PROF ED 101:THE CHILD AND

ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND

LEARNING PRINCIPLES
Dr. Salvacion L. Villafuerte,
RPm, RPsy
COURSE DESCRIPTION
• Focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis
on current research and theories on biological, linguistic,
cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of development.
Integrated into the course will be the philosophies, theories,
and legal bases of special needs and inclusive education.
COURSE OUTLINE

OVERVIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Growth, Development and 1. Psychodynamic Perspectives
Maturity
2. Psychosocial Perspectives
2. The Life Span Development
3. Cognitive and Behavioral
3. Neurodevelopmental Disorders Perspectives
and Mental health needs of child
and adolescent 4. Moral Development
Perspectives
4. Research and Ethical
Considerations in child and 5. Socio-cultural Perspectives
adolescent developmental research 6. Biological, Evolutional and
Ecological Perspectives
COURSE OUTLINE SYNTHESIS AND APPLICATION OF THE CHILD
AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND THE
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
DEVELOPMENTAL DOMAINS OF THE LEARNER:
FROM PRENATAL TO LATE ADOLESCENCE
1. The Child in Philippine Setting
1. Prenatal Period 2. The Learner in Philippine Educational System
3. The Youth in the Philippines
2. Infancy Period
4. The professional teacher and HB 6574, or the
3. Babyhood Period proposed Basic Education Mental Health and Well-
Being Promotion Act
4. Early Childhood 5. Learner-Centered psychological principles: Focus on
5. Late Childhood the child and adolescent learner
• Cognitive-Metacognitive factors
6. Puberty
• Motivational and Affective factors
7. Adolescence • Developmental and Social factors
• Individual Differences factors
PRE-ASSESSMENT
1. Childhood is the longest period of the lifespan.
2. In adolescence, one common danger signal of maladjustment is being overly aggressive, and
having a cocksure attitude.
3. One common misdemeanor of adolescence is home misdemeanor, such as fighting with sibling
and pilfering things belonging to other family members.
4. Young children tend to associate death with anything that goes away but cannot comprehend the
finality of death.
5. The first year of life can be and is one of the happiest of the life span.
6. When parents are unhappy in their parental roles, children become the targets of anger and
resentment
7. Early childhood is popularly known as the ‘chatterbox’ age.
8. By late childhood, children learn the names of all the common colors and many of the less
common ones
9. In puberty stage, it is subdivided into four stages: prepubescent, pubescent, interpubescent and
postpubescent.
10. Sexual desire develops earlier in men than in women and tends to be persistent.
 PRE-ASSESSMENT
11. Dizygotic twins is also known as 16. Down’s Syndrome
a. Maternal b. Fraternal c. Multiple a. Sexually retarded b. Mentally retarded
births 17. Late Adolescence
12. Most important life stage a. 14-20y.o. b. 15-20y.o. c. 10-12y.o.
a. Prenatal b. Puberty c. Childhood 18. Development
13. Quantitative changes a. Progressive change b. measurable change
a. Growth b. Development c. Maturity c. immeasurable change
14. Principle of Variation 19. Chromosomes carrying sex traits
a. Individual Differences b. Retardation a. Autosomes b. Chromosome c. Gonosomes
15. Genes 20. Onset of Menses or first menstruation
a. Hereditary traits b. Precipitating a. Puberty b. Menarche c. Menses
PRE-ASSESSMENT
1. Childhood is the longest period of the lifespan. FALSE
2. In adolescence, one common danger signal of maladjustment is being overly aggressive, and
having a cocksure attitude. TRUE
3. One common misdemeanor of adolescence is home misdemeanor, such as fighting with sibling
and pilfering things belonging to other family members. TRUE
4. Young children tend to associate death with anything that goes away but cannot comprehend the
finality of death. TRUE
5. The first year of life can be and is one of the happiest of the life span. TRUE
6. When parents are unhappy in their parental roles, children become the targets of anger and
resentment TRUE
7. Early childhood is popularly known as the ‘chatterbox’ age. TRUE
8. By late childhood, children learn the names of all the common colors and many of the less
common ones TRUE
9. In puberty stage, it is subdivided into four stages: prepubescent, pubescent, interpubescent and
postpubescent. FALSE
10. Sexual desire develops earlier in men than in women and tends to be persistent. TRUE
 PRE-ASSESSMENT
11. Dizygotic twins is also known as 16. Down’s Syndrome
b. Fraternal b. Mentally retarded
12. Most important life stage 17. Late Adolescence
a. Prenatal b. 15-20y.o.
13. Quantitative changes 18. Development
a. Growth a. Progressive change
14. Principle of Variation 19. Chromosomes carrying sex traits
a. Individual Differences c. Gonosomes
15. Genes 20. Onset of Menses or first menstruation
a. Hereditary traits b. Menarche
OVERVIEW OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
• Development- The pattern of movement or change that begins at
conception and continues through the human life span
• Traditional vs Life Span Approach-
*The traditional approach emphasizes extensive change from
birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood, and decline in
late old age.
*The life-span approach emphasizes developmental change
during adulthood as well as childhood.
Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective

• Development is lifelong
• Development is multidimensional
• Development is multidirectional
• Development is plastic
• Development is contextual
• Development is studied by a number of disciplines
• Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation
 Biological Processes

• Involve changes in the individual’s physical nature such as:

• Height and weight gains
• The development of the brain
• Changes in motor skills
• Cardiovascular decline
 Cognitive Processes

• Involve changes in the individual’s thought, intelligence, and language such as:
• Watching a mobile swing above a crib
• Creating a two-word sentence
• Memorizing a poem
• Imagining being a movie star
 Socioemotional Processes

• Involve changes in the individual’s relationships with

other people, changes in emotions, and changes in
personality such as:
• An infant smiling from her mother’s touch
• A young boy hitting a playmate
• A girl’s joy at her senior prom
• The affection of an elderly couple
 Conceptions of Age

• Chronological Age- The number of years that have elapsed

since a person’s birth
• Biological Age-A person’s age in terms of biological health
• Psychological/Mental Age-An individual’s adaptive capacities compared to those of
other individuals of the same chronological age
• Social Age-Refers to social roles and expectations related to a person’s age, in terms of
socio-adaptive competencies
FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT
• NATURE- The innate or inherited • NURTURE- environmental
characteristics of an individual. factors that influence the
• HEREDITY- characteristics individual from the moment of
transmitted from the parents to conception onward.
the offspring • ENVIRONMENT- includes all the
forces that affect or influence
man
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
• Quantitative Improvement • Qualitative and Quantitative
• Refer to measurable changes in Refinement
an individual, external process • Involves a progressive series of
• Irreversible, constant increase in changes that are coherent and
size, structural orderly, internal process,
functional
• Is limited, focuses on only one
aspect, changes the physical • A process wherein a person’s
changes of a person growth is visible in relation to
physical, environment and social
factors.
 MATURATION THEORY (A. Gesell)
• Children develop through similar and predictable sequences. However,
Gesell noticed that they did so at their own pace, and suggested this
development starts to occur before the child’s birth.
• The pace that the individual develops through the sequences is influenced
by internal factors, such as physical and mental development and genetics.
• He disagreed with theorists who suggested that development was solely
down to environmental factors.
• If a child experienced delayed development that, according to Gesell,
would be due to heredity.
• A child should only be taught to complete tasks when they are physically
and mentally ready to do so. Teaching a child to do something that is in
advance of their developmental age would do them more harm.
MECHANICS OF HEREDITY
• Female reproductive cell • Male reproductive cell
• OVARIES • TESTES
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The ovaries produce 400,000
eggs or so every 28 days
• The ovum is 100,000 times
larger than the sperm cell
• Carries the X chromosome
• Composed of 46 chromosomes
but transfers 23 chromosomes
to the offspring
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• The testes produces 200 million
sperm cells/spematozoa every
week
• Carries X or Y chromosome
• Composed of 46 chromosomes
but transfers 23 chromosomes
to the offspring
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
• Chromosomes- rope-like
structures in the nucleus of the
cell which contain the Genes
• Genes- carriers of hereditary
units, always work in pairs
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)-
duplication of genes in every cell
2 TYPES OF CHROMOSOMES
1) Autosomes- are trait • 46 chromosomes is composed of
chromosomes which give 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair
‘automatic’ traits of a certain of gonosomes
species
• X chromosome is female
2) Gonosomes- are sex chromosome
chromosomes which give sex
characteristics to a certain • Y chromosome is male
species chromosome
• A normal individual has 46 • Therefore, XX is a female, while
chromosomes, in excess, or lack XY is male.
of, means abnormality
CELL DIVISION
• Mitosis- or cell duplication • Meiosis- cell reduction
DETERMINATION OF TWINS
1) Monozygotic/ 3) Plural Births- (triplets-1:9,000,
identical/maternal twins quadruplets- 1:570,000)-
(1:80)- came only from one combination of maternal or
fertilized egg fraternal twinning, may come
2) Dizygotic/non- from one or more fertilized eggs
identical/fraternal twins
(1:80)- came from two
separate fertilized eggs
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• CAUSES • Chromosomes may be 45 or
1) Nondisjunction- genes fails to 47 and result to either
separate abnormalities in physical
2) Translocation- genes pairs with appearance, mental
another capacity, sexual
3) Deletion- broken pieces of development or all
genes got lost or got deleted mentioned.
4) The theory of aging ova
CHROMOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
1) Autosomal Abnormalities 2) Gonosomal Abnormalities
• Down’s Syndrome (trisomy • Turner’s Syndrome-1:2500
21)- 1:600 • Poly X Syndrome- 1:1,000
• Edward’s Syndrome (trisomy • Klinefelter’s Syndrome- 1:500
18)-1:30,000
• Supermale Syndrome- 1:1,000
• Patau’s Syndrome
(trisomy 13)- 1:15,000
•Hermaphrodite- 1:20,000
AUTOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• DOWN’S SYNDROME
• Mentally impaired
• has congenital eye, ear and heart defects
• has slopping forehead, a protruding tongue, short stubby
limbs and a slightly flattened nose and a peculiar fold in
their eyelids which give the eyes an Oriental appearance
• can be taught to care for their own basic needs and some
have learned to read, and categorized into degrees (mild,
moderate and severe);
• moreover, tends to be cheerful and may have a happy life
if they receive adequate emotional support from their
families or caretakers.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

AUTOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• EDWARD’S SYNDROME
• microstomia (abnormal smallness of the
mouth), short palpebral fissure ( the opening
between the upper and the lower eyelids),
malformed ears, elongated skull; clenched
hand, with the second finger over the third;
short sternum or breastbone, cryptorchidism
(or undescended testes); congenital heart
disease.
AUTOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• PATAU’S SYNDROME
• defects of eyes, nose, lips, ears, • Trisomy 8-Mosaicism Syndrome,
and forebrain of the occurrence: 1:100,000
holoprosenphaly type (i.e., there
was a failure of the forebrain to
divide into halves during
embryonic development and this is
usually known by many midline
facial defects, including the
development of only one eye • Trisomy 22- Emanuel Syndrome,
during extreme cases); polydactyl occurrence: 1:25,000-50,000
(a birth defect with more than the
normal number of fingers or toes); • Hermaphrodism- presence of two
narrow, hyperconvex (i.e., very genitalias, occurrence: 1:20,000
curved) fingernails; skin defects in
the posterior scalp.
GONOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• TURNER’S SYNDROME
• Short/plump,
• absence of menstruation
(amenorrhea), infertility, and a
number of abnormalities that
may involve facial appearance
and internal organs such as
heartand kidneys (another is “
webbed” neck);
• problems of infertility and height
GONOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• KLINEFELTER’S SYNDROME
• usually not detected until adulthood;
• the microscopic structure of the testes is abnormal
and no sperm production occurs, leading to
infertility,
• tall and may have poor muscular development and
enlarged breasts; l
• Low sensuality and impotence are common in this
condition
• tend to be passive and have relatively low ambition
and or drive, due perhaps to testosterone
deficiency;
• they are also deficient in verbal intelligence.
GONOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• SUPERMALE SYNDROME
• tend to be taller than normal males,
and also tend to have severe cases of
acne during adolescence, and many of
them score below average on
intelligence tests, although their
mental deficiencies are typically not
profound; crimes committed by
supermales are largely non-violent
property offenses, such as theft,
rather than violent and aggressive
acts;
GONOSOMAL ABNORMALITIES
• POLY X SYNDROME • Their intellectual deficits are
• a group, they are quite normal in detectable as early as age 2; for
appearance, and remain fertile; example, XXX females lag behind
moreover, they produce children in important developmental
who have the usual number of X milestones such as the onset of
chromosomes; most poly-X walking and talking, and these
females perform below average early indicators help predict later
on intelligence tests deficits in their intellectual
functioning.
GENETIC/BIOLOGICAL ENGINEERING
1) In vitro (in glass) fertilization- test tube babies
2) AID (Artificial Insemination by a Donor)
3) Surrogate motherhood
4) Cloning/mapping
STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
1) Prenatal- fertilization-birth) 7) Early Adolescence (Adolescere-
2) Infancy- birth to 2 wks to grow to maturity)12-15y.o
3) Babyhood-2nd week to 2nd yr 8) Late Adolescence-15-20y.o
4) Early childhood-2nd yr-6th yr 9) Early Adulthood(Adultus-
matured)20-40y.o.
5) Late childhood- 6th year-10th
year 10) Middle Adulthood-40-60 y.o.
6) Puberty (Pubertas-age of 11) Senescence(Senescere-to
manhood)-10-12y.o. grow old)/old age/Late
adulthood- 60 to death
PRENATAL STAGE- The most important stage
of life
1) Germinal Period-
fertilization to 2nd week
of conception
2) Embryonic- 2 week to 8
weeks
3) Fetal- 8 weeks to birth
INFANCY
1) Partunate (15-20 minutes after • Major Adjustments:
birth) 1) Temperature
2) Neonate (20 minutes to 2nd week 2) Breathing
after birth)
3) Taking nourishment
4) Elimination
• Senses:
1) Smell, taste & touch-developed
at birth
2) Vision- after 1-2 days
3) Hearing-after 3-4 days
BABYHOOD

• True foundation period of • Swimming- well

life coordinated movements
• Age of helplessness • Sucking-sucks anything that
touch the lips
• Reacts mostly on reflexes
• Rooting- turning head when
• Reflexes: cheeks/mouth is touched
• Darwinian- grasps tightly • Babinski- fanning out of
• Moro-startles baby’s toes when sole is
• Pupillary- closes eye touched
CHILDHOOD STAGE
• Early Childhood- 2-6
• Is the age of curiosity
• Is preschool stage
• Late Childhood-6-10
• Is considered the age of
conformity
• Is the start of formal schooling
stage
PUBERTY STAGE
• Phases: Prepubescent,
Pubescent, Postpubescent
• Age of confusion
• Transitory stage being
asexual to sexual being
• Physical changes occur
• Girls: Menarche
• Boys: Nocturnal Emission
ADOLESCENCE STAGE
• Early and Late adolescence
• Rebellion stage
• Period of storm and stress
• Emotional changes are at peak
• Listens more to peers than to
parents
• Age of experimenting
(relationships, and different
experiences)
ADULTHOOD STAGE
1) Early Adulthood – the settling down age
2) Middle Adulthood- midlife crisis
3) Late Adulthood- period of decline
Age Groups in Late Adulthood

