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Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies for Beef Cattle V:

Type and Breed Characteristics and Uses

A 1700s painting of the

foundation cow of an
early cattle breed. (Source:
Michigan State University
Animal Science Department)

Stephen P. Hammack*

T he subject of breeds intrigues most beef cattle pro-

ducers. However, breeds are only part of a genetic
strategy, which should include:
• Matching applicable performance or functional levels
to environmental, management, and marketing condi-
some authorities now classify them as Bos taurus, subspecies
taurus, and Bos taurus, subspecies indicus, or simply call
them taurine and indicine.
Cattle are not native to the western hemisphere; the Bos
taurus in the United States originally came from the Brit-
tions ish Isles and western continental Europe. Although the Bos
• Choosing a breeding system, either continuous (in indicus originated in south central Asia, most in the United
which replacement females are produced within the States came by way of Brazil.
herd) or terminal (in which replacements are intro-
Although it has no strict biological definition, a breed
duced externally)
can be described as a group of animals of common origin
• Selecting functional types, breeds within types, and
with certain distinguishing characteristics that are passed
individuals within breeds that are compatible with the
performance levels needed and breeding system cho- *Professor and Extension Beef Cattle Specialist–Emeritus, The Texas A&M University
sen System

Genetic classifications and breeds

Cattle have been divided into two basic classifications,
Bos taurus (non-humped) or Bos indicus (humped, also
called Zebu). Because these two types readily interbreed,
 from parent to offspring. Breed characteristics result Milking potential
from both natural selection and from that imposed by Milking potential is the genetic capability to pro-
people. duce milk. It is not the actual volume of milk produced,
Most breeds have registry associations that record which is also influenced by the cow’s nutrition and the
ancestry, define and document characteristics, and pro- calf’s nursing pressure.
mote the breed. About 75 breeds have registry associa- Estimate milking potential in relation to body size.
tions in the United States. Higher-milking females need more nutrients for body
For a discussion of breed development, see another maintenance and require higher-quality diets, even
publication in this series by the Texas A&M AgriLife when not lactating. Again, see Texas Adapted Genetic
Extension Service, Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies for Strategies for Beef Cattle—III: Body Size and Milking
Beef Cattle—VI: Creating Breeds. Level.

