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CHAPTER TWO

Propagation of
Light Waves

9-1 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

Maxwell unified the theories of electricity and magnetism by

way of deducing four very important equations which combine the
experimental observations reported by Gauss, Ampere, and Faraday
with his concept of displacement current. The equations encapsulate
the connection between the electric field and electric charge and
between the magnetic field and electric current. The Maxwell’s
equations also define the bilateral coupling between the electric and
magnetic field quantities» They along with some auxiliary equations

form the fundamental tenets of electromagnetic theory. When the

charge and current sources vary with time, the electric and magnetic

fields become interconnected and the coupling between them

produces electromagnetic waves capable of traveling through free

space and in material media. In all, there are four Maxwell’s equations. These
equations cannot be
derived since they are the fundamental axioms or postulates of electrodynamics,
obtained with the
help of generalization of experimental results.

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The Maxwell’s equations are expressed in differential form and integral form in the
following

way:
Law Differential Form Integral Form
Gauss’s law V-D=p p-as=[p dv (13.1)
aB _ 7, B
Faraday’s law VxE=-— GE-al=— 78 (13.2)
Gauss’s law for magnetism V.B =0 pB-as =0 (13.3)
oD oD
Ampere’s law VxH=J+—— fat [[ P+} as (13.4)

Maxwell’s equations contain only the first derivatives of fields E and B with
respect to time
and space coordinates and the first powers of densities p and J of electric charges
and currents.
Therefore, these equations are linear and the fields obey superposition principle.

2-1-1 PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

The physical significance of Maxwell’s equations can be readily interpreted from
their
- mathematical statement in the integral form.

(1) Maxwell’s first equation (13.1) shows that-the total electric flux density D
through the
surface enclosing a volume is equal to the charge density p within the volume. It
means that a charge
distribution generates a steady electric field.

(2) The second equation shows that the e.m.f. around a closed path is equal to the
time
derivative of the magnetic flux density through the surface bounded by the path. It
means that an
electric field can also be generated by a time-varying magnetic field. ,

(3) Maxwell’s third equation tells us that the net magnetic flux through a closed
surface is
zero. It implies that magnetic poles do not exist separately in the way as electric
charges do. Thus, in
other words, magnetic monopoles do not exist.

(4) Maxwell’s fourth equation shows that the Magneto motive force around a closed
path is
equal to the conduction current plus the time derivative of the electric flux
density D through any

surface bounded by the path. The time derivative of the electric flux density
0D/dtis called
displacement current, Thus this equation means that a magnetic field is generated
by a time-varying
electric field.

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2-1

Maxwell showed that by

combining the four equations a wave
equation was obtained which described
the propagation of waves. The time

~ variation of a magnetic field induces an

, electric field, while a variation of an
~ electric field, in its turn, induces a
magnetic field and electromagnetic
fields can exist independently, without
electric charges and currents. The
continuous inter-conversion of the
fields preserves them and an
electromagnetic perturbation
propagates in space. Such fields are
called electromagnetic waves. The
generation of electromagnetic wave

3 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves

transport energy through empty

space, stored in the propagating

electric and magnetic fields. .

Electric field ~
variation

Magnetic field
variation is
perpendicular to
electric field

A single-frequency electromag-
netic wave exhibits a sinusoidal
variation of electric and magnetic
fields in space

does not require any medium. The electromagnetic waves propagate through space
entirely on
their own, Maxwell's theory placed no restriction on possible wavelengths for the
electromagnetic

radiation. The vector cross products in

Maxwell’s second and fourth equations
imply that the two fields, E and H are
normal to each other and also normal to the
direction of propagation. In a vacuum, these
waves always propagate at a velocity equal
to the velocity of light c.

The vectors E and B in an

electromagnetic wave always oscillate in
phase (see Fig. 13.1). The instantaneous
values of E and B at any point are connected
through the relation

ve E=\uH

This means that E and H (or B)

EorD

HorB

The directions of E and H in a uniform plane wave.

~ Fig. 13.1

simultaneously attain their maximum values, vanish etc.

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Note that electromagnetic waves are, in general, neither longitudinal nor

transverse. In some
types of electromagnetic waves, the electric vector E is at right angles to the ray
while the magnetic
vector H is not. Waves of this type are called transverse eleotric waves or TE
waves. Since H
vector is not normal to the ray, it must have a component along the ray direction.
In another type of
waves the magnetic vector is at right angles to the ray while the electric vector E
is not. Waves of this
type are called transverse magnetic waves or TM waves. If both the vectors E and H
are at right
angles to the ray, the waves are called transverse electromagnetic waves or TEM
waves.