• The Young Old, or Old Age (65-74 years of age)

• The Old Old, or Late Old Age (75 years and
older)
• The Oldest Old (85 years and older)
Older Adults instead of Elderly

• The term, elderly is ageist (Avers, et al., 2011). Ageist terms promulgates a
stereotype and treatment is delivered differently on the basis of age
(Palmore, 1999). The term elderly is often used to describe frail individuals;
without applying the well-known and valid criteria of frailty (Fried, 2001).
• In 1995, the United Nations Committee on Economic Social and Cultural
Rights of Older Persons rejected the term elderly in preference for the term
older persons (Avers, et al., 2011) and the International Longevity Center,
recommended the term older adults over senior and elderly (Dahmen
&Cozma, 2009)
NEURODEVELOPMENTAL
DISORDERS
TRUE OR FALSE?
1) There is as many as 1 in every 20 children with mental retardation and/or
a developmental disability
2) Scientific research consistently shows that the first three years of life are
critical for the development of brain structure and functioning.
3) Developmental screening is a process that selects those children who will
receive the benefits of more intensive evaluation, or of treatment
4) Children with language disabilities are significantly more likely to
experience depression by high school
5) From conception to five years of age, early childhood is an extremely
important period for cognitive and psychosocial development.
TRUE OR FALSE
6) In identifying developmental disabilities, the parent-child interaction
is not significant for early detection
7) If the child has a disability, she should be referred for early
intervention services
8) It is normal if the child is delayed or failed to achieve developmental
milestones on time.
9) Starting 4 years old, the child can Form 3-word sentences; repeats 3
digits; gives age, sex and name
10) Teachers should listen to and investigate parental concerns about
the child's development or behavior
TRUE OR FALSE?
1) FALSE. There is as many as one in every 8 children with mental
retardation and/or a developmental disability
2) TRUE
3) TRUE
4) FALSE. Children with language deficits are significantly more likely to
experience depression by third grade
5) TRUE
TRUE OR FALSE
6) FALSE. Observation of parent-child interaction is important for early
detection to identify developmental disabilities
7) TRUE.
8) FALSE. If the child is delayed or failed to achieve developmental
milestones on time, it is an indication for developmental disabilities
9) FALSE: Starting 3 years old or 36 months, the child can Form 3-word
sentences; repeats 3 digits; gives age, sex and name
10) TRUE
NORMALITY VS.
ABNORMALITY
NORMAL BEHAVIOR ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR
• Lack of significant • Deviation from social
deviation from the norms
average
• Non acceptable
• Behavior which is
• In conflict with social
acceptable by the
expectations
society or set norms
• Maladaptive=interferes
• Conformity/complianc
with optimal
e to usual,
functioning of an
satisfactory/moderate
individual or groups
reactions or response
Detecting Delays or Disabilities
• The child is known to have risk factors by history or exam;
• The child presents physical findings or medical conditions commonly
associated with delays or disabilities (e.g., problems with cognition,
mobility, language, sensory perception, feeding, sleeping, elimination,
or temperament); or
• The child manifests delays or fails to achieve developmental
milestones on time
Risk Factors for Developmental Disabilities
• Chromosomal anomaly
• Neurological disorder
• Inborn error of metabolism
• Visual or hearing impairment
• Prematurity
• Asphyxia or need for ventilator assistance
• Central nervous system infection or abnormality
• Toxin exposure in utero
• Severe injury, accident, illness, or other trauma
• Parent with a developmental disability
 HOW IS DEVELOPMENTAL DELAY DIAGNOSED?
DEVELOPMENTAL SCREENING DEVELOPMENTAL EVALUATION
• A developmental screening is used to • A developmental evaluation is an in-
tell if children are learning basic skills depth assessment of a child’s skills and
when they should, or if they might have should be administered by a highly
problems. There is no lab or blood test trained professional, such as a
to tell if your child may have a delay and developmental psychologist;
the developmental screening will help developmental pediatrician or pediatric
tell if the child needs to see a specialist. neurologist. If the delays are suspected
• A diagnosis cannot be made simply by in only one area, the child might be
using a screening test. If the results of a referred to a specialist in that area such
screening test suggest a child may have as a physical or occupational therapist
a developmental delay, the child should or speech and language pathologist. In
be referred for a developmental some cases, the child’s development
evaluation. may be assessed by the communities
early intervention program.
ASSESSMENT
What is your knowledge about neurodevelopmental Disorders? Answer truthfully
this pre-test to know if you know enough.
ASSESSMENT
1) Deficits in reasoning, problem solving and overall mental functioning
a. Autism Spectrum Disorder b. Language Disorder c. Intellectual Disability

