SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FOUNDATIONS

TO : PATRICK ZIBA

FROM : INNOCENT CHIBWE

PROGRAM : AGRICULTURE GENERAL

COURSE : COMPUTER APPLICATION

ASSIGN TITTLE : HISTORY AND EVOLUTON OF COMPUTERS

ASSIGN NO. : 2

ID NO. : 250300341

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 HISTOTY AND EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

CHAPTER 2 FUNDAMENTALS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

A computer is an electronic device that stores, retrieves, and processes data, and can be
programmed with instructions. is composed of hardware and software components.

EXAMPLES OF HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Hardware

 actual machinery wires

 transistors
 circuits

Software

 instructions
 data

FEATURES FOR POWER AND USEFUL COMPUTER

 Speed: The time taken by the computer to execute instruction is very fast. Its processing
speed is measured in a fraction of a second.
 Accuracy: computer does its work with a very high speed, but it does not make any
mistake unless the user gives it a wrong instruction. Computers are accurate. But if wrong
data transferred to the computer, it returns the same wrong output or information called
GIGO (Garbage in garbage out).
 Diligence: it can work for many hours continuously without taking any rest and without
decreasing its speed, accuracy and efficiency. It is free from tiredness, lack of
concentration, fatigue.
 Versatile: Computer is a versatile machine which can do varieties of task such as simple
calculation to a complex and logical operation.

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  Storage: it has mass storage section where we can store large volume of data for future
work. Such data are easily recall from the secondary storage devices like floppy disk
(FDD), hard disk (HDD), compact disk (CD).
 Automatic: if the instruction to do any work is given to the computer, the computer
does its work automatically.
 Reliability: Since computer can do its work very fast, it is able to store data for future
use, it is a very reliable or trustworthy machine.

CAPABILITIES AND LIMITATIONS

Capabilities;

 Can solve complex calculations quickly.

 Capable of handling and processing large calculations at a single time.
 Electronic Items have some form of computing functions.
 works faster than a man.
 Computer and man are capable in giving data and information in the form of
communication.

Limitations;

 Programmed by Human: computer is programmed to work efficiently, fast and accurately

but it is programmed by human beings to do so. Without a program, computer cannot
perform any task. A program is a set of instructions. Computer only follows these
instructions. If the instructions are not accurate, the working of computer will not
accurate.
 Thinking: The concept of artificial intelligence shows that the computer can think. But
still this concept is dependent on set of instructions provided by the human beings.
 Self-care: A computer is dependent still to human beings and its environment for this
purpose.
 Retrieval of memory: Computer can retrieve data very fast but this technique is linear. A
human being’s mind does not follow this rule.
 Feelings: One of the main limits in the computer is of feeling. A computer cannot feel
about some like a human. A computer cannot meet human in respect of relations.

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GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS – PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Charles Babbage is known as the father of. His immense contribution to the world of
programming. He developed computer that could calculate and print logarithmic tables with
huge precision.

First Generation (1940-1956)

First computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. They were
very expensive to operate due to using of great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat. First
generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language
understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a
time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices.

LIMITATIONS OF FIRST GENERATION COMPUTER:

They used valves or vacuum tubes as their main electronic component.

 They were large in size, slow in processing and had less storage capacity.
 They consumed lots of electricity and produced lots of heat.
 Their computing capabilities were limited.
 They were not so accurate and reliable.
 They used machine level language for programming.
 They were very expensive.

Second Generation (1956-1963)

In 1947, William Shockley and Walter Brattain invented transistor in the Bell Laboratories of the
U.S.A. replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor
was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, and cheaper.
Second generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or
assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level
programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of
COBOL and FORTRAN.

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Third Generation (1964-1971)
Transistors were found to damage the more sensitive parts of a computer since they generated a
lot of heat. In 1958, the IC (Integrated Circuit) was invented by Jack Kilby. Also, new operating
systems were developed, which allowed the running of many applications simultaneously. The
development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers.
Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductor, which
drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers. Computers for the first time became
accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present)

Microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits
were built onto a single silicon chip. This made the Fundamentals of Computer Engineering in
1981, IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the
Macintosh. When these small computers came more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices include the present day computers and the ones that are
being developed, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some
applications, such as Voice recognition which is a software that is used to recognize the user’s
voice and respond to it, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.

GENERATION OF COMPUTERS AND THE COMPONENTS USED

First Generation Vacuum tubes

Second Generation transistors

Third Generation Integrated Circuits (IC)

Fourth Generation Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits(VLSI)

Fifth Generation Ultra Scale Integrated Circuits (ULSI)

Micro Processor (SILICON CHIP)

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computers are often classified based on:
(a) Principle of Operation
(b) Configuration and Size
(c) Purpose
Classification based on Principle of Operation
• Analog Computers
• Digital Computers
• Hybrid Computers
Analog Computers:
Analog Computer is a computing device that works on continuous range of values. The results
given by the analog computers will only be approximate since they deal with quantities that vary
continuously. It generally deals with physical variables such as voltage, pressure, temperature,

Speed.
Digital Computers:
A digital computer operates on digital data. It uses binary number system in which there are only
two digits 0 and 1. Each one is called a bit. The digital computer is designed using digital circuits
in which there are two levels for an input or output signal. These two levels are known as logic 0
and logic 1. Digital Computers can give more accurate and faster results. Digital computer is
well suited for solving complex problems in engineering and technology. Hence, digital
computers have an increasing use in the field of design, research and data processing.

