STUDY OF THE EFFECT OF ETHANOLIC EXTRACT OF TARAXACUM

OFFICINALE (DANDELION) ON THE HISTOLOGY OF LIVER IN

STREPTOZOTOCIN INDUCED HYPERGLYCEMIC RATS.

TABLE OF CONTENT

Pages

TITLE PAGE i

CERTIFICATION ii

DECLARATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

ABSTRACT v

TABLE OF CONTENT vi

ABBREVIATIONS Vii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

1.2 Statement of the problem
1.3 Aim of the study
1.4 Objective of the study

1.5 Significance of the study

1.6 Scope of the study

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of relevant literature

2.2 Diabetes Mellitus

2.2.1 Mechanism of diabetes

2.2.2 Types of diabetes

2.2.3 Symptoms of diabetes

2.2.4 Complications of diabetes

2.2.5 Management of diabetes

2.3 Organ of study (Liver)

2.3.1 Gross Anatomy of the Liver

2.3.2 Histology of the Liver

2.3.3 Embryology of the Liver

2.3.4 Liver diseases (disorder of the Liver)

2.3.5 Complications of diabetes on the liver

2.5 Streptozotocin

2.6 Herb of study (Taraxacum officinale)

2.6.1 Phytochemical analysis of Taraxacum officinale

2.6.2 Medicinal value of Taraxacum officinale

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Materials

3.1.1 Experimental Animals

3.1.2 Collection of plants materials

3.1.3 Preparation of extracts

3.1.4 Acute toxicity test

3.1.5 Chemicals used

3.1.6 Drug preparations

3.2 Experimental animal and management

3.2.1 Ethical approval

3.2.2 Collection of tissue samples for analysis

3.3 Histological Evaluation

3.3.1 Tissue processing

3.3.2 Haematoxylin and Eosin staining procedure

3.4 Statistical Analysis

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS

4.1 Analysis on Diabetes

4.2 Histological findings

4.2.1 Haematoxylin and Eosin

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION,SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Discussion

5.2 Summary

5.3 Conclusion

5.4 Recommendations

REFRENCES

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

Diabetes mellitus, a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood

glucose levels, has become a major public health concern globally. According
to the World Health Organization (WHO), the number of people living with
diabetes has increased from 108 million in 1980 to 422 million in 2014, with
the prevalence expected to rise to 642 million by 2040 (WHO, 2016).

In Nigeria, the prevalence of diabetes is estimated to be around 5.7% of the

adult population, with a significant proportion of cases remaining
undiagnosed and untreated (International Diabetes Federation, 2019).

In recent years, there has been growing interest in the use of natural
products, including plants and their extracts, as potential therapeutic agents
for the management of diabetes and its complications.

Diabetes mellitus is a significant public health concern, affecting millions of

people worldwide. The disease is characterized by high blood glucose levels,
which can lead to serious complications, such as: Diabetic nephropathy
(kidney damage), Diabetic retinopathy (eye damage), Diabetic neuropathy
(nerve damage), Increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
While conventional treatments for diabetes, such as oral hypoglycemic
agents and insulin therapy, are effective in managing blood glucose levels,
they have several limitations: Poor glycemic control, Increased risk of
hypoglycemia, Weight gain, Increased risk of cardiovascular disease.

The need for alternative therapies given the limitations of conventional

treatments, there is a need for alternative therapies that can effectively
manage blood glucose levels and prevent complications. Natural products,
including plants and their extracts, have been shown to have potential
antidiabetic properties.

Taraxacum officinale, commonly known as dandelion, is a plant that has been

traditionally used in medicine for its various health benefits. According to the
World Health Organization (WHO), "dandelion has been used in traditional
medicine for centuries, particularly in Europe, North America, and Asia"
(WHO, 2018).

The plant has been reported to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and

antidiabetic properties, making it a potential therapeutic agent for the
management of various diseases (Schutz et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2018).

Dandelion has been traditionally used to treat various health conditions,

including digestive disorders, skin problems, and liver diseases (Bone, 2003).
The plant's roots and leaves have been used in herbal medicine for their
medicinal properties.

