• Chemical: atoms and molecules, Organelle level machinery inside the cell, Cellular:

structural and functional unit, Tissue: groups of cells function together, Organ: different
types of tissue joined together, System: related organs with common function, Organismal:
individual living human. The human body comprises eleven body systems: Integumentary,
Skeletal, Skeletal Muscular, Nervous, Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Respiratory,
Digestive, Urinary, [Link] SYSTEM Components: Skin and
associated structures, such as hair, fingernails and toenails, sweat glands, and oil glands.
Functions: Protects body from invaders and water lost; helps regulate body temperature;
eliminates some wastes; helps make vitamin D; detects sensations such as touch, pain,
warmth, and [Link] SYSTEM Components: Bones and joints of the body and their
associated cartilages. Functions: Supports and protects body; provides surface area for
muscle attachments; aids body movements; houses cells that produce blood cells; stores
minerals and lipids (fats).MUSCULAR SYSTEM Components: Skeletal muscles—voluntarily
controlled muscles usually attached to bones (smooth and cardiac muscles are
components of other body systems). Functions: Participates in body movements, such as
walking; maintains posture; helps for respiration and swallowing; produces heat.
• The human body comprises eleven systems, each with specific components and functions.
**Nervous System**: Components include the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense
organs, such as the eyes and ears. Its functions involve generating action potentials (nerve
impulses) to regulate body activities, detecting changes in the body’s internal and external
environments, interpreting these changes, and responding by causing muscular
contractions or glandular secretions.**Endocrine System**: This system is made up of
hormone-producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid
gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes) and hormone-
producing cells in several other organs. It regulates body activities by releasing hormones,
which are chemical messengers transported in the blood from endocrine glands or tissues
to target [Link] System**: Components include blood, the heart, and blood
vessels. The heart pumps blood through these vessels, carrying oxygen and nutrients to
cells while removing carbon dioxide and wastes. It also helps regulate acid–base balance,
temperature, and water content of body fluids, with blood components aiding in disease
defense and repair of damaged blood vessels.**Lymphatic System and Immunity**: This
system consists of lymphatic fluid and vessels, the spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and
tonsils, as well as cells that carry out immune responses (B cells, T cells, and others). It
returns proteins and fluid to the blood, carries lipids from the gastrointestinal tract to the
blood, and contains sites for the maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that
protect against disease-causing microbes.**Respiratory System**: Components include the
lungs and air passageways such as the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea
(windpipe), and bronchial tubes. Its functions include transferring oxygen from inhaled air to
blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air, regulating the acid–base balance of
body fluids, and producing sounds as air flows out of the lungs through the vocal
cords.**Digestive System**: This system encompasses the organs of the gastrointestinal
tract, including the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and
anus, along with accessory organs such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
It achieves the physical and chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates
solid [Link] System**: Components include the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder,
and urethra. This system produces, stores, and eliminates urine, regulates the volume and
chemical composition of blood, maintains the acid–base balance of body fluids, preserves
the body’s mineral balance, and helps regulate the production of red blood cells.
**Reproductive Systems**: Comprising the gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) and
associated organs (uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands in females;
epididymides, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis in males), this system
produces gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism. Gonads also release
hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes, while associated organs
transport and store gametes, and mammary glands produce milk. Metabolism encompasses
all chemical processes occurring in the body, which can be divided into two categories:
**Catabolism**, the process of breaking down complex chemicals into simpler ones, and
**Anabolism**, the process of building complex chemicals from smaller units.
**Responsiveness** refers to the ability to detect and respond to internal or external
changes. **Movement** can involve the entire body or structures within the body.
**Growth** signifies an increase in body size, while **Differentiation** involves the
transformation of unspecialized cells (such as stem cells) into specialized cells with distinct
structures and functions. **Reproduction** includes the production of new cells for body
growth and repair, as well as for the generation of new individuals.**Homeostasis** is the
maintenance of relatively stable internal body conditions despite changes occurring inside
or outside the body. It is a dynamic process involving constant monitoring and adjustments
within normal limits. The body fluids constitute the internal environment that is regulated
in terms of composition, volume, pressure, and temperature.**Body Fluids** are classified
into two main categories: **Intracellular**, which refers to fluids within body cells, and
**Extracellular**, which is found outside body cells. Extracellular fluid can further be
divided into several types: **Interstitial fluid**, the fluid between cells within a tissue;
**Blood plasma**, the fluid in blood vessels; **Lymph**, the fluid in lymphatic vessels;
**Cerebrospinal fluid**, the fluid in the spaces of the central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord); and **Synovial fluid**, the fluid in the spaces of joints.
**Communication, Regulation, and Homeostasis** are essential processes for maintaining
the body's stability. **Homeostasis** can be disrupted by various sources, including
external environment stresses, internal environment stresses, and psychological stresses.
