CHAPTER – 1

THE LIVING WORLD

Life can be defined as a unique aggregation of Non-living objects grow by accumulation of material
molecules. These molecules have the tendency to (increase in mass) on the surface.
express themselves through various chemical reactions For example: mountains, boulders, sand mounds etc. So
collectively called metabolic reactions. The basic growth cannot be taken as a defining property of living
purpose of these reactions is to transform or produce organisms alone. A dead organism does not grow.
and utilize energy. The term used to define these 2. REPRODUCTION:
reactions in a cumulative way is metabolism. Through In living organisms reproduction means the
metabolism, various biomolecules are synthesized formation of new individuals from their parents.
resulting in growth, development, responsiveness,
adaptations and reproduction. The forms that possess 1.2DIVERSITY IN THE IVING WORLD:
and express all these features are called living beings. Fungi multiply and spread easily by producing millions
These living beings live in almost all possible habitats of asexual spores. Hydra and yeast multiply by budding.
like forests, mountains, deserts, oceans, freshwater Planaria, a flat worm regenerates the lost part of its body
bodies, hot springs, polar regions [Link] are linked to and become a new one.
one another by sharing the common genetic material. Filamentous algae, protonema of mosses and fungi also
All living beings share characteristics like organization,multiply by fragmentation.
energy utilization, regulation or homeostasis, growth, In unicellular organisms reproduction is synonymous
development, reproduction and adaptation. with growth, i.e., increase in number of cells. Therefore
1.1 WHAT IS GROWING in unicellular organisms, there is no distinction in the
Life has maintained certain fixed properties that life usage of the terms growth and reproduction.
exhibits today and are very different from those that Many organisms do not reproduce - e.g. mules, worker
were present at its origin. bees, infertile human couples, etc. Hence, reproduction
Characteristics of living organisms: is not a perfect defining characteristic of living
The most outstanding features that have arisen during organisms.
life’s history include 3. METABOLISM:
• Growth A variety of biochemical changes are constantly
occurring in a living organism leading to formation and
• Reproduction interconversion of chemicals. All the chemical reactions
taking place in our body come under metabolism. Non-
• Ability to sense environment
living things do not metabolise. All living organisms
• Metabolism show metabolism. However, metabolic reactions can be
mimicked under in vitro conditions.
• Cellular organization 4. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION:
All living organisms are made up of cells. The cells
• Consciousness. perform all functions in the organism. Non-living things
1. GROWTH: It is the increase in number & mass of do not have a cellular organization. Therefore, it can be
cells by cell division. seen that a cellular organization gives rise to the
All living organisms have the capacity to grow. functions of life-like metabolism, growth, reproduction,
Growth of an individual organism has two etc. Thus cellular organization is a defining
characteristics- characteristic of living organisms.
1. Increase in body mass 5. CONSCIOUSNESS:-
2. Increase in number. It is the awareness of one’s environment, actions and
In plants, growth occurs continuously throughout their intentions. It is present in living organisms. Human
lifespan. In animals, growth is only up to a certain age. beings sense the environment through sense organs.
However, cell division occurs to replace lost cells. Plants respond to external factors like light, temperature,
Unicellular organisms also grow by cell division. water, pollutants, other organisms etc. In both plants and
animals, photoperiod (duration of light) affects the Characterization: The understanding of characters of
reproduction in seasonal breeders. organisms like external and internal structure
Therefore, all organisms are ‘aware’ of their (morphology and anatomy), the structure of the cell
surroundings. So, it is the defining property of (cytology), developmental process (embryology) and
livingorganisms. ecological information (ecology) of organism.
Human is the only organism having self-consciousness Nomenclature (naming): The naming of living
i.e. aware of himself. Therefore consciousness is the organisms is called nomenclature. The names are of
defining property of living organisms. two types-vernacular (common names) and scientific
All living organisms are linked to one another by the names.
sharing of common genetic material to varying degree. Local names-Locally used names are called as local
Earth provides the physical base for living beings. There names. Local names are in local languages or common
are millions of varieties of living organisms in the world language. Local names are easy to use by local people,
around us. There are also many organisms that we but these local names cannot be used by biologists due
cannot see with our naked eye around us. They are to the following draw backs.
found in varied habitats like mountains, oceans, forests, • 1. A single local name is often used for many species.
lakes, deserts and even hot water springs. • 2. The local names sometimes lead incorrect meaning
Number of species identified and studied is 1.7- about the organism.
1.8million.
All organisms which live on earth together make up • 3. Different local names are used to recognize an
