TISSUES

The tissues of the body consist of large numbers of cells and they are classified according to the size,
shape and functions of these cells. There are four main types of tissue, each of which has
subdivisions. They are:

1. Epithelial tissue or epithelium

2. Connective tissue
3. Muscle tissue
4. Nervous tissue

Epithelial tissue
This group of tissues is found covering the body and lining cavities and tubes. It is also found in
glands. The structure of epithelium is closely related to its functions which include:

 Protection of underlying structures

 Secretion
 Absorption.

The cells are very closely packed and the intercellular substance, called the matrix, is minimal. The
cells usually lie on a basement membrane which is an inert connective tissue.

Epithelial tissue may be:

 Simple: a single layer of cells

 Stratified: several layers of cells

Simple epithelium

Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of identical cells and is divided into four types. It is
usually found on absorptive or secretory surfaces where the single layer enhances these processes,
but never on surfaces subject to stress. The types are named according to the shape of the cells,
which differ according to their functions. The more active the tissue the taller the cells.

Squamous (pavement) epithelium

This is composed of a single layer of flattened cells. The cells fit closely together like flat stones,
forming a thin and very smooth membrane. Diffusion takes place freely through this thin, smooth,
inactive lining of the following structures:

 Heart
 Blood vessels
 Lymph vessels
 Alveoli of the lungs
 Fig: Squamous (pavement) epithelium

Cuboidal (cubical) epithelium

This consists of cube-shaped cells fitting closely together lying on a basement membrane. It forms
the tubules of the kidneys and is found in some glands. Cuboidal epithelium is actively involved in
secretion, absorption and excretion.

Fig: Cuboidal (cubical) epithelium

Columnar epithelium

This is formed by a single layer of cells, rectangular in shape, on a basement membrane. It is found
lining the organs of the alimentary tract and consists of a mixture of cells; some absorb the products
of digestion and others secrete mucus. Mucus is a thick sticky substance secreted by modified
columnar cells called goblet cells.

Fig: Columnar epithelium

Ciliated epithelium

This is formed by columnar cells which have fine, hair- like processes, called cilia. The cilia consist of
micro- tubules inside the plasma membrane that extends from the free border (luminal border) of
the columnar cells. The wave-like movement of many cilia propels the contents of the tubes which
they line in one direction only.
Ciliated epithelium is found lining the uterine tubes and most of the respiratory passages. In the
uterine tubes the cilia propel ova towards the uterus and in the respiratory passages they propel
mucus towards the throat.

Fig: Ciliated epithelium

Fig: Ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells

Stratified epithelia

Stratified epithelia consist of several layers of cells of various shapes. The superficial layers grow up
from below. Basement membranes are usually absent. The main function of compound epithelium is
to protect underlying structures. There are two main types: stratified and transitional.

Stratified squamous epithelium

This is composed of a number of layers of cells of different shapes. In the deepest layers the cells are
mainly columnar and, as they grow towards the surface, they become flattened.
Non-keratinized stratified epithelium is found on wet surfaces that may be subjected to wear and
tear but are protected from drying, e.g. the conjunctiva of the eyes, the lining of the mouth, the
pharynx, the oesophagus and the vagina.

Keratinized stratified epithelium is found on dry surfaces that are subjected to wear and tear, i.e.
skin, hair and nails. The surface layer consists of dead epithelial cells to which the protein keratin has
been added. This forms a tough, relatively waterproof protective layer that prevents drying of the
underlying live cells. The surface layer of skin is rubbed off and is replaced from below.

Fig: Stratified squamous epithelium

Transitional epithelium

This is composed of several layers of pear-shaped cells and is found lining the urinary bladder. It
allows for stretching as the bladder fills.