Regulation occurs through **nerve impulses**, which act rapidly, and **endocrine
hormones**, which operate more slowly.A **feedback system** is a cycle of events that
involves a controlled condition, which is a monitored body variable. It starts with a
**stimulus**, any disruption that changes the condition, and includes several components: -
**Receptor**: Monitors changes and sends input.- **Control center**: Evaluates input and
generates output.- **Effector**: Receives output and produces a response to change the
controlled condition.**Operation of a Feedback System** can involve two types of feedback
systems: **Negative Feedback**: In this system, the response of the effector causes a
physiological change that reverses the controlled condition change initiated by the stimulus,
returning the controlled condition to normal limits. An example is blood pressure
regulation.. **Positive Feedback**: Here, the response of the effector intensifies or
reinforces the controlled condition change initiated by the stimulus. This physiological
change continues until interrupted by a mechanism, after which homeostasis is restored. An
example is labor contractions.**Homeostasis Imbalances** can result in disorders, which
are any abnormalities of structure or function, or diseases, which are local or systemic
illnesses with specific characteristics. **Signs** are observable and measurable clinical
changes, while **symptoms** are subjective changes experienced by the patient. Both
negative and positive feedback loops play crucial roles in maintaining homeostasis and
 responding to imbalances in the body.**Homeostatic Systems** can be regulated by two
primary mechanisms: **Negative Feedback** and **Positive Feedback**.**Homeostatic
Systems Regulated by Negative Feedback** typically involve processes that reverse changes
in controlled conditions, thereby maintaining stability. These systems are crucial in
preserving [Link] contrast, **Homeostatic Systems Regulated by Positive
Feedback** work differently. A positive feedback mechanism regulates homeostasis by
moving the stimulus in the same direction, continuing until a climactic event occurs. This
type of feedback occurs less frequently than negative feedback. Examples of positive
feedback mechanisms include breastfeeding, the blood clotting cascade, and uterine
contractions during labor.**Homeostasis, Health, and Disease** highlight the
characteristics of homeostatic systems. They are dynamic, with the control center generally
being the nervous system or endocrine system. These systems consist of three components:
the receptor, control center, and effector. They are typically regulated through negative
feedback. Disease occurs when homeostatic mechanisms fail, such as in the case of
diabetes.**Homeostasis Imbalance** can lead to diseases, primarily due to two significant
sources: 1. Aging, which causes control systems to become less efficient, leading to a less
stable internal environment.2. Overwhelming of usual negative feedback mechanisms,
allowing destructive positive feedback mechanisms to take over.**Anatomical
Terminology** includes concepts such as **Anatomical Position**, which describes the
standard position of the body. The body can be divided into two main regions: **Axial** and
**Appendicular**. The anatomical position can also refer to specific orientations when lying
down, such as **Prone** (lying face down) and **Supine** (lying face up).
**Description: Anatomical Position and Specific Terms** outlines the standard
reference position for the body, known as the **Anatomical Position**. In this position, the body
is erect, facing forward, with the head level, feet flat and pointing forward, and arms at the sides
with palms facing forward. For reclining body positions, alternate terms include **Prone**,
which refers to lying face down, and **Supine**, which refers to lying face up. **Regional
Names** are terms in the form of adjectives for body parts, often derived from Greek or Latin
words. **Description: Directional Terms and Body Planes** includes **Directional Terms**,
which describe the position of one body part relative to another. These terms help in
understanding the spatial relationships between different body parts.
**Body Planes** are imaginary flat surfaces that divide the body or body parts into sections.
**Body Cavities** serve to protect, separate, and support internal organs. These cavities
include- **Dorsal Cavity**: - **Cranial Cavity**: Contains the brain.- **Vertebral Cavity**:
Contains the spinal cor- **Ventral Cavity**: - **Thoracic Cavity**: Superior to the diaphragm
- **Pericardial Cavity**: Contains the heart. - **Pleural Cavity**: Contains the right or left
lung. - **Abdominopelvic Cavity**: Inferior to the diaphragm. - **Abdominal Cavity**:
Contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine-
**Pelvic Cavity**: Contains the urinary bladder, the inferior part of the large intestine, and
reproductive organs. These anatomical terms and descriptions are essential for accurately
communicating the structure and function of the human [Link] **Thoracic Cavity** is lined
by **Serous Membranes**, which consist of a **Parietal Layer** lining the cavity walls and a