Hybrid Computers:
A hybrid computer combines the desirable features of analog and digital computers. It is mostly
used for automatic operations of complicated physical processes and machines. Now-a-days
analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog converters are used for transforming the data into suitable
form for either type of computation.

TYPES OF COMPUTERS BASED ON CONFIGURATION AND SIZE

 Super Computers
 Mainframe Computers
 Mini Computers

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  Micro Computer
Classification of Computers based on Purpose
• General purpose computer
• Special purpose computer
CHAPTER 7 INTRODUCTION FOR TODAY`S DIGITAL WORLD

THE HISTORY OF COMPUTER HARDWARE

The history of computer hardware is the story of human ingenuity in building machines that
process and store data. Hardware has evolved from simple mechanical devices to powerful,
miniaturized systems capable of billions of calculations per second.

 Early Mechanical Devices

The Abacus (c. 2400 BCE) was the earliest known calculating tool, used in Mesopotamia and
China for arithmetic. In the 1600s, Blaise Pascal invented the Pascaline, a mechanical device for
addition and subtraction. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz followed with the Step Reckoner in 1672,
capable of multiplication and division.

 The Analytical Engine

Charles Babbage (1837) designed the Analytical Engine, a mechanical general-purpose

computer. Though never completed, it introduced the ideas of a central processor and memory.

 Electromechanical Computers

Herman Hollerith (1890) developed punched card machines to process the U.S. Census. His
company later became IBM. Konrad Zuse’s Z3 (1941) was the first fully functional
electromechanical, programmable computer.

 First Generation (1940s–1950s): Vacuum Tubes

ENIAC (1945) was one of the earliest electronic general-purpose computers. It used vacuum
tubes for computation. These computers were large, power-hungry, and programmed in machine
language.

 Second Generation (1956–1963): Transistors

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Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, making machines faster, smaller, and more reliable.
Examples include IBM 7090, which advanced scientific and business computing.

Third Generation (1964–1971): Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Integrated circuits placed many transistors on a single chip, reducing size and cost. IBM
System/360 family introduced compatibility across different models.

 Fourth Generation (1971–Present): Microprocessors

The Intel 4004 (1971), the first microprocessor, led to personal computers such as the Apple II
(1977) and IBM PC (1981). Modern devices include laptops, smartphones, and multi-core
processors.

 Future Directions

Quantum computers, neuromorphic computing, and the Internet of Things (IoT) represent
emerging hardware trends.

THE HISTORY OF SOFTWARE

Software development has paralleled hardware evolution, enabling more complex and user-
friendly computing experiences. Software turns hardware into a useful tool by providing
instructions and managing processes.

 Early Programs

Ada Lovelace (1842–1843) is considered the first computer programmer. She wrote an algorithm
for Babbage’s Analytical Engine. Punched cards, used by Jacquard looms and later adapted for
computer programming, marked early data entry methods.

 First Generation (1940s–1950s): Machine Language and Assembly

Machine language, represented in binary code, was the only language early computers could
understand. Assembly language simplified programming but was still hardware-specific.

 Second Generation (1950s–1960s): High-Level Languages

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FORTRAN (1957) and COBOL (1959) were among the first high-level programming languages,
allowing for more portable and accessible programming.

 Third Generation (1960s–1970s): Operating Systems

Operating systems like IBM’s OS/360 and UNIX provided a layer between hardware and users,
managing resources and simplifying software execution.

 Fourth Generation (1970s–1990s): Application Software and GUIs

Software expanded to personal applications such as VisiCalc (1979) and graphical interfaces like
Apple Macintosh (1984) and Microsoft Windows (1985).

 Modern Software (1990s–Present)

Open-source projects (Linux), web applications (Google Docs), and AI-powered software have
revolutionized modern computing.

 Software Trends

Cloud computing, AI, and cybersecurity are driving the evolution of modern software solutions.

THE HISTORY OF COMPUTER USERS

As hardware and software advanced, the types of people who used computers changed
significantly. The history of computer users highlights how computing became democratized,
moving from specialized professionals to the general population.

 Early Users (1940s–1950s)

Scientists and engineers used early computers like ENIAC for scientific calculations and
government research.

 Business and Government Users (1950s–1960s)

Large enterprises and governments adopted mainframes for data processing. Data entry clerks
operated keypunch machines.

 Professional and Technical Users (1960s–1980s)

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IT professionals and academics became regular users, managing systems and performing
research tasks.

 Rise of the End-User (1980s–1990s)

The personal computer revolution brought computing to homes and small businesses, with
applications for office work and gaming.

 General Public and Consumers (1990s–Present)

The Internet and mobile technologies expanded computing to the general population,
transforming communication, commerce, and entertainment.

 Specialized Users

Developers, power users, gamers, and content creators continue to push the boundaries of
technology use.

 Future Users

Wearable technology, smart home devices, AR/VR, and AI-driven assistants are shaping the
future user experience.

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