Recent studies have shown that dandelion extracts have antidiabetic effects,
improving insulin sensitivity and reducing blood glucose levels in animal
models (Wang et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2018).

According to a study published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology,

"dandelion extract exhibited significant antidiabetic activity, improving
glucose metabolism and insulin sensitivity in streptozotocin-induced diabetic
rats" (Wang et al., 2017).

Given the potential antidiabetic properties of Taraxacum officinale, this study

aims to investigate the effect of ethanolic extract of Taraxacum officinale on
the histology of the liver in streptozotocin-Induced hyperglycemic rats.

1.2 Statement of the study

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder that affects millions of

people worldwide, causing significant morbidity and mortality (WHO, 2016).
The liver plays a crucial role in glucose metabolism, and any damage to the
liver can exacerbate the complications of diabetes (Kumar et al., 2017).

Despite the availability of conventional treatments for diabetes, such as oral

hypoglycemic agents and insulin therapy, many patients continue to
experience poor glycemic control, leading to increased risk of complications
(Inzucchi et al., 2015).

Taraxacum officinale, commonly known as dandelion, is a plant that has been

traditionally used in medicine for its various health benefits (Schutz et al.,
2006). The plant has been reported to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
and antidiabetic properties, making it a potential therapeutic agent for the
management of diabetes and its complications (Williams et al., 2018).

However, there is limited information on the effects of Taraxacum officinale

on the histology of the liver in diabetic rats. Therefore, this study aims to
investigate the effect of ethanolic extract of Taraxacum officinale on the
histology of the liver in streptozotocin-induced hyperglycemic rats.

1.3 Aims and objectives of the study

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of ethanolic extract of

Taraxacum officinale on the histology of the liver in streptozotocin-induced
hyperglycemic rats.

1.4 Objectives of the study

The objectives include:

1. To induce hyperglycemia in rats using streptozotocin.

2. To extract the ethanolic extract of Taraxacum officinale.

3. To evaluate the effect of the ethanolic extract of Taraxacum officinale on

the histology of the liver in hyperglycemic rats.

4. To compare the histological changes in the kidney of hyperglycemic rats

treated with the ethanolic extract of Taraxacum officinale with those of
untreated hyperglycemic rats.

1.5 Significance of the study

This study is significant because it addresses a critical global health issue –
diabetic neuropathy .

By investigating effects of dandelion extracts on the liver in hyperglycemic

rats, the research contributes to the scientific knowledge, promotes
sustainable medicine, and has the potential to improve public health
outcomes. The findings could also inspire further research and development
of natural therapies for diabetes and its complications.

1.6 Scope of the study

This study aims to investigate the effect of ethanolic extract of Taraxacum

officinale on the histology of the liver in streptozotocin-induced
hyperglycemic rats. The scope of this study is as follows:

[Link] Scope: The study will be conducted at the University of

Calabar, Nigeria.

2. Time Frame: The study will be completed within a period of six months.

3. Variables: The independent variable is the ethanolic extract of Taraxacum

officinale, while the dependent variable is the histology of the liver.

4. Study Design: This study will employ an experimental design, where the
rats will be divided into four groups: control, diabetic, diabetic + Taraxacum
officinale extract, and Taraxacum officinale extract only.

5. Methodology: The study will involve the induction of hyperglycemia in rats

using streptozotocin, extraction of Taraxacum officinale using ethanol, and
histological examination of the liver tissues.

By focusing on the effect of Taraxacum officinale on the histology of the liver

in diabetic rats, this study aims to contribute to the existing body of
knowledge on the potential therapeutic effects of natural products on
diabetes and its complications.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of relevant literature

Numerous studies have investigated the effects of plant extracts on diabetes

and liver health. For instance, a study by (Kumar et al., 2018) found that
Taraxacum officinale extracts exhibited antioxidant and anti-diabetic
properties. Another study by (Zhang et al., 2020) demonstrated the
hepatoprotective effects of Taraxacum officinale in mice with liver injury.