**Visceral Layer** covering the organs, with **Serous Fluid** between them for lubrication.
Key serous membranes include the pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum, while some organs like
the kidneys are **Retroperitoneal**, located behind the peritoneum. The **Abdominopelvic
Region** is categorized into **9 anatomical regions** using horizontal and vertical lines and
into **4 clinical quadrants** for medical assessment. Moving into **Chapter 4**, the **Tissue
Level of Organization** describes **Tissue** as groups of similar cells with a shared function,
studied in **Histology** by **Pathologists**. Tissues are classified as **Epithelial**,
**Connective**, **Muscle**, and **Nervous**. **Epithelial Tissue** features tightly packed
cells with an **apical surface** facing the environment and a **basal surface** attached to a
**basement membrane**. It exhibits characteristics such as **cellularity**, **polarity**,
**avascularity**, and **regeneration**, serving functions like protection, secretion, and
absorption. Types of epithelial tissue include **Simple Squamous**, **Simple Cuboidal**, and
**Simple Columnar Epithelium**, each with specific locations and roles in the body.
**Mesothelium** is referred to the epithelium that lines the serous membrane like pleurae,
peritoneum, and pericardium, while **Endothelium** is the epithelium that lines the blood
vessels, heart, and lymphatic vessels. **Connective Tissue** consists of two basic elements:
extracellular matrix, which is the material between cells, and widely spaced cells. Most
connective tissues are vascular, with good blood supply; exceptions include cartilage and
tendons. The functions of connective tissue include binding, supporting, and strengthening other
body tissues, as well as protecting, insulating, and compartmentalizing structures. The
**extracellular matrix** contains ground substance composed of water, proteins, and
polysaccharides called glycosaminoglycans, which supports embedded cells while allowing for
material exchange. Additionally, protein fibers embedded in the ground substance include
collagen, which is strong and flexible; elastic fibers, which can stretch and recoil back to shape;
and reticular fibers, which form a fine, branching collagen network that supports soft organs.
The major types of connective tissue include **Loose Connective Tissue** (like areolar,
adipose, and reticular) and **Dense Connective Tissue** (including dense regular, dense
irregular, and elastic connective tissues). Key cells in connective tissue are fibroblasts, which
are large flat cells with branching processes and usually the most common type of cell;
macrophages, which are phagocytic cells; mast cells, which are inflammatory cells; adipocytes,
which store fat; and white blood cells, which are involved in immune defense.
In terms of epithelial and connective tissues, epithelial cells are tightly packed with intracellular
junctions and are avascular, typically forming surface layers toward inside or outside spaces.
**Membranes** are flat sheets of flexible tissue that cover or line body structures, with
epithelial membranes composed of an epithelial layer and an underlying connective tissue layer,
including mucous membranes, serous membranes, and cutaneous membranes. **Muscle
Tissue** is composed of elongated cells called muscle fibers that generate force to produce body
movements, maintain posture, and generate heat. The three main types of muscle tissue are
skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.**Nervous Tissue** consists of neurons that
convert stimuli into electrical signals conducted to other neurons, muscle cells, or glands, and it
includes neuroglial cells that support neurons. Tissue repair is the process of replacing worn-
out, damaged, or dead cells with healthy ones, with epithelial cells having a capacity for
continuous renewal, while connective tissues have varying capacities for renewal. Muscle and
nervous tissues have poor capacities for cell renewal, but stem cells can divide for repair. Good
nutrition and blood circulation are vital for tissue repair.**Tissue Regeneration** occurs when
the functioning part of a tissue or organ participates in cell renewal, allowing for fully
functioning repair. In contrast, **Fibrosis** involves the supporting connective tissue of an
organ participating in cell renewal, resulting in fibroblasts producing scar tissue, which can
impair function. Extensive tissue damage often results in new blood capillaries and granulation
tissue spreading over the wound.
The **Integumentary System** is composed of the skin, hair, skin glands, and nails, providing
protection and sensing the surrounding environment. The skin, the largest organ in the body,
consists of two principal parts: the epidermis, which is thin and superficial, and the dermis,
which is thicker and deeper. The skin rests on the hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) that stores
fat and contains large blood vessels. The epidermis contains various cells, including
keratinocytes, which are the most numerous and produce protective keratin protein;
melanocytes, which produce the pigment melanin for UV protection; Langerhans cells, which
are involved in immune response; and Merkel cells, which are involved in touch sensation.
The epidermis is organized into strata, with the stratum basale being the deepest layer
containing stem cells that produce new keratinocytes. The subsequent layers include the stratum
spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum, with each layer playing
a role in the skin's protective functions. Growth of the epidermis occurs as stratum basale cells
undergo division, pushing newly formed cells upward. Keratinization refers to metabolically
active cells undergoing protein synthesis, leading to keratin accumulation as cells move closer to
the surface. The dermis, composed of dense irregular connective tissue with collagen and elastic
fibers, provides tensile strength, extensibility, and elasticity, and is divided into the papillary and
reticular [Link] color is influenced by pigments such as melanin, carotene, and
hemoglobin, with the amount of melanin synthesized varying among individuals. Accessory skin
structures include hair, which consists of dead keratinized epidermal cells, skin glands such as
sebaceous and sudoriferous glands, and nails that protect the distal surfaces of fingers and toes.