2) The individual fails to meet expected developmental milestones

a. Autism Spectrum Disorder b. Global Developmental Delay
c. Communication Disorders

3) Deficits in social communication and nonverbal communicative behaviors

used for social interaction
a. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder b. Autism Spectrum Disorder
c. Communication Disorders
ASSESSMENT

4) Is often ‘on the go’, acting as if ‘driven by a motor’, thus

uncomfortable being still for extended time
a. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder b. Autism Spectrum
Disorder c. Communication Disorders

5) Difficulty with spelling, written expression and word reading

a. Language Disorder b. Specific Learning Disorder c. Intellectual
Disability
 ASSESSMENT
6) Repetitive, seemingly driven and apparently purposeless motor behavior
[Link] disorders b. Developmental Coordination disorder c. Stereotypic Movement
Disorder
7) These are the most common risk factors across all neurodevelopmental
disorders
[Link] and Physiological b. Environment c. Temperamental
8) If the child is under 5 years old,
[Link] can be diagnosed with intellectual disability b. She can be given full
standardized testing
c.A and B are incorrect
ASSESSMENT

9) According to research, in most of the neurodevelopmental

disorders, they are more affected
[Link] children b. Male children c. No gender difference

10) Neurodevelopmental disorders typically manifest often before the

child enters grade school
a. True b. False c. Sometimes
ANSWERS
1) Deficits in reasoning, problem solving and 6) Repetitive, seemingly driven and apparently
overall mental functioning purposeless motor behavior
c. Intellectual Disability c. Stereotypic Movement Disorder
2) The individual fails to meet expected 7) These are the most common risk factors across
developmental milestones all neurodevelopmental disorders
b. Global Developmental Delay a. Genetic and Physiological
3) Deficits in social communication and 8) If the child is under 5 years old,
nonverbal communicative behaviors used for
social interaction • c. A and B are incorrect (She cannot be
diagnosed with intellectual disability and
b. Autism Spectrum Disorder cannot be given full standardized testing)
4) Is often ‘on the go’, acting as if ‘driven by a 9) According to research, in most of the
motor’, thus uncomfortable being still for neurodevelopmental disorders, they are more
extended time affected
a. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder b. Male children
5) Difficulty with spelling, written expression 10) Neurodevelopmental disorders typically
and word reading manifest often before the child enters grade
school
b. Specific Learning Disorder
a. True
What are Neurodevelopmental Disorders?
• Are a group of conditions with onset in the developmental period.
• Typically manifest early in development, often before the child enters
grade school
• Characterized by developmental deficits that produce impairments of
personal, social, academic or occupational functioning.
• Range of developmental deficits varies from very specific limitations
of learning to global impairments of social skills or intelligence
• Frequently co-occur; ex. ASD with intellectual disability and ADHD
with learning disability
NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
• Intellectual Disabilities
• Communication Disorders
• Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
• Specific Learning Disorder
• Neurodevelopmental Motor Disorders
INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES
• Deficits in general Global Developmental Delay
mental abilities, • Diagnosis given to children
academic learning and under 5 years old
learning from experience Unspecified Intellectual Disability
• There are impairments • Diagnosis given to children over 5 years
old. Assessment is difficult because of
in adaptive functioning associated sensory or physical ailment,
problem behaviors or mental disorder
affecting personal
independence and social • Risk factors: Genetic and
responsibility Physiological (perinatal and
postnatal)

• Gender Related Diagnostic Issues:

More males than females
COMMUNICATION DISORDERS
• Include deficits in
language, speech and • Risk factors: Genetic and
communication. Begin in Physiological: are highly
early life and produce heritable, if there is
lifelong impairments history in the family of
• Language Disorder language, speech and
• Speech sound Disorder communication disorders,
• Childhood-onset fluency including autism and
disorder (stuttering) learning disorders.
• Social (pragmatic)
communication disorder • No Gender-Related
Diagnostic Issues
AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER
• Persistent deficits in social • Risk factors: (1)Genetic and
communication and social physiological-heritability, 37-
interaction across multiple 90%, others genetic mutations
contexts and restricted, and polygenic
repetitive patterns of (2) Environmental-advanced
behavior, interest or parental age, low birth weight,
activities fetal exposure to toxins
• Symptoms present in the
early developmental
period and there is
impairment in social, • Gender Related Diagnostic
occupational functioning Issues: four times more often
in male than in females.
 ATTENTION-DEFICIT/HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
• Defined by impairing levels of • Risk factors: (1) Temperamental-
negative behavioral and
inattention, disorganization and/ emotionality; (2) Environmental-
or hyperactivity-impulsivity. very low birth weight, history of
• In childhood, ADHD frequently child abuse, neglect, multiple
foster placements, toxin exposure,
overlaps with disorders such as infections (3) Genetic and
oppositional-defiant and conduct physiological (4) Course modifiers-
disorders. family interaction patterns