Studies have shown that Taraxacum officinale extracts exhibit antidiabetic

properties, reducing blood glucose levels and improving insulin sensitivity
(Kumar et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2020).

Taraxacum officinale has been found to protect the liver against damage
caused by toxins and oxidative stress (Said et al., 2017; Ahmed et al., 2019).
The plant’s antioxidant properties have been demonstrated in various
studies, which may contribute to its potential benefits in diabetes and liver
disease (Schütz et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2017).

These findings suggest that Taraxacum officinale may be a useful adjunctive

treatment for diabetes and liver disease. However, further research is
needed to fully understand its effects and potential benefits.

2.2 Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood

sugar levels, affecting millions worldwide (American Diabetes Association,
2020). It’s a major public health concern, associated with significant
morbidity, mortality, and economic burden.

Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by

hyperglycemia, resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or
both (World Health Organization, 2020). The global prevalence of diabetes is
estimated to be around 9.3% (463 million people), with Type 2 diabetes
accounting for approximately 90% of all cases (International Diabetes
Federation,2019).

The pathophysiology of diabetes involves defects in insulin secretion or

insulin resistance, leading to hyperglycemia. In Type 1 diabetes, autoimmune
destruction of pancreatic beta cells results in insulin deficiency. In Type 2
diabetes, insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion contribute to
hyperglycemia (Klein et al., 2018).

2.2.1 Mechanism Of Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by defects in insulin secretion, insulin

action, or both, leading to hyperglycemia.

*Insulin Secretion and Action:*

1. *Insulin secretion*: Pancreatic beta cells release insulin in response to
elevated blood glucose levels (American Diabetes Association, 2020).

2. *Insulin action*: Insulin binds to receptors on cells, facilitating glucose

uptake and storage

*Type 1 Diabetes* Autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells leads to

insulin deficiency (American Diabetes Association, 2020).

*Type 2 Diabetes*: Insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion

contribute to hyperglycemia (Klein et al., 2018).

*Key Players:*

1. *Pancreas*: Produces insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose

levels.

2. *Insulin receptors*: Found on cells, these receptors respond to insulin and

facilitate glucose uptake.

*Consequences:*

1. *Hyperglycemia*: Elevated blood glucose levels can damage organs and

tissues.

2. *Complications*: Diabetes can lead to microvascular and macro vascular

complications, such as nephropathy, retinopathy, and cardiovascular disease
(World Health Organization, 2020).

2.2.2 Types Of Diabetes

There are several types of diabetes, each with distinct characteristics and
causes:

a)*Type 1 Diabetes*: An autoimmune disease in which the body’s immune

system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas,
resulting in a complete deficiency of insulin production (American Diabetes
Association, 2020).

b)*Type 2 Diabetes*: A metabolic disorder characterized by insulin

resistance (when the body’s cells become less responsive to insulin) and
impaired insulin secretion, often associated with obesity, physical inactivity,
and an unhealthy diet (Klein et al., 2018).
c)*Gestational Diabetes*: A type of diabetes that develops during
pregnancy, usually in the second or third trimester, due to hormonal changes
and insulin resistance. It typically resolves after pregnancy but increases the
risk of developing Type 2 diabetes later in life (World Health Organization,
2020).

d)*LADA (Latent Autoimmune Diabetes in Adults)*: A form of Type 1

diabetes that develops in adults, often with a slower progression than Type 1
diabetes in children (Fourlanos et al., 2011).

e)*MODY (Maturity-Onset Diabetes of the Young)*: A rare form of

diabetes caused by genetic mutations that affect insulin production, typically
developing in young adulthood (Fajans et al., 2001).

f)*Secondary Diabetes*: Diabetes that develops as a result of another

medical condition or treatment, such as pancreatitis, pancreatic surgery, or
certain medications (American Diabetes Association, 2020).

Each type of diabetes has distinct causes, symptoms, and treatment

approaches. Understanding the specific type of diabetes is essential for
effective management and treatment.

