AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURIZATION
❖ large-cabin turbofan engine aircraft contain recirculation fans to reuse up
to 50 percent of the air in the cabin
❖ This reduces bleed air volume and helps maintain high engine output
❖ Smaller turbine aircraft, or sections of a large aircraft, may make use of a
jet pump flow multiplier
❖ A turbine turned by bleed air rotates a compressor impeller mounted on
the same shaft
❖ The most common method of pressurizing and air conditioning turbine-
powered aircraft is with an air cycle air conditioning and pressurization
system.
❖ A turbo compressor used to pressurize cabins mostly in turboprop
aircraft
❖ The aircraft's auxiliary power unit (APU) is designed to deliver
pressurized bleed air for engine starting and for operation of the
aircraft's air conditioning packages
❖ There are two types of air conditioning systems commonly used on
aircraft
❖ Air cycle air conditioning is used on most turbine-powered aircraft
❖ Vapor cycle air conditioning systems are often used on reciprocating
aircraft
❖ The air cycle system is often called the air conditioning package or pack
❖ a pneumatic system manifold contains hot air between 30 and 75 psi
❖ The air conditioning packs are supplied by this manifold as are other
critical airframe systems
❖ The pack valve is the valve that regulates bleed air from the pneumatic
manifold into the air cycle air conditioning system.
❖ Many pack valves are electrically controlled and pneumatically operated.
Also known as the supply shutoff valve
❖ warm bypassed air must be mixed with the cold air produced by the air
cycle system so the air delivered to the cabin is a comfortable
temperature. this is accomplished by the mixing valve
❖ Other air cycle systems may refer to the valve that controls the air
bypassed around the air cycle cooling system as a temperature control
valve, trim air pressure regulating valve, or something similar
❖
❖ During slow flight, when the flaps are extended, the doors are open
❖ At higher speeds, with the flaps retracted, the doors move toward the
closed position
❖ The heart of the air cycle air conditioning system is the refrigeration
turbine unit, also known as the air cycle machine (ACM).
❖ A temperature sensor in the separator controls a refrigeration bypass
valve designed to keep the air flowing through the water separator
above freezing temperature
❖ The valve is also identified by other names such as a temperature control
valve, 35° valve, anti-ice valve, and similar. It bypasses warm air around
the ACM when opened.
❖ the refrigeration bypass valve regulates the temperature of the ACM
discharge air so it does not freeze when passing through the water
separator
❖ Vapor cycle air conditioning is used on most nonturbine aircraft that are
equipped with air conditioning.
❖ The vapor cycle system only cools the cabin
❖ Vapor cycle air conditioning is a closed system used solely for the
transfer of heat from inside the cabin to outside of the cabin
❖ It can operate on the ground and in flight.
❖ When a substance changes state, such as when a liquid changes into a
vapor, heat energy is absorbed. This is called latent heat
❖ While circulating, the refrigerant changes state
❖ The tubing is coiled into a radiator type assembly known as an
evaporator
❖ The high pressure high-temperature gaseous refrigerant flows through
tubing to a condenser
❖ The condenser is like a radiator comprised of a great length of tubing
with fins attached to promote heat transfer.
❖ There are two sides to the vapor cycle air conditioning system. One
accepts heat and is known as the low side. The other gives up heat and is
known as the high side
❖ the compressor and the expansion valve are the two components that
separate the low side from the high side of the cycle
❖ Ice is particularly a problem ifit forms at the orifice in the expansion
valve, which is the coldest point in the cycle
❖ Most evaporators are constructed of copper or aluminum tubing coiled
into a compact unit
❖ Fins are attached to increase surface area, facilitating rapid heat transfer
between the cabin air blown over the outside of the evaporator with a
fan and the refrigerant inside.
❖ The compressor is the dividing point between the low side and the high
side of the vapor cycle system
❖ Modern compressors are either engine-driven or driven by an electric
motor Occasionally, a hydraulically driven compressor is used.
❖ The condenser is the final component in the vapor cycle
❖ The R134a valve fittings are a quick disconnect type
❖ Special servicing equipment is used to service vapor cycle air
conditioning systems. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
❖ R134a comes in containers measured by the weight of the refrigerant
they hold
❖ All system performance tests are performed at a specified engine rpm
(stable compressor speed)
❖ Water is removed from the system by evacuation.