Skin functions include regulation of body temperature, serving as a blood reservoir, providing
protection, allowing cutaneous sensations, facilitating excretion and absorption, and
synthesizing Vitamin [Link] processes involve superficial and deep wound healing, with
superficial healing characterized by the migration of stratum basale cells to cover the wound
and deep wound healing involving inflammatory, migratory, proliferative, and maturation
phases. **Glandular Epithelia** are classified into endocrine and exocrine glands based on the
site of product release and can be unicellular or multicellular. Endocrine glands are ductless
and secrete hormones, while exocrine glands release secretions onto body surfaces or into
cavities. Unicellular exocrine glands like goblet cells produce mucus, while multicellular glands
are classified by structure and type of secretion, including merocrine, holocrine, and apocrine
[Link] disorders can be diagnosed through changes in skin color, such as cyanosis,
erythema, pallor, jaundice, bronzing, and bruises. Skin cancer, the most common type of cancer,
can arise from overexposure to UV radiation, with three major types being basal cell carcinoma,
squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. Burns are classified by severity, with critical cases
needing careful evaluation and treatment, including debridement, antibiotics, temporary
coverings, and skin grafts. Critical if >25% of body has second-degree burns, >10% of body has
third-degree burns, or face, hands, or feet bear third-degree burns. Treatment includes
debridement (removal) of burned skin, antibiotics, temporary covering, and skin grafts.

Sure! Here’s the extracted text from the presentation in a single paragraph, exactly as it
appeared:

Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All
rights reserved. Introduction: Tissue – A group of similar cells that have the same specialized
function and embryonic origin. Histology – Science of tissues. Pathologist – Physician who
studies cells and tissues to help diagnose diseases. Tissue Classification: Epithelial tissue –
Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, and forms glands. Connective tissue – Binds organs
together, stores energy, and participates in body defenses. Muscle tissue – Produces the physical
force for body movements. Nervous tissue – Detects and responds to changes in internal and
external body conditions. Tissue Cell Junctions: Points of contact between adjacent plasma
membranes of cells within a tissue. Tight junctions – Form fluid-tight seals between cells.
Desmosomes – Anchor cells to one another or to the basement membrane. Gap junctions –
Permit electrical and chemical signals to pass between cells. Epithelial Tissue: Continuous sheet
of cells that form protective barrier on body surfaces and passageways. Apical surface – Free
surface facing body cavity, lumen, or surface. Basal surface – Opposite, deep surface that
adheres to an extracellular material. Basement membrane – Extracellular material that attaches
the epithelial tissue to underlying connective tissue. Characteristics of Epithelia: Cellularity (cell
junctions), Polarity (apical and basal surfaces), Attachment, Avascularity, Regeneration.
Epithelial Tissue: Avascular – Relies on diffusion from underlying connective tissue blood
vessels for obtaining nutrients and removing wastes. Functions: Protection, filtration, secretion,
absorption, and excretion. Two major types: Covering and lining – form outer part of skin and
some organs. Glandular – form secreting portion of glands. Covering and Lining Epithelial:
Classified by two structural characteristics. Arrangement of cells in layers: Simple epithelium,
Pseudostratified epithelium, Stratified epithelium. Cell shape: Squamous cells, Cuboidal cells,
Columnar cells, Transitional cells. Simple Squamous Epithelium: Description – Single layer of
broad, flat cells. Endothelium – lining blood and lymph vessels and heart. Mesothelium – of
serous membranes. Functions: Filtration and diffusion. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium: Description
– Single layer of cube-shaped cells. Functions: Secretion and absorption. Simple Columnar
Epithelium: Description – Single layer of tall, column-shaped cells that can be nonciliated with
microvilli or ciliated. Functions: Absorption and secretion; if cilia present, sweep material across
their apical surface. Pseudostratified Epithelium: Description – Single layer of nonciliated or
ciliated cells attached to basement membrane but appears falsely stratified because nuclei are at
different depths and not all have apical surface. Functions: Cilia sweep away mucus with trapped
foreign particles; nonciliated for absorption and protection. Stratified Squamous Epithelium:
Description – Flat apical layer cells with more cuboidal basal cells that continually divide. Two
types: keratinized or nonkeratinized. Functions: Protects against abrasion, water loss, ultraviolet
radiation, and foreign invasion. Transitional Epithelium: Description – Variable appearance with
flat apical cells in response to stretch, returning to rounder appearance when pressure subsides.
Functions: Maintain protective lining while allowing organs to stretch to hold variable amounts
of fluid without rupturing. Glandular Epithelial: Classified into two types of glands. Endocrine –
Secrete hormones, Enter interstitial fluid and then blood. Exocrine – Secretory products, Enter
duct that empties onto skin surface or into lumen of an organ. Endocrine Gland Epithelium:
Description – Often cuboidal cells inside gland secrete to interstitial fluid. Functions: Secreted
hormones regulate metabolism and maintain homeostasis. Exocrine Gland Epithelium:
Description – Often cuboidal cells lining ducts that empty onto surface of covering and lining
epithelium. Functions: Produce substances such as sweat, oil, earwax, saliva, and digestive
enzymes. Mesothelium and Endothelium: Mesothelium – referred to the epithelium that lines the
serous membrane like pleurae, peritoneum, and pericardium. Endothelium – referred to the
epithelium that lines the blood vessels, heart, and lymphatic vessels. Connective Tissue: Consists
of two basic elements – Extracellular matrix (material between cells) and Cells (widely spaced).