• Persists in adulthood
• Gender-Related Diagnostic
Issues: more frequent in males
than in females. Females have
more inattentive features than
males.
 SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER
• Difficulties learning and using • Risk Factors: (1) Environmental-
prematurity or low birth weight
academic skills and prenatal exposure to
• First manifests during the years of nicotine (2) Genetic and
formal schooling with persistent physiological- family history (3)
course modifiers- inattentive
and impairing difficulties with behavior in preschool years and
learning foundational academic nonresponse to effective
skills in reading, writing and/or academic interventions.
math.
• Gender-Related Diagnostic
Issues: More common to
males than females.
 NEURODEVELOPMENTAL MOTOR DISORDERS
• Developmental Coordination • Risk factors: (1) Genetic and
physiological (2)
Disorder- clumsiness and slow Temperamental (tics-anxiety,
and inaccurate motor skills excitement)(3) Environmental-
• Stereotypic Movement Disorder- (tics-observed by authoritative
figures) (4) course modifiers-co-
repetitive, seemingly driven, morbid with other disorders
purposeless motor behavior
• Tic Disorders- sudden, rapid,
• Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues:
recurrent, non-rhythmic motor (Tics) Males are more commonly
movement or vocalization affected than females. Women
with persistent tic disorders more
likely to develop anxiety and
depression.
 OTHER NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS
• Symptoms exhibited are characteristic of • Risk factors: (1) Genetic and
having a neurodevelopmental disorders
that cause impairment in social, physiological (2)
occupational or other important areas of Temperamental (tics-anxiety,
functioning but do not meet the full criteria excitement)(3)
for any of the neurodevelopmental
disorders Environmental-(tics-
observed by authoritative
• Other specified neurodevelopmental figures) (4) course modifiers-
disorder- situations are presented by co-morbid with other
clinician, with specific reason (ex. Due to disorders
prenatal alcohol exposure)
• Unspecified neurodevelopmental disorder-
having inadequate information, thus,
clinician chooses not to specify the reason
not met
THEORIES OF HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
PSYCHOANALYTIC/PSYCHODYNAMIC
PERSPECTIVE
• S. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
• Freud was a practicing neurologist who formulated his theory of human
development from his analyses of his emotionally disturbed patients’ life
histories. Seeking to relieve their nervous symptoms and anxieties, he relied
heavily on such methods as hypnosis, free association (a quick spilling out of
one’s thoughts), and dream analysis, because they gave some indication of
unconscious motives that patients had repressed (that is, forced out of their
conscious awareness). By analyzing these motives and the events that caused
their repression, Freud concluded that human development is a conflictual
process: As biological creatures, we have basic sexual and aggressive instincts
that must be served; yet society dictates that many of these drives must be
restrained. According to Freud, the ways in which parents manage these sexual
and aggressive urges in the first few years of their child’s life play a major role
in shaping their children’s personalities.
 Structure of personality/ provinces of the
mind
1) ID (da Es, ‘it’)- most primitive part of the 3) SUPEREGO (da Uber-Ich, ‘over-I’)-
mind. At birth it is pure, natural, represents the moral and ideal
instinctual and exists completely on the aspects of personality and is guided
unconscious level. It demands immediate by Moralistic & Idealistic Principles. It
satisfaction of bodily needs and governed grows out of the ego, but has no
by Pleasure Principle. It is unrealistic, contact with reality, therefore is
illogical and entertain incompatible unrealistic in its demands for
ideas. perfection. It is divided to conscience
2) EGO (das Ich, ‘I’)-in contact with reality. and ego-ideal.
Mediates with Id and Superego and deals
with the external world. Acts on Reality
Principle. Uses defense mechanisms to
defend itself against anxiety, from
mediation of divergent forces.
 PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

• Every child goes through a

sequence of developmental stages
and these experiences determine
personality characteristics that will
persist in a lifetime. These
developmental stages is almost
exclusively a discussion of early
childhood and that adult
personality is formed by the end of
5th year of life. Each stage has an
erogenous zone as the source of
stimulation and pleasure.
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE
• Erik Erickson believed that an individual faces a wide range of human
relations in growing up where each stage has a crisis to be faced and if
resolved positively will lead to healthy interaction with his environment.
• Proposed the Ego Psychology, also known as Contemporary Psychoanalytic
or Ego Psychology
• Developmental stages extends from infantile into adolescence, adulthood,
and old age, with specific struggle contributing to the personality
formation.
• From the struggle in adolescence, identity crisis is formed—a turning point
in one’s life that may either strengthen or weaken personality.
• Elaborated the psychosexual stages beyond childhood, placing more
emphasis on both social and historical influences.
7 BASIC POINTS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
1) Growth takes place according 5) Biological aspect of human
to the epigenetic principle development is considered in
2) There is an interaction of the psychosocial stages
opposites in every stage: 6) Ego identity is shaped by a
Syntonic and Dystonic multiplicity of conflicts and
3) The conflict produces an ego events
quality or ego strength (basic 7) From adolescence forward,
strength) personality development is
4) Too little basic strength results characterized by an identity
to core pathology crises.
 PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Stage Psychosexual Psychosocial Crisis Basic Core Significant Important events
Mode Strength Pathology Relations
Infancy Oral-Respiratory Basic Trust vs. Basic Hope Withdrawal Maternal Feeding
Mistrust
Early Anal-urethral- Autonomy vs. Shame, Will Compulsion Parents Toilet Training
Childhood muscular Doubt
Play Age Infantile-genital Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Inhibition Family Exploration
School Age Latency Industry vs. Inferiority Competence Inertia Neighborhood, School
School