❖ Charging capacity of a vapor cycle air conditioning system is measured by
weight
❖ Distribution of cabin air on pressurized aircraft is managed with a system
of air ducts leading from the pressurization source into and throughout
the cabin
❖ Large aircraft may be divided into zones for air distribution
❖ Locating a bleed port at an early stage of compression provides sufficient
bleed air for cabin environmental control systems
❖ But as engine throttle settings are reduced during cruise and decent, a
bleed port located on a higher stage of compression is required for the
same volume and pressure of bleed air to be extracted
❖ mixing valve, temperature control valve, trim air valve). It mixes warm
bleed air that bypassed the air cycle cooling process with the cold air
produced by it
❖ Cabin temperature pickup units and duct temperature sensors used in
the temperature control system are thermistors
❖ At sea level, mercury is forced up into the column approximately 29.92
inches.
❖ Atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing altitude
❖ The decrease in pressure is a rapid one and, at 50 000 feet, the
atmospheric pressure has dropped to almost one tenth of the sea level
value
❖ Most civilian aviation takes place in the troposphere in which
temperature decreases as altitude increases
❖ Cabin differential pressure - the difference between the air pressure
inside the cabin and the air pressure outside the cabin
❖ Cabin rate of climb - the rate of change of air pressure inside the cabin,
expressed in feet per minute (fpm) of cabin altitude change.
❖ PRESSURIZATION SYSTEMS It must be capable of maintaining a cabin pressure altitude
of approximately 8 000 feet or lower regardless of the cruising altitude of the aircraft.
❖ This differential pressure can range from 3.5 psi for a single Engine
reciprocating aircraft, to approximately 9 psi on high performance jet
aircraft
❖ Aircraft cabin pressurization can be controlled via two different modes of
operation
❖ The first is the isobaric mode,
❖ The second mode of pressurization control is the constant differential
mode
❖ the rate of change of the cabin pressure, also known as the cabin rate of
climb or descent, is also controlled
❖ Typical rates of change for cabin pressure are 300 to 500 fpm
❖ modes of pressurization may also refer to automatic versus standby
versus manual operation of the pressurization system
❖ cabin pressure regulator. The regulator controls the position of the
outflow valve(s) normally located at the rear of the aircraft pressure
vessel
❖ Cabin altitude, rate of climb, and barometric setting are automatic
through built-in logic and communication with the ADC and the flight
management system (FMS).
❖ All pressurization systems contain a manual mode that can override
automatic control
❖ Controlling cabin pressurization is accomplished through regulating the
amount of air that flows out of the cabin
❖ outflow valve on a transport category aircraft is normally operated by an
ac motor controlled by a pressure controller in the electronics
equipment bay. A second ac motor on the valve is use when in standby
mode. A DC motor also on the valve is used for manual operation.
❖ Outflow valves that combine the use of electricity with pneumatic
operation have all-pneumatic standby and manual modes
❖ A cabin air safety valve is a pressure relief valve set to open at a
predetermined pressure differential
❖ On most aircraft, safety valves are set to open between 8 and 10 psid.
❖ On transports, often AC motors are used with a redundant DC motor for
standby or manual operations
❖ Pressurization safety valves are used to prevent the over pressurization
of the aircraft cabin
❖ A negative pressure relief valve is included on pressurized aircraft to
ensure that air pressure outside the aircraft does not exceed cabin air
pressure.
❖ The cabin pressurization panel remains in the cockpit primarily for
manual control.
❖ During ground operations and prior to takeoff, the WOW switch typically
_controls the position of the pressurization safety valve, which is held in
the open position until the aircraft takes off.
❖ On modern aircraft equipped with digital aircraft monitoring systems
with LCD displays, such as Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System
(EICAS) or Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM), the
pressurization panel may contain no gauges
❖ A partial closing of the outflow valve(s) when the WOW switch is closed
(on the ground) and the throttles are advanced gradually initiates
pressurization during rollout.
❖ At takeoff, the rate of climb and the pressurization schedule require the
outflow valve(s) to fully close.
❖ Warning annunciations occur in the cockpit on the central warning panel
should an over heat caused by a pneumatic leak be detected
❖ One of the major concerns with pressurization and air conditioning
systems is overheating
❖ The pack can typically be reset and operated again manually in case the
overheat occurred due to a failure of the automatic temperature control
system
❖ Warnings are indicated on the central warning system
❖ Flight crew may immediately utilize emergency oxygen to maintain
control of the aircraft and to avoid hypoxia.
INSTRUMENTS/AVIONIC SYSTEMS
❖ There are three basic kinds of instruments classified by the job they
perform: flight instruments, engine instruments, and navigation
instruments
❖ The instruments used in controlling the aircraft's flight attitude are
known as the flight instruments
❖ Engine instruments are those designed to measure operating parameters
of the aircraft's engine(s).