Most are vascular, with good blood supply. Exceptions include: cartilage and tendons. Functions:
Binding, supporting, and strengthening other body tissues; Protecting, insulating, and
compartmentalizing structures. Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix: Ground substance –
Composed of water, proteins, and polysaccharides called glycosaminoglycans. Supports
embedded cells while allowing for material exchange. Protein fibers embedded in ground
substance: Collagen – strong, flexible, often packed in parallel bundles of collagen protein.
Elastic – elastin protein can stretch and recoil back to shape. Reticular – fine, branching collagen
network that forms supporting framework for soft organs. Connective Tissue Cells: Fibroblasts –
Large flat cells with branching processes, usually most common type of cell. Immature (“-blast”)
cells produce ground substance and fibers, and undergo cell division. Some mature (“-cyte”)
cells differentiate and maintain matrix. Macrophages – phagocytic cells. Mast cells –
inflammatory cells. Adipocytes – fat-storing cells. White blood cells – immune defense cells.
Mature Connective Tissue Types: Loose Connective (Areolar, Adipose, Reticular). Dense
Connective (Dense regular, Dense irregular, Elastic connective). Cartilage (Hyaline,
Fibrocartilage, Elastic cartilage). Osseous (bone). Liquid (Blood, Lymph). Areolar Connective:
Description – Fibroblasts and many other types of cells with loosely intertwined collagen,
elastic, and reticular fibers in semi-fluid ground substance. Functions: Most widely distributed
for strength, elasticity, and support. Adipose Connective: Description – Large triglyceride (fat)
droplet with cytoplasm and nucleus pushed to periphery of cell. Functions: Energy reserve,
insulation, and supports and protects organs. Reticular Connective: Description – Cells spaced
between fine, interlacing reticular fibers. Functions: Forms supporting framework of organs and
forms net to capture microbes and worn-out blood cells. Dense Regular Connective: Description
– Regularly arranged parallel bundles of collagen fiber with few fibroblasts. Functions: Strong
attachment between structures. Dense Irregular Connective: Description – Irregularly arranged
bundles of collagen fiber with few fibroblasts. Functions: Tensile (pulling) strength in many
directions. Elastic Connective: Description – Predominantly elastic fibers with fibroblasts
between. Functions: Allows stretching and recoil to original shape after being stretched. Hyaline
Cartilage: Description – Chondrocytes found in lacunae (spaces) within resilient gel ground
substance; fine collagen fibers not visible. Functions: Reduces friction and absorbs shock at
joints, provides flexibility and support. Fibrocartilage: Description – Chondrocytes found in
lacunae (spaces) within resilient gel ground substance and thick bundles of collagen fibers.
Functions: Strong and resilient support and joining structures together. Elastic Cartilage:
Description – Chondrocytes found in lacunae (spaces) within resilient gel ground substance with
network of elastic fibers. Functions: Provide strength and elasticity, help maintain shape of
structures. Osseous Tissue: Description – Osteocytes found in lacunae (spaces) within solid
ground substance with mineral salts and collagen fibers. Functions: Support, protection, and
storage, and provides leverage for movement of body by muscles. Blood Tissue: Description –
Various types of cells suspended in liquid extracellular matrix (plasma). Functions: Transport
and protection by phagocytosis and immunity. Compare Epithelial and Connective Tissues:
Epithelial – Cells tightly packed with intracellular junctions, Avascular, Typically form surface
layers toward inside or outside space. Connective – Relatively few cells embedded in
extracellular material, Vascular, Typically fill spaces, support, and connect structures.
