE 802.3u standard.
z Medium alternatives: 100BASE-TX (twisted pair) 100BASE-FX (fiber).
z IEEE 802.3 MAC and frame format.
z 10-fold increase in speed => 10-fold reduction in diameter (200m).
Wireless LANs
z IEEE 802.11.
z Distributed access control mechanism (DCF) based on CSMA with optional
centralized control (PCF).
MAC in Wireless LANs:
z Distributed coordination function (DCF) uses CSMA-based protocol (e.g.,
ad hoc networks).
z CD does not make sense in wireless.
y Hard for transmitter to distinguish its own transmission from
incoming weak signals and noise.
z Point coordination function (PCF) uses polling to grant stations their turn
to transmit (e.g., cellular networks).
Switched Ethernet:
z Point-to-point connections to multi-port hub acting like switch; no
collisions.
z More efficient under high traffic load: break large shared Ethernet into
smaller segments.
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LAN Interconnection Schemes:
z Extend LAN coverage and merge different types of LAN.
z Connect to an internetwork.
z Reliability and security.
z Hubs or repeaters: physical-level interconnection.
y Devices repeat/amplify signal.
y No buffering/routing capability.
y Bridges: link-layer interconnection.
y Store-and-forward frames to destination LAN.
y Need to speak protocols of LANs it interconnect.
y Routers: network-layer interconnection.
y Interconnect different types of networks.
Bridges:
z Operate at the MAC layer.
y Interconnect LANs of the same type, or
y LANs that speak different MAC protocols.
BRIDGES:
Z A BRIDGES FUNCTION IS TO:
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Y LISTEN TO ALL FRAMES ON LAN A AND ACCEPTS THOSE
ADDRESSED TO STATIONS ON LAN B.
Y USING B‟S MAC PROTOCOL RETRANSMITS THE FRAMES
ONTO B.
Y DO THE SAME FOR B-TO-A TRAFFIC.
Y BEHAVE LIKE A STATION; HAVE MULTIPLE INTERFACES, 1
PER LAN.
Z USE DESTINATION ADDRESS TO FORWARD UNICAST FRAMES; IF
DESTINATION IS ON THE SAME LAN, DROPS FRAME; OTHERWISE
FORWARDS IT.
Z FORWARD ALL BROADCAST FRAMES AND HAVE STORAGE AND
ROUTING CAPABILITY
Z NO ADDITIONAL ENCAPSULATION.
Z BUT THEY MAY HAVE TO DO HEADER CONVERSION IF
INTERCONNECTING DIFFERENT LANS (E.G., BUS TO RING FRAME).
Z MAY INTERCONNECT MORE THAN 2 LANS AND LANS MAY BE
INTERCONNECTED BY MORE THAN 1 BRIDGE.
Z IEEE 802.1D SPECIFICATION FOR MAC BRIDGES.
ROUTING WITH BRIDGES:
Z BRIDGE DECIDES TO RELAY FRAME BASED ON DESTINATION MAC
ADDRESS.
Z IF ONLY 2 LANS, DECISION IS SIMPLE.
Z IF MORE COMPLEX TOPOLOGIES, ROUTING IS NEEDED, I.E., FRAME
MAY TRAVERSE MORE THAN 1 BRIDGE.
Z DETERMINING WHERE TO SEND FRAME SO THAT IT REACHES THE
DESTINATION.
Z ROUTING BY LEARNING: ADAPTIVE OR BACKWARD LEARNING.
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RECOMMENDED QUESTIONS:
1. What is the meaning of ―enterprise networks‖? determine the factors that determine
creation of such networks.[10]
2. Explain multiple access, broadcast mode, collision, carrier sense.[10]
3. State the use of jam sequence with the CSMA/CD MAC method and explain why a
truncated binary exponential is used?[10]
4. With the aid of flow diagrams , explain the transmission and reception procedures of a
frame with a token ring LAN. Include the meaning/use of the token time holder.[10]
5. How is a bridge different from a repeater? What are the advantages & disadvantages of
each?[10]
6. In relation to the spanning tree algorithm explain: spanning tree, root bridge, designated
cost, root path cost, root port, designated port.[10]
7. In relation to the timed token rotation protocol used with FDDI, explain the meaning of
TTRT, TRT, THT, early/late token?[10]
8. State why the 8B6t encoding scheme is used for transmission over each twisted pair wire with
100baseT. Also explain why a DC balancing sceme is required.[10]
9. Explain the key properties of MM system? [06]
10. Describe the diff characteristics of data streams originating from various media ?[05]
11. Write down the differences b/w asynchronous , synchronous, isochronous transmission mode?[10]
12. Explain the characteristics for continous media streams in MM system?[06]
13. Define sound and its properties?[05]
14. Explain the sequence of events the way how human perceive sound ?[05]
15. Explain ITD, IID, SPL?[06]
16. Briefly distinguish sound perception and Psychoacoustic?[08]
17. Explain the process how audio represented on computers?[04]
18. What is Quantization?[02]