Fig: Transitional epithelium

Connective tissue
The cells forming the connective tissues are more widely separated from each other than those
forming the epithelium and intercellular substance are present in considerably larger amounts.
There may or may not be fibres present in the matrix, which may be of a semisolid jelly-like
consistency or dense and rigid, depending upon the position and function of the tissue. Major
functions of connective tissue are:

1. Binding and support

2. Protection
3. Transport
4. Insulation.

Cells of connective tissue

Connective tissue is found in all organs supporting the specialized tissue. The different types of cell
involved include:

1. Fibroblasts
2. Macrophages
3. Plasma cells
4. Mast cells
5. Fat cells.

Fibroblasts

These are immature, large, spindle shaped cells with branching processes. They secrete ground
substance and fibres that are characteristic of connective tissues.

Macrophages

These are irregular-shaped cells with granules in the cytoplasm, derived from monocytes. They are
actively phagocytic, engulfing and digesting cell debris, bacteria and other foreign bodies. Their
activities are typical of those of the macrophage/monocyte defence system, e.g. monocytes in
blood, phagocytes in the alveoli of the lungs, Kupffer cells in liver sinusoids, fibroblasts in lymph
nodes and spleen and microglial cells in the brain.

Plasma cells

Plasma cells are derived from B-lymphocytes. They synthesize and secrete specific antibodies into
the blood in response to the presence of foreign material, such as microbes.

Mast cells

Small rounded cells that synthesize and store histamine in granular form. As a tissue response to
injury, the histamine is released and it causes vasodilatation. Mast cells also contain heparin that act
as anticoagulant.
Fat cells

These cells occur singly or in groups in many types of connective tissue and are especially abundant
in adipose tissue. They vary in size and shape according to the amount of fat they contain.

Leucocytes

The white blood cells, lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes and eosinophil from the blood and
lymph migrate to loose connective tissue depending on the physiological condition of the body.

Connective tissue matrix

The intercellular material (matrix) is formed of ground substances and fibres. The ground substance
is produced by the cells of connective tissue. It varies in consistency from fluid to semisolid gas. A
variety of large molecules are found in ground substance, e.g. Hyaluronic acid, dermatan sulfate,
chondroitin sulphate etc. The adhesion proteins present in ground substance help in fixing the cells
in position. The ground substance supports and binds cells and provides a medium through which
exchange of substances occur between cells and blood.

Fibres

The fibres found in varying amounts within ground substance are also produced by tissue cells
(Fibroblasts). There are three types of fibres, i.e. collagenous fibres, elastic fibres and reticular fibres.
The fibres provide strength and support to the tissue.

Collagenous fibres

Chemically, these are composed of a protein collagen. Each fibre is composed of bundles of smaller
fibrils. These are very tough and inelastic. The closely packed fibres appear white in colour, hence
sometimes referred to as white fibres. They are found abundantly in bone, cartilage and tendons.

Elastic fibres

These are long thread-like branching fibres, having slight yellow colour. They are composed of a
protein elastin. They are highly elastic and provide elasticity to the organ. They are found in skin,
blood vessels and lungs.

Reticular fibres

These are short, thin and branch freely to form a network called reticulum. They are composed of
collagen and glycoprotein. They provide support and form internal framework of glands to which
epithelial cells are attached. They are inelastic.

Other characteristics of connective tissue are that the tissue is innervated and highly vascular
(exception - cartilage). The nature of matrix is varied: as in blood it is fluid (not secreted by blood
cells) and in bones it is hard.
Functions of Connective Tissue

As body organs are formed by different tissues bound together by connective tissue; it is most
widely distributed in the body as connecting tissue.

1. In addition, it supports and strengthens other tissues in the body.

2. It has an important role in protection, transport and repair activities of the body.
3. Adipose tissue acts as stores of reserve food of the body

Areolar tissue
This is the most generalized of all connective tissue. The matrix is described as semisolid with many
fibroblasts widely separated by elastic and collagen fibres. It is found in almost every part of the
body providing elasticity and tensile strength. It connects and supports other tissues, for example:

1. Under the skin

2. Between muscles
3. Supporting blood vessels and nerves
4. In the alimentary canal
5. In glands supporting secretory cells.