❖ Navigation instruments are those that contribute information used by
the pilot to guide the aircraft along a definite course.
❖ Bourdon tube mechanisms can also be used to measure temperature
❖ The diaphragm can be evacuated before sealing, retaining absolutely
nothing inside. When this is done, the diaphragm is called an aneroid.
❖ The most common type of pressure measurement is gauge pressure. This
is the difference between the pressure to be measured and the
atmospheric pressure
❖ Absolute pressure exists when a force is compared to a total vacuum, or
absolutely no pressure.
❖ When two pressures are compared in a gauge, the measurement is
known as differential pressure and the gauge is a differential pressure
gauge
❖ This standard pressure value is 29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg), 1 013.2
hectopascal (hPa), or 14.7 psi.
❖ The most important instrument used by the pilot to perceive the health
of an engine is the engine oil pressure gauge
❖ The altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator are the
three most common pitot-static instruments
❖ The aft section of the pitot tube is equipped with small holes on the top
and bottom surfaces that are designed to collect air pressure that is at
atmospheric pressure in a static, or still, condition
❖ Many pitot-static tube heads contain heating elements to prevent icing
during flight
❖ The pitot-static tube is mounted on the outside of the aircraft at a point
where the air is least likely to be turbulent
❖ Altimeters that measure the aircraft's altitude by measuring the pressure
of the atmospheric air are known as pressure altimeters
❖ The term pressure altitude is used to describe the indication an altimeter
gives when 29.92 is set in the Kollsman window
❖ differential pressure gauge that compares static pressure from the
aircraft's static system directed into a diaphragm with static pressure
surrounding the diaphragm in the instrument case.
❖ The rate-of-climb indication in a digitally displayed instrument system is
computed from static air input to the ADC.
❖ The relationship between the ram air pressure and static air pressure
produces the indication known as indicated airspeed
❖ The most common types of synchro system are the autosyn, selsyn, and
magnesyn synchro systems.
❖ The tachometer, or tach, is an instrument that indicates the speed of the
crankshaft of a reciprocating engine
❖ Greater accuracy with lower maintenance is achieved through the use of
electric tachometers
❖ A drag cup, or drag disk link, is used to drive the indicator as in a
mechanical tachometer
❖ The synchroscope is an instrument that indicates whether two or more
rotating devices, such as engines, are synchronized
❖ An aircraft's angle of attack (AOA) is the angle formed between the wing
cord centerline and the relative wind.
❖ Chromel and alumel are used for turbine EGT thermocouples
❖ The amount of voltage produced by the dissimilar metals when heated is
measured in millivolts
❖ A numerical compass card, usually graduated in 5° increments, is
constructed around the perimeter of the float.
❖ The entire assembly is enclosed in a sealed case that is filled with a liquid
similar to kerosene.
❖ On the front of the case, a glass face allows the numerical compass card
to be referenced against a vertical lubber line
❖ Magnetic deviation cannot be overlooked. It should never be more than
10 degrees
❖ magnetic variation. It is caused by the difference in location between the
earth's magnetic poles and the geographic poles.
❖ There are only a few places on the planet where a compass pointing to
magnetic north is also pointing to geographic North. A line drawn
through these locations is called the Agonic line.
❖ Isogonic lines drawn on aeronautical charts indicate points of equal
variation
❖ Operating an aircraft near the magnetic poles causes what is known as
dip error
❖ some aircraft, pressure, rather than vacuum, is used to induce the gyro
to spin
❖ As a result, it was preferred to draw clean air through the gyro
instruments with a vacuum system
❖ Three of the most common flight instruments, the attitude indicator,
heading indicator, and turn needle of the turn and-bank indicator, are
controlled by gyroscopes
❖ Gyroscopic rigidity depends upon several design factors: Weight for a
given size, Angular velocity, Radius at which the weight is concentrated,
Bearing friction
❖ A ring laser gyro produces laser beams that travel in opposite directions
around a closed triangular cavity.
❖ RLGs are rugged and have a long service life with little maintenance due
to their lack of moving parts.
❖ ELECTRIC ATTITUDE INDICATORS is typically driven by 115-volt, 400-cycle
AC. It turns at approximately 21 000 rpm.
❖ Electrically powered tum-and-slip indicators are usually DC powered
❖ Glass cockpit" is a term that refers to the use of flatpanel display screens
in cockpit instrumentation.
❖ The four basic autoflight components are: sensing elements, computing
element, output elements, and command elements.
❖ MEMS gyros may be used or accompanied by the use solid state
accelerometers and magnetometers.
❖ A yaw damper receives error signals from the turn coordinator rate gyro
❖ Essentially, a flight director system is an autopilot system without the
servos.