2.2.3 Symptoms of Diabetes

Diabetes symptoms can vary depending on the type and severity of the
disease. Common symptoms include:

1. *Increased thirst and urination*: High blood sugar levels can cause the
kidneys to produce more urine, leading to dehydration and increased thirst
(American Diabetes Association, 2020).

2. *Fatigue*: High blood sugar levels can cause fatigue, weakness, and a
general feeling of being unwell.

3. *Blurred vision*: High blood sugar levels can cause the lens in the eye to
swell, leading to blurred vision (World Health Organization, 2020).

4. *Slow healing of cuts and wounds*: High blood sugar levels can affect the
body’s ability to heal wounds and cuts.

5. *Tingling or numbness in hands and feet*: High blood sugar levels can
damage the nerves, causing tingling or numbness in the hands and feet
(American Diabetes Association, 2020).
*Acute Symptoms:*

1. *Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)*: A life-threatening condition that occurs

when the body produces high levels of blood acids called ketones (Kitabchi et
al., 2009).

2. *Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state (HHS)*: A life-threatening condition

that occurs when blood sugar levels become extremely high (Kitabchi et al.,
2009).

*Chronic Symptoms:*

1. *Nephropathy*: Damage to the kidneys, which can lead to kidney failure

(American Diabetes Association, 2020).

2. *Retinopathy*: Damage to the eyes, which can lead to blindness (World

Health Organization, 2020).

3. *Neuropathy*: Damage to the nerves, which can cause pain, numbness,

and tingling (American Diabetes Association, 2020).

2.2.4 Complications of Diabetes

Diabetes can lead to various complications, including:

*Microvascular Complications:*

1. *Diabetic Nephropathy*: Damage to the kidneys, leading to kidney failure

(American Diabetes Association, 2020).

2. *Diabetic Retinopathy*: Damage to the eyes, leading to blindness (World

Health Organization, 2020).

3. *Diabetic Neuropathy*: Damage to the nerves, causing pain, numbness,

and tingling (American Diabetes Association, 2020).

*Macro vascular Complications:*

1. *Cardiovascular Disease*: Increased risk of heart attacks, strokes, and

peripheral artery disease (American Heart Association, 2017).

2. *Cerebrovascular Disease*: Increased risk of stroke and transient ischemic

attack (American Heart Association, 2017).

*Other Complications:*

1. *Foot Damage*: Nerve damage and poor circulation can lead to foot ulcers
and amputations (Boulton et al., 2005).
2. *Skin Conditions*: Increased risk of skin infections and conditions, such as
bacterial and fungal infections (American Diabetes Association, 2020).

3. *Cognitive Impairment*: Increased risk of cognitive decline and dementia

(Beissel’s et al., 2014).

2.2.5 Management of Diabetes

Effective management of diabetes involves a multi-faceted approach,

including:

*Lifestyle Modifications:*

1. *Dietary Changes*: Healthy eating habits, such as a balanced diet with

portion control and reduced sugar intake (American Diabetes Association,
2020).

2. *Physical Activity*: Regular exercise, such as walking, jogging, or other

aerobic activities, to improve insulin sensitivity and overall health (Colberg et
al., 2016).

3. *Weight Management*: Maintaining a healthy weight to improve insulin

sensitivity and reduce the risk of complications (Klein et al., 2018).

*Medications:*

1. *Oral Medications*: Such as metformin, sulfonylureas, and DPP-4

inhibitors, to improve insulin sensitivity and reduce glucose production
(American Diabetes Association, 2020).

2. *Injectable Medications*: Such as insulin and GLP-1 receptor agonists, to

improve glucose control and reduce the risk of complications (American
Diabetes Association, 2020).

*Monitoring and Self-Management:*

1. *Blood Glucose Monitoring*: Regular monitoring of blood glucose levels to

adjust treatment plans and prevent complications (American Diabetes
Association, 2020).

2. *Self-Management Education*: Educating patients on diabetes self-

management, including healthy lifestyle habits, medication adherence, and
monitoring techniques (Haas et al., 2014).