Fig: Areolar tissue

Adipose tissue
Adipose tissue consists of fat cells, containing large fat globules, in a matrix of areolar tissue. There
are two types: white and brown.

White adipose tissue makes up 20 to 25% of body weight in well-nourished adults. It is found
supporting the kidneys and the eyes, between muscle fibres and under the skin, where it acts as a
thermal insulator.

Brown adipose tissue is present in relatively small quantities situated mainly between the scapulae,
in the nape of the neck and in the walls of the large blood vessels of the trunk. It has a more
extensive capillary network than white adipose tissue. When brown tissue is metabolized, it
produces less energy and considerably more heat than other fat, contributing to the maintenance of
body temperature and preventing obesity.

Fig: Adipose tissue

Fibrous tissue
This is a dense fibrous connective tissue made up mainly of closely packed bundles of collagen fibres
with very little matrix. There are very few cells, lying in rows between the bundles of fibres. Fibrous
tissue is found:

1. Forming the ligaments which bind bones together

2. As an outer protective covering for bone, called periosteum
3. As an outer protective covering of some organs, e.g. the kidneys, lymph nodes and the brain
4. Forming muscle sheaths, called muscle fascia, which extend beyond the muscle to become
the tendon that attaches the muscle to bone.

Fig: Fibrous tissue

Elastic tissue
Elastic tissue is capable of considerable extension and recoil. There are few cells and the matrix
consists mainly of masses of elastic fibres secreted by fibroblasts. It is found in organs where
alteration of shape is required, e.g. in blood vessel walls and in the elastic cartilage of the epiglottis
and the external ears.
Blood
This is a fluid connective tissue..

Lymphoid tissue
This tissue has a semisolid matrix with fine branching reticulin fibres. The highly specialized cells are
called lymphocytes. They are found in blood and in lymphoid tissue in the:

1. Lymph nodes
2. Spleen
3. Palatine and pharyngeal tonsils
4. Vermiform appendix
5. Solitary and aggregated nodes in the small intestine
6. Wall of the large intestine.

Cartilage
Cartilage is a much firmer tissue than any of the other connective tissues; the cells are called
chondrocytes and are less numerous. They are embedded in matrix reinforced by collagen and
elastic fibres. There are three types:

1. Hyaline
2. Fibrocartilage
3. Elastic fibrocartilage.

Hyaline cartilage

Hyaline cartilage appears as a smooth bluish-white tissue. The chondrocytes are in small groups and
the matrix is solid and smooth. Hyaline cartilage is found:

1. On the surface of the parts of the bones which form joints

2. Forming the costal cartilages which attach the ribs to the sternum
3. Forming part of the larynx, trachea and bronchi.

Fibrocartilage

This consists of dense masses of white fibres in a matrix similar to that of hyaline cartilage with the
cells widely dispersed. It is a tough, slightly flexible tissue found:

1. As pads between the 'bodies of the vertebrae, called the intervertebral discs.
2. Between the articulating surfaces of the bones of the knee joint, called semilunar cartilages.
3. On the rim of the bony sockets of the hip and shoulder joints.
4. As ligaments joining bones.

Elastic cartilage

This consists of elastic fibres lying in a solid matrix. The cells lie between the fibres. It forms the
pinna or lobe of the ear, the epiglottis and part of the tunica media of blood vessel walls.
Bone: It is a connective tissue with cells (osteocytes) surrounded by a matrix of collagen fibres that
is strengthened by inorganic salts, especially calcium and phosphate. This provides bones with their
characteristic strength and rigidity. Bone also has considerable capacity for growth in the first two
decades of life, and for regeneration throughout life. Two types of bone can be identified by the
naked eye:

1. Compact bone-solid or dense appearance

2. Cancellous or spongy bone spongy or fine honeycomb appearance.
Muscle tissue
There are three types of muscle tissue:

1. Striated, skeletal or voluntary muscle

2. Non-striated, involuntary, visceral or smooth muscle
3. Cardiac muscle

Striated muscle tissue: This may be described as skeletal, striated, striped or voluntary muscle. It is
called voluntary because con- traction is under the control of the will.