Membranes: Flat sheets of flexible tissue that cover or line a body structure. Epithelial
membranes – composed of an epithelial layer and underlying connective tissue layer. Mucous
membrane – mucosa and lamina propria (areolar C.T). Serous membrane – mesothelium and
areolar C.T form parietal and visceral layers and produce fluid. Cutaneous membrane –
epidermis and dermis. Synovial membranes – line joint cavities, lack epithelium, and produce
fluid. Muscle Tissue: Composed of elongated cells called muscle fibers. Generate force to
produce body movements, maintain posture, and generate heat. Three main types: Skeletal
muscle, Cardiac muscle, Smooth muscle. Skeletal Muscle Tissue: Description – Long
cylindrical, striated, with many nuclei at the periphery of the cell. Voluntary control. Functions:
Motion, posture, heat production, and protection. Cardiac Muscle Tissue: Description –
Branched, striated, with usually one centrally located nucleus; attached end-to-end by special
intercalated discs. Involuntary control. Functions: Pumps blood to all parts of the body. Smooth
Muscle Tissue: Description – Small, tapering end cell with single nucleus in thickest middle of
cell. Involuntary control. Functions: Motion of substances in hollow organs, and contraction of
iris of eye. Nervous Tissue: Neurons – Convert stimuli to electrical signals that they conduct to
other neurons, muscle cells, or glands. Three parts: Cell body (with nucleus), Dendrites
(extensions), Axon (single, elongated extension). Neuroglial cells – Support neurons. Description
– Cell body with extensions, surrounded by neuroglial cells. Functions: Sensitive to stimuli,
convert to nerve impulse, and conducts to other cells. Tissue Repair: Process of replacing worn-
out, damaged, or dead cells with healthy ones. Epithelial cells have capacity for continuous
renewal. Connective tissues have different capacities for renewal, from complete to minimal.
Muscle and nervous tissue have poor capacity for cell renewal. Stem cells, found in some tissues,
are immature, undifferentiated cells that can divide for repair. Good nutrition and blood
circulation are vital to tissue repair. Tissue Regeneration: When the functioning part of a tissue
or organ, called the parenchyma, participates in cell renewal, fully functioning repair is possible.
Fibrosis: When supporting connective tissue of an organ, called stroma, participates in cell
renewal. Fibroblasts produce scar tissue and function is impaired. Extensive tissue damage
involves both, resulting in new blood capillaries and granulation tissue spreading over wound.
End of Chapter 4.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights
reserved. Introduction: Composed of skin, hair, skin glands, and nails. Protects the body and
senses the surrounding environment. Skin - Cutaneous Membrane: Largest organ in the body.
Two principal parts: Epidermis - thin, superficial; Dermis - thicker, deep. Skin rests on
hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) that stores fat and has large blood vessels. Cells of the
Epidermis: Keratinocytes - Most numerous, arranged in layers or strata. Produce protective
keratin protein and lamellar granules which release waterproofing substance. Melanocytes -
Produce pigment melanin protein for protection from ultraviolet light. Langerhans cells -
Immune response. Merkel tactile cells - Function with Merkel disc of dermis for touch.
Epidermis Strata - Deep to Superficial: Stratum basale - Contains keratinocytes, melanocytes,
and Merkel cells. Some stem cells divide and produce new keratinocytes which get pushed up.
Stratum spinosum - Multiple layers of many-sided keratinocytes and Langerhans cells, with
some projections from melanocytes. Stratum granulosum - Flattened, degrading cells with
lamellar granules and keratin. Stratum lucidum - Clear, flat, dead cells only in fingertips, palms,
and soles. Stratum corneum - Flat, dead keratinocyte layers sloughing off. Growth of Epidermis:
Stratum basale cells undergo cell division to produce new keratinocytes closest to dermal blood
vessels for oxygen and nutrients. Newly formed cells pushed up to next strata. Keratinization:
Metabolically active cells undergo protein synthesis. Keratin accumulates as cell moves closer to
surface. Dead, surface strata keratinocytes slough off and are continually replaced from deeper
strata. Dermis: Dense irregular connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers gives properties.
Tensile strength - resistance to pulling forces. Extensibility - ability to stretch. Elasticity - ability
to return to original shape after stretching. Two principal regions: Papillary - increased surface
area with dermal papillae projecting upward, forming ridges with epidermis (fingerprints and
footprints). Reticular - connects to hypodermis. Papillary structures: Meissner corpuscles and
other corpuscles of touch. Capillary loops - blood capillaries. Free nerve endings - temperature,
pain, itching. Reticular structures: Variety of cells - fibroblasts, adipose cells, and macrophages.
Blood vessels and nerves; smooth muscle. Epidermal hair follicles and glands extend into this
region. Skin Color - Pigments: Melanin - Number of melanocytes same among people. Amount
of melanin protein synthesized varies. Carotene - Dietary source yellow-orange pigment.
Hemoglobin - Oxygen-carrying red pigment in blood cells is visible through skin in dermal
blood vessels. Oxygen level and dilation/constriction of vessels can change color visible.
Accessory Skin Structures: Hair - Dead, keratinized epidermal cells held together by
extracellular proteins. Skin glands - Several kinds of epidermal exocrine glands: Sebaceous (oil),
Eccrine (sweat), Apocrine (sweat with lipids and proteins), Ceruminous (ear wax). Nails -
Tightly packed, hard, dead, flat keratinocytes. Hair: Present on most skin surfaces except lips,
palms, soles, and parts of external genitalia. Thickness and pattern determined by hormones and
genetics. Limited protection from sunlight, heat loss, and foreign particles. Associated hair root
plexus nerve ending is sensitive to touch. Associated arrector pili dermal smooth muscle
contracts to stand hair perpendicular. Hair Anatomy: Regions: Shaft - projects from skin surface.