*Comprehensive Care:*
1. *Multidisciplinary Team*: A team of healthcare professionals, including
primary care physicians, endocrinologists, dietitians, and educators, working
together to provide comprehensive care (American Diabetes Association,
2020).

2. *Regular Follow-Up*: Regular follow-up appointments with healthcare

providers to monitor progress, adjust treatment plans, and prevent
complications.

*Goals of Management:*

1. *Glycemic Control*: Achieving and maintaining target blood glucose levels

to prevent complications (American Diabetes Association, 2020).

2. *Prevention of Complications*: Preventing or delaying the onset of

diabetes-related complications, such as nephropathy, retinopathy, and
neuropathy

2.3 The Liver

The liver plays a vital role in maintaining overall health, performing functions
such as: Detoxification, Metabolism, Storage, Production of bile and proteins
Figure. 1 Anatomic structure of the liver

2.3.1 Gross Anatomy of the Liver

The liver, a reddish-brown wedge-shaped organ, is located in the upper right

quadrant of the abdomen, beneath the diaphragm. It is the largest gland in
the body and plays a crucial role in metabolism and detoxification. The liver
is divided into four lobes: right, left, caudate, and quadrate.

Location:

The liver occupies the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions, extending
into the left hypochondriac region.

Shape and Size:

It has a wedge-like shape with a rounded edge, and weighs approximately 3

pounds.

Surfaces:

The liver has a diaphragmatic (superior) surface and a visceral (inferior)

surface.

Lobes:

Right lobe: The larger of the two main lobes.

Left lobe: Smaller than the right lobe.

Caudate lobe: Located on the posterior visceral surface, near the inferior
vena cava.

Quadrate lobe: Situated on the inferior surface of the right lobe, near the
gallbladder.

Ligaments and Fissures:

Falciform ligament: Divides the liver into right and left lobes on the
diaphragmatic surface.

Coronary ligament: Attaches the liver to the diaphragm on the posterior

surface.
Triangular ligaments (left and right): Lateral extensions of the coronary
ligaments.

Ligamentum teres (round ligament): A remnant of the umbilical vein, located

within the falciform ligament.

Ligamentum venosum: A remnant of the ductus venosus, located on the

posterior surface of the left lobe.

Porta hepatis:

The “gate” of the liver, where the hepatic artery, portal vein, and bile ducts
enter and leave.

Blood Supply:

Hepatic artery: Supplies oxygenated blood to the liver.

Portal vein: Carries nutrient-rich blood from the digestive tract to the liver.

Venous Drainage:

Hepatic veins: Drain deoxygenated blood from the liver into the inferior vena
cava.

(Grey’s Anatomy 2015)

2.3.2 Histology of the liver

Microscopically, each liver lobe is seen to be made up of hepatic lobules. The

lobules are roughly hexagonal, and consist of plates of hepatocytes,
and sinusoids radiating from a central vein towards an imaginary perimeter of
interlobular portal triads. The central vein joins to the hepatic vein to carry
blood out from the liver. A distinctive component of a lobule is the portal traid,
which can be found running along each of the lobule's corners. The portal
triad consists of the hepatic artery, the portal vein, and the common bile
duct. The triad may be seen on a liver ultrasound, as a Mickey mouse sign with
the portal vein as the head, and the hepatic artery, and the common bile
duct as the ears.
Histology, the study of microscopic anatomy, shows two major types of liver
cell: parenchymal cells and nonparenchymal cells. About 70–85% of the liver
volume is occupied by parenchymal hepatocytes. Nonparenchymal cells
constitute 40% of the total number of liver cells but only 6.5% of its
volume. The Liver sinusoids are lined with two types of cell, sinusoidal endothelial
cells, and phagocytic Kupffer cells. Hepatic stellate cells are nonparenchymal cells
found in the perisinusoidal space, between a sinusoid and a
hepatocyte. Additionally, intrahepatic lymphocytes are often present in the
sinusoidal lumen.