When voluntary muscle is examined microscopically the cells are found to be roughly cylindrical in
shape and may be as long as 35 cm. Each cell, commonly called a fibre, has several nuclei situated
just under the sarcolemma, or cell membrane of each muscle fibre. The muscle fibres lie parallel to
one another and, when viewed under the microscope, they show well-marked transverse dark and
light bands; hence the name striated or striped muscle.

Sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle fibres, contains:

1. Bundles of myofibrils which consist of filaments of contractile proteins including actin and
myosin
2. Many mitochondria that generate chemical energy (ATP) from glucose and oxygen by
cellular oxidation.
3. Glycogen, a carbohydrate store which is broken down into glucose when required
4. Myoglobin, a unique oxygen-binding protein molecule, similar to haemoglobin in red blood
that stores oxygen within muscle cells.

A myofibril has a repeating series of dark and light bands, consisting of units called sarcomeres. A
sarcomere represents the smallest functional unit of a skeletal muscle fibre and consists of:

1. Thin filaments of actin

2. Thick filaments of myosin.

Fig: Striated Muscle Fibre (L.S.) Fig: Striated Muscle Fibre (C.S.)
 Fig: Striated Muscle’s Single Fibre

A muscle consists of a large number of muscle fibres. In addition to the sarcolemma mentioned
previously, each fibre is enclosed in and attached to fine fibrous tissue called endomysium. Small
bundles of fibres are enclosed in perimysium, and the whole muscle in epimysium. The fibrous tissue
enclosing the fibres, the bundles and the whole muscle extends beyond the muscle fibres to become
the tendon which attaches the muscle to bone or skin.

Non-striated (visceral) muscle tissue

Non-striated muscle may also be described as smooth or involuntary. It is not under the control of
the will. It is found in the walls of hollow organs, i.e. blood and lymph vessels, ducts of glands, the
alimentary tract, the respiratory tract, the urinary bladder, the biliary tract and the uterus.

When examined under a microscope, the cells are seen to be spindle-shaped with only one central
nucleus. There is no distinct sarcolemma but a very fine membrane surrounds each fibre. Bundles of
fibres form sheets of muscle, such as those found in the walls of the above structures.

Fig: Smooth Muscle Fibre

Cardiac muscle tissue

This type of muscle tissue is found exclusively in the wall of the heart.
It is not under the control of the will but, when viewed under a
microscope, cross stripes characteristic of voluntary muscle can be
seen. Each fibre (cell) has a nucleus and one or more branches. The
ends of the cells and their branches are in very close contact with the
ends and branches of adjacent cells. Microscopically these 'joints', or
intercalated discs, can be seen as lines which are thicker and darker
than the ordinary cross stripes. This arrangement gives cardiac muscle
the appearance of a sheet of muscle rather than a very large number
of individual fibres. The end- to-end contiguity of cardiac muscle cells
has significance in relation to the way the heart contracts. A wave of
contraction spreads from cell to cell across the intercalated discs which
mean that cells do not need to be stimulated individually.

Muscle tone

This is a state of partial contraction of muscles. It is achieved by the contraction of a few muscle
fibres at a time

Muscle fatigue

If a muscle is stimulated to contract at very frequent intervals, it gradually becomes depressed and
will cease to respond.

Energy source for muscle contraction

The chemical energy (ATP) which muscles require is derived from the breakdown (catabolism) of
carbohydrate and fat. Protein molecules inside the fibres are used to provide energy when supplies
of carbohydrate and fat are deficient.