Adolescence Puberty Identity vs. Identity Fidelity Role Peer groups Social Relationships
Confusion repudiation
Young Genitality Intimacy vs. Isolation Love Exclusivity Sexual Relationships
partners,
Adulthood friends, spouse

Adulthood Proactivity Generativity vs. Care Rejectivity Divided labor, Work and
household
Stagnation responsibilities
Parenthood

Old Age Generalization of Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Disdain Whole Reflection in Life
sensual modes humanity
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE
• Jean Piaget theorized that children undergo qualitative
changes in thinking as they grow older. Piaget depicted these
changes as series of stages.
• To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive
reorganization of mental processes as a result of biological
maturation and environmental experience. Children
construct an understanding of the world around them, then
experience discrepancies between what they already know
and what they discover in their environment.
STAGE AGE COGNITIVE CHANGES
Sensory-motor Birth to age 2 Acquire object permanence,
understands that things continue to
exist even when out of sight
Preoperationals Ages 2-7 Become increasingly adept at using
mental presentations, and language
assumes an important role in describing,
remembering and reasoning about the
world
Concrete-operational Ages 7-11 Able to pay attention to more than one
factor at a time and can understand
someone else’s point of view
Formal -operational Ages 11 and older Acquire the ability to think abstractly
and test ideas mentally using logic.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVE
• Lawrence Kohlberg developed a stage theory about the
development of thinking but focused exclusively on moral
thinking. He proposed that children at different levels of
moral reasoning base their moral choices on different
factors.
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral
development is a continual process that occurs throughout
the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory outlines six stages of moral
development within three different levels.
LEVEL AGE MORAL REASONING STAGES

Pre-conventional Early childhood 1st stage: Children are obedience-and punishment-oriented in the sense that
morality they judge acts as right or wrong in terms of physical consequences
2nd stage: Children conform to social expectations in the hope of gaining
rewards

Conventional morality Late childhood 1st stage: ‘Good Boy Morality’ –children conform to rules to win approval of
others and maintain good relationships.
2nd stage: if the social group accepts rules as appropriate for all group
members, they should conform to them to avoid social disapproval and
censure.

Post conventional Adolescence 1st stage: the individual believes that there should be flexibility in moral
morality beliefs to make it possible to modify and change moral standards if this will
be advantageous to group members as a whole.
2nd stage: individuals conform to both social standards and to internalized
ideals to avoid self-condemnation rather than to avoid social censure.
Morality is based on respect for others rather than on personal desires.
LEARNING/BEHAVIORISTIC PERSPECTIVE
• The learning viewpoint, or behaviorism, originated with John
B. Watson:
• Viewed infants as tabula rasa who develop habits from
learning experiences
• Viewed development as a continuous process
• Viewed the environment as responsible for the direction of
individuals’ development
 LEARNING/BEHAVIORISTIC PERSPECTIVE
■ B. F. Skinner proposed operant learning theory:
• Claimed that development reflects the operant conditioning of
children who are passively shaped by the reinforcers and
punishments that accompany their behaviors
■ Albert Bandura proposed cognitive social-learning theory:
• Viewed children as active information processors
• Viewed observational learning as the source of children’s learning
• Rejected Watson’s environmental determinism
• Proposed reciprocal determinism in which children have a hand in
creating the environments that influence their development
BIOLOGICAL/ETHOLOGICAL/EVOLUTIONAL
PERSPECTIVE