the natural diversity of life in the world. This natural organism in different regions of country or world. These
diversity of life on earth is generally called biological local names also vary with the language.
diversity or biodiversity. Scientific names: These are the names given to the
Taxonomy: The systematic arrangement of organisms organisms by biologists based on agreed principle
and criteria. These are acceptable all over the world.
that includes characterization, identification,
To accomplish this, certain international codes have
nomenclature, and classification of organisms is called been established.
taxonomy. Systematics is a branch of science that deals These codes are
with identification, nomenclature, classification and • ICBN-International Code of Botanical
evolutionary history of an organism. Thus systematics Nomenclature
includes evolutionary history along with taxonomic • ICZN-International Code of Zoological
characteristics of an organism. Systematics is as old as Nomenclature
human civilization. The term taxonomy was first • ICVN-International Code of Viral Nomenclature
ICBN/ICNB-International Code for Bacteriological
introduced by A.P de Candolle in 1813.
Nomenclature or Nomenclature of Bacteria
Systematics (Latin ‘systema’) means systematic BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE:
arrangement of organisms. Carolus Linnaeus used this nomenclature system for the
Systema Naturae is the book written by Linnaeus. first time and proposed scientific name of all the plants
Neosystematics is a concept of systematics that and animals. He is the founder of binomial system.
considers a species to be the product of evolution. This Linnaeus proposed scientific name of plants in his
concept was developed by Julia Huxley in [Link] takes book” Species plantarum”
into consideration all the known characteristics of In binomial nomenclature, each scientific name has
organisms and all the known evidences from different two components-generic name (genus) and specific
fields of biology. name (species) E.g., Mangifera indica Linn. Mangifera
Identification: is to determine the exact place or is the genus name and indica is the species name. Linn
position of an organism in the set plan of classification. indicates that this species was first described by
It is carried out with the help of taxonomic keys. Linnaeus
Classification: It is the placing of an organism or a Who can give scientific names: Any one can study,
group of organisms in category according to a particular describe, identify and give name to an organism
system and in conformity with a nomenclature system. provided certain universal rules are followed.
Rules:
1. A scientific name generally has two components The lowest taxon or category in the biological
(words) in Latin or derived from Latin irrespective of classification is the species. So the basic unit of
their origin. taxonomy is species. So the basic unit of taxonomy is
2. First word of the biological name denotes the genus species. Species is a group of individuals resembling
name where as the second one denotes for species. one another in all major vegetative and reproductive
3. Names are printed in italics or when hand written characteristics. The individuals of a species resemble
they are separately underlined to indicate their Latin so closely that they may be regarded as having been
origin. derived from the same parents. In 1964, ErnstMayr
defined species as a group of potentially
4. Genus name starts with capital letter and specific interbreeding populations that are reproductively
name starts with small letter. isolated from other such groups.
5. The name of the author is written in an abbreviated The term species was first introduced by John Ray. Eg:
form after the species name and it is printed in Roman. sapiens
6. Each taxonomic group can have only one correct 1.3.2Genus: A group of related species. All the
name. species in a genus have many common characteristics
7. The name should be short, precise and easy to and all have evolved from a common ancestor. E.g.:
pronounce. Homo
Eg: Mangifera indica- Mangifera is the genus name and 1.3.3 Family: A family is an assemblage of related
indica is the species name. genera. E.g.: Hominidae
1.3 TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES: 1.3.4 Order or Cohort: An order is a group of related
The term taxon was introduced for the first time by Families. E.g.: Primata
ICBN in [Link] in 1964 defined Taxon as a 1.3.5 Class: Several related orders having certain
taxonomic group of any rank that is sufficiently common characters form a higher category called
distinct to be worthy of being assigned a definite the class. E.g.: Mammalia
category. 1.3.6 Phylum/Division:
TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY: Classes having same features in common constitute a
The system of arranging organisms in a definite Phylum. The term phylum is used in the case of
sequence of various taxonomic categories arranged classification of animals and the term division is used
in a proper descending order is called taxonomic in plant classification. E.g.: Chordata
hierarchy. It is also called Linnaean hierarchy as it was 1.3.7 Kingdom:
first proposed by Carolus Linnaeus, the Father of The highest taxon or category in biological
Systematic Botany. The hierarchy includes seven classification is the Kingdom. It includes one or more
obligate categories. related divisions or phyla. Plants are put in Kingdom
They are as follows- Plantae and animals are put in the Kingdom Animalia.
Kingdom - Animalia E.g. Plantae, Animalia.
↑ 1.4 Taxonomical Aids:
Phylum - Chordata They are useful in agriculture, forestry and industry.