2.3.3 Embryology of the liver

The liver is one of the earliest organs to develop in the human embryo and
begins its formation during the third week of gestation. It arises from the
endodermal epithelium of the foregut, specifically from a structure known as
the hepatic diverticulum, also referred to as the liver bud. This diverticulum
is a ventral outgrowth of the distal foregut that extends into the surrounding
mesenchyme of the septum transversum, a mesodermal mass that will later
contribute to the formation of the diaphragm and ventral mesentery.

As the hepatic diverticulum extends into the septum transversum, it

differentiates into two main parts. The larger cranial portion becomes the
liver parenchyma, while the smaller caudal portion gives rise to the
gallbladder and cystic duct. Within the cranial portion, hepatoblasts—
undifferentiated precursor cells—begin to proliferate. These hepatoblasts
differentiate into two key cell types: hepatocytes, which form the main
functional cells of the liver, and cholangiocytes, which line the bile ducts.

The proliferating hepatoblasts form hepatic cords, which grow into the
surrounding mesenchyme and invade the network of vitelline and umbilical
veins. As these cords expand and interact with the developing vasculature,
they form the hepatic sinusoids, the specialized capillary networks that
facilitate exchange between the blood and liver cells. This vascular
architecture is essential for the liver’s future metabolic, synthetic, and
detoxifying functions.

During early fetal development, the liver undergoes rapid growth, becoming
one of the largest organs in the body by the tenth week of gestation. One of
its most critical roles during this period is to serve as the primary site of
hematopoiesis. From approximately the sixth week until mid-gestation, the
liver produces a significant proportion of the embryo’s red and white blood
cells, a function that is eventually taken over by the bone marrow in later
stages of development.

Additionally, the liver begins to establish its biliary system during this time.
The intrahepatic bile ducts form from hepatoblasts located near the portal
vein branches, while the extrahepatic bile ducts, including the common bile
duct, develop from the caudal portion of the hepatic diverticulum. The
connection of the developing liver to the duodenum ensures the future
continuity of bile flow into the gastrointestinal tract.

In summary, liver development is a complex process involving endodermal

and mesodermal interactions, vascular integration, and cellular
differentiation. This early embryological formation lays the groundwork for
the liver’s intricate anatomy and multifaceted physiological roles in postnatal
life (Sadler, 2012).

2.3.4 Liver Diseases

Here’s an overview of key liver diseases :

[Link] Cancer

Liver cancer, particularly hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), is the most

common type of primary liver cancer. It often develops in people with chronic
liver diseases such as cirrhosis or hepatitis B/C infections (El-Serag & Kanwal,
2014).

2. Hepatitis

Hepatitis refers to inflammation of the liver and can be caused by viruses

(e.g., hepatitis A, B, C), toxins, or autoimmune processes. Chronic hepatitis B
and C are major global health concerns and can lead to cirrhosis and liver
cancer (WHO, 2024).

3. Cirrhosis of the Liver

Cirrhosis is the result of long-term, continuous damage to the liver and may
be due to alcohol abuse, viral hepatitis, or non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. It
involves the replacement of healthy liver tissue with scar tissue, impairing
liver function (Tsochatzis et al., 2014).

4. Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD)

NAFLD is a condition in which fat builds up in the liver in people who drink
little or no alcohol. It is closely associated with obesity, diabetes, and
metabolic syndrome and can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis
(NASH), cirrhosis, and liver failure (Younossi et al., 2016).

2.4 Complications of Diabetes on the Liver

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) is One of the most common liver
complications in individuals with type 2 diabetes is NAFLD. Insulin resistance
and hyperglycemia promote fat accumulation in liver cells, which can
progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibrosis, cirrhosis, and even
liver cancer (Younossi et al., 2016).

Hepatic Insulin Resistance(Diabetes),especially type 2, is associated with

hepatic insulin resistance, which disrupts glucose metabolism in the liver.
This leads to increased hepatic glucose production, exacerbating
hyperglycemia (Samuel & Shulman, 2016).