5.7 CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS

The electric and magnetic properties of a medium are described by three quantities:
relative
permittivity.¢,, the relative permeability,u,, and the conductivity,c. If Maxwell’s
equations are to be
extended to material media, they should be supplemented with relations which would
contain these
quantities characterizing individual properties of the medium. Such relations are
called constitutive
relations and also known as material equations.

The permittivity of a dielectric material is denoted by

€=c,e, F/m (13.5)

where €, is a dimensionless quantity called the relative permittivity or dielectric

constant of the
material. €, is the permittivity of free space which is given by
£, = 8.854 x 10-!2 F/m
In addition to the electric field intensity E, we often use the related quantity,
the electric flux
density D.

D=cE Cm (13.6)
Magnetic permeability of a material is denoted by
H=HOU, H/m (13.7)

where 1, is a dimensionless quantity called the relative permeability of the

material and H, is called
the magnetic permeability of free space.

[tp = 4x10"? henry/m

Magnetic field intensity is denoted by H and is related to magnetic induction B
through

B=yH (13.8)
The point form of Ohm’s law describes the flow of current in a material and it is
given by
J=oE ; (13.9)
where J is the current density and o the electrical conductivity of the medium.

We usually assume €,,1, and o are not functions of time and that the medium is
linear,
homogeneous, isotropic; €, }1, and o are therefore constant and uniform throughout
the medium. A
medium is a homogeneous medium when the quantities €, 1, and 6 are constant
throughout the
medium. The medium is isotropic if 3 is a scalar constant, so that, D and E have
everywhere the same
Mirection. Material equations have the simplest form for sufficiently weak electric
fields. Equations
(13.6), (13.8), and (13.9) hold good for the case of isotropic non-ferroelectric
and non-ferromagnetic
media.

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When the relations (13.6), (13.8), and (13.9) are inserted in the Maxwell’s
equations (13.1) to

(13.4) we get the following differential equations relating the electric and
magnetic field strengths E
and H. If they are then solved as simultaneous equations, they will determine the
laws which both E
“and H must obey.

v-E=° (13.10a) VxE=-1 (13.10b) |

V.H=0 (13.10c) VxH=Jte # (13.104) |

2-3 WAVE EQUATION FOR FREE-SPACE

Maxwell’s equations are coupled partial differential equations in E and H which

cannot be
solved in general. In order to simplify the equations, we should uncouple the set
and obtain differential
equations in E or B alone, In order to understand the nature of waves, we consider
free space, which

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Equations (13.12a) and (13.12b) are very much similar to the general wave equation
(12.16),
and constitute wave equations. They are three-dimensional vector wave equations and
describe the
propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a uniform medium. Since the wave
equations for E
and B are of the same form, their solutions will also have the same form. The
solution to ( 13.12)
leads to waves that can exist in free space. Even though the electric and magnetic
fields of the waves
start out on charges and currents, they detach themselves from them and move
through free space as
independent entities.

2.3. RSE Eareminaied

The propagation characteristics of the electromagnetic wave are contained in the

solution of
equ.(13.12). To bring out the characteristics, we compare it with the general wave
equation (12.16).
2
vet
vat
The comparison gives

Hye,
1

v=
or bo €2 (13.13)

Substituting the values of 1,and €, , we find that

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2.3.2 Penn or AMD ns MOREMATIE

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2-3-3 CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE

H,=,|-2 B,
Ho vwsee(13-23)
Equ.(13.23) may be rewritten as
Fy _ [Po
A €

The above equation states that the ratio of the amplitudes of the vectors E and H
always equal
to the square root of the ratio of i, and €,, The ratio has the dimensions of
impedance and hence it
is called the characteristic impedance or intrinsic impedance of free space, It is
denoted by 1,
We generalize equ.(13.23) ™ writing it as y

a
Po

= 1) = & (13.24)
Using the values of 1, and , into the above equation, we get

4n X 107H/m
= en 13.25)
‘b 10°? (36x F/

In a dielectric material, 1) = 377/e;” = 377/n, where n is the index of refraction

of the
material.