• Views humans as born with adaptive attributes that have evolved through
natural selection
• Says that adaptive attributes channel development to promote survival
• Views humans as influenced by their experiences
• Argues that certain adaptive characteristics are most likely to develop
during sensitive periods, provided that the environment fosters this
development
• Emphasizes that humans’ biologically influenced attributes affect the kind
of learning experiences they are likely to have
ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE
■ Urie Bronfenbrenner proposed the ecological systems theory:
• Views development as the product of transactions be- tween an ever-
changing person and an ever-changing environment
• Bronfenbrenner proposes that the natural environment actually consists of
interacting contexts or systems:
• Microsystem (relationships and interactions), mesosystem (links),
exosystem (influences of development)
• Macrosystem (educational, legal, cultural), chronosystem (transitions,
sociohistorical)
• This detailed analysis of person-environment interactions has stimulated
many new interventions to optimize development.
RESEARCH STRATEGIES:
• Self-report methodologies: interviews, questionnaires and the clinical
method
• Observational methodologies: naturalistic, time-sampling, structured
• Case studies: individual or multiple
• Ethnography: participant observation, longitudinal, cultural context
• Psychophysiological methods: physiological responses and behaviors
• Detecting relationships: Correlational, Experimental and Cross-cultural
designs
 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
1) Protection from harm: the right of research participants to be protected from
physical or psychological harm.
2) Informed consent: the right of research participants to receive an explanation, in
language they can understand, of all aspects of research that may affect their
willingness to participate.
3) Confidentiality: the right of participants to concealment of their identity with respect
to the data that they provide.
4) Benefits-to-risks ratio: a comparison of the possible benefits of a study for advancing
knowledge and optimizing life conditions versus its costs to participants in terms of
inconvenience and possible harm.
5) Deception/debriefing/knowledge of results: children also have the right to be
informed, in language they can understand, of the results of the research in which
they have participated.
 Developmental Issues
• Nature vs. Nurture- Involves the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or
nurture
• Continuity vs. Discontinuity- This issue focuses on the extent to which development involves gradual,
cumulative change or distinct stages
• Stability vs. Change- This issue involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early
experience or whether we develop into someone different from who we were at an earlier point in
development. It considers the extent to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences
are the key determinants of a person’s development.
• Activity vs. passivity- Issue whether if the individual is of more in control with surroundings or having less
control with behaviors. One might see development as more a product of the environment or social
influences or due to biological changes.
• Universal vs. particular-universal development- Issue about children learning to do the same or developing in
the same way no matter what culture they come from or that it is contextual, that the aspects of the child's
life would be directly affected by their culture.
CHILDREN
• "Children" refers to person below eighteen (18) years of age or
those over but are unable to fully take care of themselves or
protect themselves from abuse, neglect, cruelty, exploitation or
discrimination because of a physical or mental disability or
condition (RA 7610)
• Generation Z from 2003 to 2010 and Generation Alpha 2011-
present
• Stages of Psychosocial Development: Basic trust and Mistrust (0-
1.5 years old) to Identity vs Role Confusion (12-17)
 Who are the Children with
Exceptionalities?
• Children who have emotional and mental health needs which include: Intellectual
disability, which causes them to develop more slowly than other children. Speech and
Language Impairment, such as a problem expressing themselves or understanding
others. Physical Disability, such as vision problem, cerebral palsy, or other conditions.
Learning Disabilities, which distort messages from their senses. Emotional Disabilities,
such as restricted social skills and interaction, impulsiveness, or difficulty in following
rules and others.
• Children who differ from the norm, either above or below, in physical attributes or
learning ability to such an extent that they need specialized educational services or
physical accommodations to benefit fully from schooling (Heward, 2012).
• The “exceptional” rubric is preferred to terms involving disabilities, impairments or
handicaps because it includes gifted and especially talented children.
• Twice-exceptional (2e children/students) intellectually gifted children who have oner or
more neurodevelopmental or other mental disorders (ADHD, ASD, dyslexia)
What are the usual reactions/signs of socio-
emotional and mental health issues?
• Isolation from friends and family
• Changes in appetite (eating a lot or very little)
• Changes in sleep (sleeping too much or not enough)
• Changes with friendships (not wanting to see friends)
• Changes in grades (not doing their homework, failing classes)
• Changes in mood (being weepy, withdrawn, or irritable)
• Risky behaviors (self-harming, expressing suicidal thoughts, running away,
etc.)
• Increased irritability
• Loss of interest in activities they enjoy
• Avoidance of things, people, or activities
WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT MARKERS TO
IDENTIFY IF THERE IS A MENTAL HEALTH ISSUE?

THE FIVE (5) Ds OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOR

• DEVIATION (not acceptable behaviors according to societal
norms)
• DURATION (persistence of symptom/s, frequency)
• DISTRESS (aversive, self-focused emotional reaction, e.g.
anxiety, worry, discomfort)
• DYSFUNCTION (unable to perform expected social roles)
• DANGER (violation of rights and the rights of others, e.g.
violence, self-harming)
WHAT MAY BE DONE TO ADDRESS THESE
SOCIO-EMOTIONAL AND MENTAL HEALTH
ISSUES?
1) A MULTI-METHOD ASSESSMENT OF MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES: Classroom and
home observations, parent and teacher rating scales, parent and teacher
interviews, direct screening and interviews of the child. An assessment report
with diagnosis and recommendation for a treatment plan will be achieved.
2) THERAPY FOR CHILDREN WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES WITH MENTAL HEALTH ISSUES:
Psychological therapy to treat mental health conditions or help manage
symptoms to achieve socio-adaptive, emotional and mental functioning.
3) MEDICATION AS RECOMMENDED: Medication should be used if other options,
like therapy, aren’t effective, and should be part of a comprehensive treatment
plan.
4) INTENSIVE CARE OPTIONS: Emergency hospitalization will be needed if the child
is expressing or behaving in a way that is endangering themselves and others.
5) RESIDENTIAL TREATMENT: Recommended for children who do not respond to
outpatient services or have significant mental or behavioral health needs.