Root - penetrates into the dermis (dermal root sheath). Enlarged base forms bulb with matrix and
papilla. Hair follicle surrounds root. External root sheath - epidermal cell extension. Internal root
sheath - produced by bulb matrix. Concentric layers: Medulla - hair pigment, air spaces between
cells. Cortex - elongated cells, major part of hair. Cuticle - single flat layer of cells arranged like
shingles. Glands of the Skin: Sebaceous - Secrete oily sebum into hair follicle and onto skin
surface, except palms and soles. Lubricates hair and skin, prevents water loss, and some bacterial
inhibition. Sudoriferous: Eccrine - sweat for temperature regulation, waste removal, and released
during emotional stress. Apocrine - limited to axillae, groin, and areola; ducts open into hair
follicle during emotional stress or sexual excitement. Ceruminous - only in ear canal. Nails:
Cover and protect the dorsal, distal surfaces of fingers and toes; also grasp and scratch. Regions:
Body - visible portion of nail. Free edge - extends past distal end of digit. Root - buried under
skin fold. Epithelial matrix deep to root is area of actively dividing cells for nail growth. Lunula -
whiter area of nail body over deeper matrix area obscuring vascular tissue (pink). Cuticle -
Epidermal band overlapping edge of nail body. Thin and Thick of Skin: Thick skin - only on
palms, soles, and palmar portion of fingers and toes. Thin skin - everywhere else. Skin
Functions: Regulation of body temperature - Evaporation of sweat and blood flow regulation.
Blood reservoir. Protection - Physical barrier, prevent dehydration, lubrication, antibacterial,
block damaging UV rays, phagocytosis of microbes. Cutaneous sensations. Excretion (wastes)
and absorption (fat-soluble substances and gases). Synthesis of Vitamin D (UV rays activate
precursor). Superficial Epidermal Wound Healing: Abrasions and minor burns. Surrounding
stratum basale cells break contact with basement membrane and migrate to cover the wound area
until contacting other migrating basal cells. Epidermal growth factor stimulates stratum basale
cell division to replace migrated cells. After contact, all cells continue cell division to build new
epidermal layers. Deep Wound Healing: Damage extends into dermis and hypodermis.
Inflammatory phase: Blood clot unites wound edges. Vasodilation and increased permeability of
blood vessels enhance phagocytosis of foreign particles. Migratory phase: Epithelial cells
migrate to form bridge under scab from blood clot, fibroblasts migrate into remaining area to
form granulation tissue, and new blood vessels form. Proliferative phase: Continued growth and
repair. Maturation phase: Scab sloughs off; fibrosis can form scar. End of Chapter 5. Copyright
2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work
beyond that permitted in section 117 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act without express
permission of the copyright owner is unlawful. Requests for further information should be
addressed to the Permission Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. The purchaser may make
back-up copies for his/her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The Publishers assume
no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from
the use of the information herein.

Glandular Epithelia. A gland is one or more cells that make and secrete an aqueous fluid called a
secretion. Glands are classified by the site of product release, either endocrine or exocrine, and
by the relative number of cells forming the gland, which can be unicellular (e.g., goblet cells) or
multicellular. Endocrine glands are ductless glands with secretions not released into a duct. They
secrete hormones via exocytosis that travel through lymph or blood to their specific target
organs, which respond in some characteristic way. Exocrine glands release their secretions onto
body surfaces (like skin) or into body cavities. These glands are more numerous than endocrine
glands and secrete products into ducts. Examples include mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands.
Unicellular exocrine glands include mucous cells and goblet cells, which are found in epithelial
linings of the intestinal and respiratory tracts. These glands produce mucin, which dissolves in
water to form mucus, a slimy protective, lubricating coating. Multicellular exocrine glands are
composed of a duct and a secretory unit, usually surrounded by supportive connective tissue that
supplies blood and nerve fibers. This connective tissue extends into the gland and divides it into
lobes. Multicellular glands are classified by their structure and type of secretion. Structurally,
glands can be simple (unbranched duct) or compound (branched duct), with cells that can be
tubular, alveolar, or tubuloalveolar. In terms of secretion type, there are three categories:
merocrine, holocrine, and apocrine. Merocrine glands are the most common and secrete products
by exocytosis as they are produced, like pancreatic acinar cells. Holocrine glands accumulate
products within their cells and then rupture, such as sebaceous glands in the skin. Apocrine
glands accumulate their products within the cell, and only the apex ruptures; there is some
controversy regarding whether these glands exist in humans, though an example is the secretion
of fat droplets by mammary glands. Glands can also be classified based on structure: simple
tubular glands, like intestinal glands; simple branched tubular glands, like gastric glands in the
stomach; compound tubular glands, like duodenal glands of the small intestine; simple alveolar
glands, which have no significant example in humans; simple branched alveolar glands, like
sebaceous (oil) glands; compound alveolar glands, like mammary glands; and compound
tubuloalveolar glands, like salivary [Link] Tissue:1. Simple Squamous Epithelial –
Functions in diffusion and filtration with a single layer of thin, flat cells and broad, thin nuclei.