❖ Modern aircraft may also include satellite communications technology
(SATCOM) for communication with operations and for providing internet
connection for passengers
❖ Radio voice communication between an aircraft and air traffic control is
maintained with very high frequency range (VHF) radios
❖ VHF radios are relatively short range radios in that they operate when
within line-of-sight
❖ The VHF frequencies used range from 118.0 MHz to 136.975 MHz.
❖ VHF radios are used for communications between aircraft and air traffic
control (ATC), as well as air-to-air communication between aircraft
❖ Some transoceanic aircraft may also use high frequency (HF) radios for
long distance communication with an operator's base station
❖ HF radio waves bounce off of the ionosphere layer of the atmosphere
❖ This refraction extends the range of HF signals beyond line-of-sight.
❖ The HF frequency range is between 2 to 25 MHz.
❖ SATCOM is also used to connect passengers to the internet.
❖ VOR uses VHF radio waves (108-117.95 MHz) with 50 kHz separation
between each channel.
❖ A vertically polarized antenna was used to transmit LF frequency radio
waves in the 190 kHz to 535 kHz range
❖ Using a loop antenna, the direction to (or from) the antenna could be
determined by monitoring the strength of the signal received
❖ the loop antenna, it forms a field with a single significant null reception
area on one side. This is used for tuning and produces an indication in
the direction toward the ADF station at all times.
❖ The loop and sense antenna are normally housed in a single, low profile
antenna housing
❖ Any ground antenna transmitting LF or MF radio waves in range of the
aircraft receiver's tuning capabilities can be used for ADF
❖ The most modern ADF systems have two loop antennas mounted at 90°
to each other.
❖ The VOR receiver drives the solid pointer to indicate the magnetic
direction TO a tuned VOR station.
❖ The localizer broadcast is a VHF broadcast in the lower range of the VOR
frequencies (108 MHz-111.95 MHz) on odd frequencies only.
❖ The vertical guidance required for an aircraft to descend for a landing is
provided by the glideslope of the ILS
❖ Marker beacons are the final radio transmitters used in the ILS
❖ an outer marker beacon transmitter is located 4-7 miles from the
threshold. It transmits a 75 MHz carrier wave modulated with a 400 Hz
audio tone in a series of dashes.
❖ Many DME's only display the slant distance
❖ The DME system consists of an airborne DME transceiver, display, and
antenna, as well as the ground based DME unit and its antenna.
❖ DME operates in the UHF frequency range from 962 MHz to 1 213 MHz
❖ the TCAS II computer issues a Resolution Advisory (RA). This is an aural
command to the pilot to take a specific evasive action
❖ A radio altimeter, or radar altimeter, is used to measure the distance
from the aircraft to the terrain directly beneath it
❖ Using a transceiver and a directional antenna, a radio altimeter
broadcasts a carrier wave at 4.3 GHz from the aircraft directly toward the
ground
❖ A decision height window (DH) displays the radar altitude on the EADI
❖ Radio waves used in weather radar systems are in the SHF range such as
5.44 GHz or 9.375 GHz
❖ The azimuth of a lightning strike can be calculated by a receiver using a
loop type antenna such as that used in ADF.
❖ Modern ELTs may also transmit a signal on 121.5 MHz. This is an analog
transmission that can be used for homing. Prior to 2009, 121.5 MHz was
a worldwide emergency frequency
❖ There are three segments of GPS: the space segment, the control
segment, and the user segment
❖ To increase the accuracy of GPS for aircraft navigation, the wide area
augmentation system (WAAS) was developed
❖ An inertial navigation system (INS) is used on some large aircraft for long
range navigation
❖ Shock-absorbing materials commonly used in shock mounts are usually
electrical insulators
FUEL SYSTEMS
❖ Each fuel system for a multi-engine airplane must be arranged so that, in
at least one system configuration, the failure of any one component
(other than a fuel tank) does not result in the loss of power of more than
one engine
❖ The fuel tank must have at least two vents arranged to minimize the
probability of both vents becoming obstructed simultaneously
❖ Each fuel tank must be able to withstand, without failure, the vibration,
inertia, fluid, and structural loads to which it may be subjected in
operation
❖ No fuel tank may be on the engine side of a firewall, and there must be
at least ½-inch of clearance between the fuel tank and the firewall
❖ A positive pressure must be maintained within the vapor space of each
bladder cell under any condition of operation, or it should be shown not
to collapse under zero or negative pressure
❖ Each fuel tank must have an expansion space of not less than two
percent of the tank capacity
❖ if the tank vent discharges clear of the airplane, in which case no
expansion space is required
❖ Each tank must have a drainable sump with an effective capacity, in the
normal ground and flight attitudes, of 0.25 percent of the tank capacity,
or gallon, whichever is greater
❖ Aircraft with engines that use only gasoline fuel must have filler openings
no larger than 2.36 inches in diameter.