(Division in case of plants) These studies are essential for knowing our bioresources
↑ and biodiversity. Taxonomic work involves studies both
Class - Mammalia in field and in laboratory.
↑ Taxonomists have developed different types of
Order - Primata taxonomic aids to help in identification, nomenclature
↑ and classification of organisms.
Family - Hominidae The important taxonomic aids are herbaria,
↑ botanical gardens, museums, zoological parks and
Genus - Homo keys.
↑ 1.4.1 (A). Herbarium:
Species – sapiens It is a depository of plant specimens in dry condition.
1.3.1 Species: The specimens are dried, mounted on a paper and
properly labeled.
Procedure: botanical garden in Asia is Tropical Botanical Garden
1. Collection of specimens at Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala.
2. Pressing and drying: to remove moisture content
3. Sterilization or poisoning: to prevent fungal attack Museum
4. Mounting: Pasting or stitching on a sheet
5. Labeling of specimens: Local name, Common A museum is a building used for preservation and
English name, Binomial nomenclature, Family name, exhibition of inanimate objects to illustrate the human or
Place of collection, Date and time of collection, natural history. Biological museums are generally set up
Collectors name. in educational institutions. Museums have a collection of
6. Storage of herbarium sheets. preserved plants and animal specimens for study and
Each herbarium sheet is to be labeled properly to avoid reference. They preserve specimens in the container or jar
confusion. The label should carry scientific name along in a preservative solution.
with author’s name, local name, name of family,
locality, date of collection, name of collector etc. The
Plants and animals may also be preserved as dry
label is pasted on the right hand corner at the bottom of specimens. Insects are preserved in insect boxes after
the herbarium sheet. collecting, ginning and pinning. Larger animals like birds
and mammals are preserved by stuffing. Museums also
Information about the collected specimens is published have a collection of a skeleton of animals. Certain
in the form of a book called flora. processes like human evolution stages are depicted with
It gives a list of total plant species in a particular region the help of models or charts.
together with a brief description of the same.
Some important floras of India are Flora of British
India, Flora of Delhi, Flora of Madras, Flora of Fossils of certain extinct animals are also displayed to
Travancore etc. give a glimpse of past life. Parts of animals like birds
The largest Herbarium of the world is Herbarium of beak, eggs, feathers are kept for study. Along with
Royal Botanical Garden at Kew in England. displaying various objects about plant and animal life,
The largest Herbarium in India is Central National museums also organize film shows related to animal life.
Herbarium in the Indian Botanical Garden at
Kolkata established in 1787.
1.4.2 (B).Botanical gardens: Botanical gardens are Zoological Park
places or institutions that maintain the living plant
specimens of different varieties of plants for reference. It is an enclosed place where wild animals are publicly
A botanical garden contains plant species from various exhibited. It is also known as the Zoological Garden or
corners of the world. Plant species in botanical garden zoo. There are over 300 zoological gardens in India. The
are grown for identification purpose. Each plant is fundamental object of any Zoological Park is to increase
[Link] label should carry its botanical name and the public interest in the understanding of wildlife.
its family. Botanical garden has green houses, a library,
a herbarium, research laboratory etc. It is, therefore, not Zoo also provides recreation and education and is also
merely a garden but a botanical institution. At present involved in the preservation of endangered animals.
there are over 600 botanical gardens in the world. Protection of wildlife from extinction requires the
The Hanging Gardens of Babylon are considered conservation of natural habitat along with the captive
among the wonders of the ancient world. breeding of species. Zoos are taking proper care of
The largest Botanical Garden of the world is Royal animals. Protection against natural enemies as well as
botanical garden at Kew in England. It is called the starvation and diseases is taken care of.
botanical capital of the world. Bentham and Hooker
were associated with this garden.
The largest botanical garden of India is Indian Keys
Botanical garden at Kolkata. The largest tropical
The term key refers to a set of alternate characters in such
a manner that helps in the identification of plants and
animals by selecting and eliminating the characters
according to their presence or absence in the organism.
Different categories use different keys. Each statement in
the key is called lead. For example key for identification
of animals are as follows:

 Ear wings and mammary glands are present– bat

 Beak, feathers, wings are present — birds

 Mammary glands, pinna and scales are absent.

Limbs and slimy skin is present – Frog

Some other taxonomic aids

Certain written documents, as well as recording

descriptions like flora, manuals, monographs and,
catalogs, are used as taxonomic aids. They also help
incorrect identification of particular species. Flora consists
of a complete account and distribution of plants in a given
area. This provides information regarding the different
types of plant species found in a given area. The
monograph contains information on any taxon.