Located in alveoli, capillary walls, blood vessels, and the Bowman’s capsule of the
[Link] Cuboidal Epithelial – A single layer of cube-shaped cells with centrally located
spherical nuclei. It functions in secretion and absorption, lining kidney tubules, ducts of glands,
and covering ovaries.. Simple Columnar Epithelial (microvilli, goblet cells, ciliated and non-
ciliated) – Protects tissues, secretes digestive fluids, and absorbs nutrients. Microvilli increase
surface area for absorption. It lines the uterus, ovarian tubes (ciliated), and digestive organs (non-
ciliated).4. Pseudo-stratified Columnar Epithelial (ciliated and non-ciliated) – Appears layered
due to nuclei at different levels. Goblet cells secrete mucus, and cilia sweep away particles. It
lines respiratory passages (ciliated) and reproductive structures like the epididymis and vas
deferens (non-ciliated).. Stratified Squamous Epithelial (keratinized and non-keratinized)
Protects against water loss, chemicals, and microorganisms. The thick tissue has layers of cells,
with surface cells being keratinized in skin. Non-keratinized tissue lines the mouth, throat,
vagina, and anal canal.6. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelial – Composed of two or three layers of
cuboidal cells that provide protection. It lines larger ducts of mammary glands, salivary glands,
pancreas, and sweat [Link] Epithelial – Consists of several layers of cuboidal cells
that stretch. It provides an expandable lining and prevents diffusion from the urinary tract, lining
the ureters, urethra, and bladder.. Stratified Columnar Epithelial – Provides protection with
superficial elongated cells and basal cube-shaped cells. It is found in the male urethra. Glandular
Epithelium – Produces and secretes substances into ducts or body fluids. It is found within
columnar and cuboidal epithelial tissue, where one or more cells form [Link] Tissue
Proper (Loose):1. Loose (Areolar) Tissue – Binds skin to underlying organs and fills spaces
between muscles with fibroblasts and a gel-like matrix. Located beneath epithelial layers..
Adipose Tissue (Fat) – Cushions joints, insulates, and stores energy with fat-storing cells. Found
beneath skin, between muscles, and around kidneys.3. Reticular Tissue – Forms a soft internal
skeleton (stroma) supporting immune cells with a network of reticular fibers. Located in lymph
nodes, bone marrow, spleen, and [Link] Tissue Proper (Dense):1. Dense Regular –
Attaches muscles to bones or muscles and bones to bones. Parallel collagen fibers handle tensile
stress. Found in tendons, ligaments, and aponeuroses.2. Dense Irregular – Provides structural
strength with irregularly arranged collagen fibers. Found in joint capsules, dermis, and digestive
tract [Link] Tissue – Supports tissue recoil with elastic fibers. Found in large
arteries, ligaments, and bronchial [Link] Tissue Specific (Cartilage):1. Hyaline
Cartilage – Supports and cushions with firm collagen fibers. Found in the embryonic skeleton,
joint surfaces, ribs, nose, trachea, and larynx.2. Fibrocartilage – Absorbs compressive shock with
thick collagen fibers. Located in intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, and knee menisci.3.
Elastic Cartilage – Maintains shape while being flexible with elastic fibers. Found in the external
ear and [Link] Tissue Specific (Bone or Osseous):. Compact Bone (Cortical) –
Supports, protects, stores minerals, and provides muscle attachment. Osteocytes are arranged in
concentric circles.2. Spongy Bone (Trabecular/Cancellous) – Less dense with red marrow for
hematopoiesis. Found in long bone ends, vertebrae, and flat [Link] Tissue Specific
(Blood):• Transports gases, nutrients, and wastes while maintaining homeostasis. Formed in red
bone marrow and present within blood [Link] Tissue Specific (Lymph):• Transports
fats and large molecules to the cardiovascular system and returns tissue fluid to circulation.
Contains white blood cells and is found within lymphatic [Link] Tissue:1. Skeletal
Muscle – Voluntarily moves the head, trunk, limbs, and facial expressions. It is composed of
long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells attached to bones.2. Smooth Muscle – Involuntary tissue
moving food through the digestive tract. It consists of short, spindle-shaped cells with central
nuclei and no striations, found in hollow organ walls.3. Cardiac Muscle – Involuntary muscle
that pumps blood through the heart and vessels. It contains branching, striated cells with
intercalated discs, found only in the [Link] Tissue: Neurons transmit electrical signals to
and from sensory receptors, muscles, and glands. These branching cells have long processes
extending from a nucleus-containing body. Supporting neuroglial cells protect and assist
neurons. Found in the brain, spinal cord, ganglia, and nerves.