Increased Risk of Cirrhosis for

People with diabetes and NAFLD have an increased risk of progressing to

liver fibrosis and cirrhosis. Chronic inflammation and oxidative stress from
poor glycemic control accelerate liver damage (Donnelly et al., 2005).

Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC) Type 2 diabetes is a known risk factor for

liver cancer, especially in individuals with underlying NAFLD or cirrhosis.
Chronic hyperinsulinemia and inflammation promote liver carcinogenesis (El-
Serag et al., 2006).

2.5 Streptozotocin

Streptozotocin (STZ) is a naturally occurring chemical that is particularly

toxic to insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas. It is widely used in
research to induce experimental diabetes in animals (lenzen, 2008).

STZ enters pancreatic beta cells via the GLUT2 glucose transporter and
causes DNA damage through alkylation. This leads to beta cell death and
insulin deficiency, mimicking type 1 diabetes in animals (Lenzen, 2008).

It’s commonly used to create diabetic animal models (especially in mice and
rats) to study diabetes and its complications, including effects on organs like
the liver, kidneys, and heart.( Szkudelski, T. 2001). The mechanism of alloxan
and streptozotocin action in B cells of the rat pancreas. Physiological
Research, 50(6), 537–546.

STZ is highly toxic to pancreatic beta cells, but may also have nephrotoxic
and hepatotoxic effects at high doses. Selectivity depends on the dose and
species used.
In rare cases, STZ is used clinically to treat pancreatic islet cell tumors (e.g.,
insulinomas) due to its specific toxicity to beta cells. (Moertel, C. G., et al
1980).

2.6 Herb of Study

Figure. 2 Taraxacum offinale

Taraxacum officinale, commonly known as dandelion, is a flowering plant

species in the family Asteraceae. It is native to Europe and Asia but has been
naturalized in many parts of the world. (Wooten, R. 2018)

It is utilised for its medicinal properties, including digestive aid, antioxidant

properties and anti-inflammatory effects. It is used as Herbal remedy and
food source(edibility).

Some individuals may experience allergic reactions to dandelion and it may

interact with certain medications, such as diuretics.( S. C. 2008).

2.6.1 Phytochemical analysis of Taraxacum officinale

Taraxacum officinale, commonly known as dandelion, is a medicinal plant

widely used in traditional and folk medicine. Different parts of the plant, such
as the roots, leaves, and flowers, have been studied extensively for their
phytochemical composition and potential health benefits.

Phytochemicals Identified includes: Flavonoids (Luteolin, apigenin,

quercetin), Phenolic acids (Chicoric acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid),Triterpenes
(Taraxasterol, beta-amyrin),Sesquiterpene lactones (Taraxinic acid,
dihydrotaraxinic acid)and Inulin (A prebiotic compound found in the roots)

It is rich in vitamin A, C, K, calcium, iron, and potassium.

Common extraction methods include the use of methanol, ethanol, or water

as solvents. The plant extracts are then analyzed using chromatographic
techniques such as High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC), Gas
Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and Thin Layer
Chromatography (TLC).

It's pharmacological Properties includes Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,

diuretic, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antimicrobial. These properties are
largely attributed to the bioactive compounds present in the plant.

(Schütz, K., Carle, R., & Schieber, A. 2006).

2.6.2 Medicinal value of Taraxacum officinale

Taraxacum officinale, commonly known as dandelion, is a plant with various

medicinal properties (Wooten, 2018).It relieves constipation, bloating, and
indigestion due to its bitter compounds and fiber content (Schütz et al.,
2005).It helps improve liver and kidney function by promoting detoxification
and reducing inflammation (Sweeney et al., 2002).It reduces inflammation
and pain through its sesquiterpene lactones and phenolic compounds (Yarnell
& Abascal, 2009).It protects against cell damage due to its high antioxidant
content (Khan et al., 2011).It exhibits antibacterial and antiviral properties,
potentially aiding in infection prevention (Sigstedt et al., 2008).It helps
regulate blood sugar levels due to its potential hypoglycemic effects (Zhang
et al., 2015).Due to it antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties it aids in
skin health and wound recovery (Sigstedt et al., 2008).