❖ Turbine fuel aircraft filler openings must be no smaller than 2.95 inches
❖ Each filler cap must provide a fuel-tight seal for the main filler opening
❖ there may be small openings in the fuel tank cap for venting purposes
❖ FUEL TANK VENTS To allow proper fuel flow, each fuel tank must be
vented from the top part of the expansion space
❖ A means for automatic shutoff must be provided to prevent the quantity
of fuel in each tank from exceeding the maximum quantity approved for
that tank.
❖ All parts of the fuel system up to the tank that are subjected to fueling
pressures must have a proof pressure of 1.33 times
❖ an ultimate pressure of at least 2.0 times the surge pressure likely to
occur during fueling
❖ surge tanks may also be found on jet transports. These normally empty
tanks located in the wing structure outboard of the main wing tanks are
used for fuel overflow.
❖ The sealed skin and structural members provide the highest volume of
space available with the lowest weight. This type of tank is called an
integral fuel tank
❖ Aircraft with integral fuel tanks in the wings are said to have wet wings
❖ For fuel management purposes, sometimes a wing is sealed into
separate tanks and may include a surge tank or an overflow tank, which
is normally empty but sealed to hold fuel when needed.
❖ When an aircraft maneuvers, the long horizontal nature of an integral
wing tank requires baffling to keep the fuel from sloshing
❖ the fuel boost pumps located in the bottom of the tanks at the lowest
points above the sumps always have fuel to pump regardless of aircraft
attitude.
❖ Integral fuel tanks must have access panels for inspection and repairs of
the tanks and other fuel system components
❖ Bladder tanks are usually required to remain wetted with fuel at all times
to prevent drying and cracking of the bladder material
❖ The fuel feed system is the heart of the fuel supply system since it
delivers fuel to the engines
❖ Aircraft fuel systems must be fitted with at least one drain to allow safe
drainage of the entire fuel system with the airplane in its normal ground
attitude
❖ A readily accessible drain valve that can easily be opened and closed is
required. It must have a manual or automatic means for locking in the
closed position,
❖ If an aircraft's design landing weight is less than that of the maximum
takeoff weight, a situation could occur in which a landing is desired
before sufficient fuel has burned off to lighten the aircraft
❖ Fuel jettisoning systems are required on these aircraft so that fuel can be
jettisoned in flight to avoid structural damage cause by landing the
aircraft when it is too heavy.
❖ Fuel jettisoning systems are also referred to as fuel dump systems.
❖ Fuel jettisoning must be demonstrated at maximum weight with flaps
and landing gear up and in a power-off glide at 1.4 VSl
❖ It must also be demonstrated during a climb with a critical engine
inoperative and the remaining engines at maximum continuous power.
❖ the fuel jettisoning system must be performed during level flight at 1.4
VSl if the glide and climb tests show that this condition could be critical.
❖ A thermal relief bypass valve is incorporated to relieve excess pressure
buildup against the closed gate due to temperature increases
❖ A characteristic of solenoid-operated fuel valves is that they open and
close very quickly
❖ The most common type of auxiliary fuel pump used on aircraft,
especially large and high-performance aircraft, is the centrifugal pump
❖ A centrifugal boost pump is a variable displacement pump
❖ Fuel strainers are usually constructed of relatively coarse wire mesh
❖ They are designed to trap large pieces of debris and prevent their
passage through the fuel system.
❖ Low fuel pressure warning lights are also common on jet transport
aircraft. The sensors for these are located in the boost pump outlet line
❖ CAPACITANCE TYPE:: Large and high-performance aircraft typically utilize
electronic fuel quantity systems
❖ The use of tank unit capacitors, a reference capacitor, and a microchip
bridge circuit in the fuel quantity indicators
❖ A fuel flowmeter indicates an engine's fuel use in real time
❖ FUEL FLOWMETERS measure fuel mass
❖ a fuel-cooled oil cooler (FCOC). It not only heats the fuel but also cools
the engine oil
❖ Most turbine-powered aircraft utilize a low pressure warning switch at
the outlet of each fuel boost pump.
❖ Clothing worn by refueling personnel should not promote static
electricity buildup. Synthetics, such as nylon, should be avoided.
❖ Cotton has proved to be safe for fuel handling attire.