Functional traits or characteristics Age at puberty

The major functional traits that are important in beef Age at puberty relates to body size, milking poten-
production in Texas are body size and growth, milking tial, and genetic classification. Smaller individuals and
potential, age at puberty, hot climate adaptability, flesh- higher milking types usually mature earlier; Bos indicus
ing ability, muscle expression, cutability, and marbling. mature relatively late. Although higher milking females,
The estimates of functional trait levels listed below are even large ones, often reach puberty and conceive
based on breed averages; individuals can vary consider- when relatively young, their subsequent reproductive
ably within breeds. performance can suffer because they may become thin
after beginning lactation and therefore be slow to start
Body size and growth cycling. While Bos indicus types reach puberty relatively
Inherent body size is best evaluated as weight at late, their productive life is usually longer.
the same level of body condition or fatness. However,
growth or rate of gain is often evaluated over time-con- Heat tolerance
stant periods or to the same age; this type of comparison The cattle best adapted hot climates are those with
can produce differences in fatness among individuals of Bos indicus inheritance. However, to a lesser degree,
different functional types or breeds within types. some Bos taurus animals do have heat tolerance, espe-
As a result, evaluations of rate of gain and feed effi- cially those with dark skin and lighter-colored short hair
ciency over time- or age-constant periods often differ coats.
from evaluations of cattle at the same level of fatness. High humidity intensifies the effects of heat because
Genetically larger, later-maturing animals generally it decreases the ability of respiration to reduce heat load.
gain faster and more efficiently than do smaller, earlier Also, hot, humid climates often add the stresses of para-
maturing animals over time- or age-constant periods sites and low-quality forage. Heat with high humidity
but often not when fed to the same level of fatness. will stress cattle that fail to shed long, thick hair coats,
Weight also correlates closely with nutritional require- particularly those that are dark colored.
ments for body maintenance. As might be expected, animals tolerant to hot cli-
Although there are individual exceptions, cattle that mates are relatively less adapted to cold.
are heavier at birth tend to be heavier throughout life.
An important exception is in Bos indicus. Calves of Bos Fleshing ability/fatness
indicus dams, even by Bos taurus sires, tend to be rela- Fleshing ability, or inherent fatness, is the body’s
tively smaller at birth than later in life, usually resulting capacity to fatten and retain fat. Fleshing ability tends to
in fewer difficulties in calving. However, calves by Bos decrease with rises in maintenance requirements rela-
indicus sires out of Bos taurus dams often are relatively tive to body size, milking level, or muscularity. Also,
large at birth, so calving may be more difficult. larger animals may be unable to consume enough forage
Size is discussed in Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies when it is sparse, thus reducing fatness. Animals poorly
for Beef Cattle—III: Body Size and Milking Level. Frame adapted to their environment generally are less able to
score, an objective measure of skeletal dimension used maintain and increase flesh.
to estimate current and future body size, is discussed Compared to Bos taurus, Bos indicus often flesh
in Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies for Beef Cattle—X: more easily on low-quality forage and roughage. Easy-
Frame Score and Weight. fleshing cattle may better tolerate periods of nutritional
2
energy deficiency and, therefore, may reproduce more For yearly updates of breed genetic trends calculated
consistently. However, they may also over-fatten more each July by MARC, see the Beef Improvement Federa-
readily in the feedyard unless they are fed for a shorter tion Proceedings at [Link]. Use the pro-
period than is typical. portions of the constituent breeds to estimate the char-
acteristics of multi-breed cattle.
Muscle expression
Differences in some functional levels among breeds
Muscle expression is inherent muscularity relative to have changed over the years. This is particularly true
body size. Muscling is the second most important fac- when comparing Continental breeds to other types.
tor in cutability, or leanness. Some heavy-muscled types Compared to the existing breeds, most of the Conti-
may also have less fleshing ability, which reduces their nental breeds that came to the United States in the late
reproductive efficiency. 1960s and 1970s were considerably larger and, in some
cases, notably higher in milk production. Since then,
Cutability
some of these differences have diminished or even
Cutability is usually evaluated in beef carcasses as disappeared as increased weight and milk have been
USDA Yield Grade. Cutability depends on the relative emphasized in selection of breeding stock within exist-
proportions of fat (which varies most), muscle, and bone ing breeds.
(which varies least).
There is no “best” type or breed for beef production
Cutability is most commonly evaluated over time- because of extensive variation in climates, production
constant feeding periods; in this type of evaluation, the conditions, and market preferences. These factors often
animals that grow faster and mature later tend to be cause differences in optimal functional levels of all
higher in cutability. However, producers can manipulate traits.
fatness, and therefore cutability, by varying nutrition
For more information, see Texas Adapted Genetic
and length of feeding.
Strategies for Beef Cattle—II: Genetic-Environmental
Marbling Interaction.
Marbling, or intramuscular fat, is the primary factor Following is a list of the types and most numerous
determining USDA Quality Grade, an indicator of the breeds in Texas, presented alphabetically within type,
palatability factors of tenderness, juiciness, and flavor. and their best uses based on functional characteristics.
Marbling increases with age up to physiological matu- Keep in mind that individual animals within a breed
rity and generally is higher in earlier-maturing types. can vary considerably.
Marbling can generally be increased by feeding high- • British Beef
energy rations for extended periods starting early in life. The British Beef type consists of British-originated
Bos indicus and most heavy-muscled, later-maturing breeds that were developed and used for beef pro-
duction only: Angus, Hereford, Red Angus, and
types tend to have relatively low marbling. Because
Shorthorn. British Beef are widely applicable, with
marbling tends to increase with overall body fatness,
some limits in subtropical and, especially, tropical
comparing types or breeds usually involves a trade-
climates. These breeds are the most numerous in
off between Yield Grade and Quality Grade. As one the U.S. beef herd.
improves, the other tends to decline. Also, as with cut-
Producers who use only one breed, i.e., for
ability, marbling can be affected by nutrition and length
straightbreeding, often choose a British breed. To
of feeding. take advantage of hybrid vigor, cross them with
For a discussion of carcass genetic considerations, other breeds of this type or with any other type.
see Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies for Beef Cattle—IX: British breeds are suitable for general-purpose pro-
Selection for Carcass Merit. duction as well as for both the dam and sire sides of
a terminal cross, depending on the target market.
Functional types and their best uses
• Continental Beef
U.S. cattle can be categorized into six primary func- These are Continental European breeds and de-
tional types based on their genetic classification and rivatives developed exclusively for beef produc-
levels of functional traits. The trait rankings in Table 1 tion where they originated and used in the United
are based on breed-comparison research conducted for States for the same purpose: Charolais, Limousin,
over 40 years at the U.S. Meat Animal Research Center and Maine-Anjou. These breeds are part of what
(MARC) at Clay Center, Nebraska, as reported in 2012. were once sometimes called “exotics.”
3
 The most effective use of Continental Beef has As with Continental Beef, these breeds are often
been as terminal sires. When selecting sires for used as terminal sires. Maternal use of this type
this group, pay attention to birth weight and can create females that are leaner, more muscu-
calving ease, especially for use on smaller dams. lar, and possibly higher milking.
If desired, Continental Beef increases muscling Use the same cautions as with the Continental
and leanness in females without elevating milk Beef type in birth weight, straightbreeding, and
production. crossing with other Continentals.
In general, do not straightbreed this type or cross • Dairy
it with other Continentals. These breeds vary in
These breeds originated in western Continental
adaptability to hot climates.
Europe or the British Isles and are used in the
• Continental Dual Purpose United States for dairy purposes only: Holstein
These breeds were developed and selected for and Jersey. Beef is produced secondarily from
both beef and dairy production in their native these breeds. Though uncommon, the dairy type
areas: Braunvieh, Gelbvieh, Salers, and Simmen- could be used to create crossbred early-maturing,
tal. U.S. producers use these breeds only for beef. high-milking, moderate-muscled females for beef
They are the other part of “exotics.” production. Smaller cattle of this group may also

Table 1. Rankings of functional levels of the most numerous cattle breeds in Texas.1
Functional type Growth Milking Age of Heat Fleshing Muscling Cutability4 Marbling4
breed and size2 potential3 puberty tolerance ability
British Beef
Angus 5 3–4 4 1 3 3 2 5
Hereford5 4 2 3 1 3 3 2 3
Red Angus 4 3 4 1 3 3 2 4
Shorthorn 4 3–4 4 1 3 3 2 4
Continental Beef
Charolais 5 2 2 1 2 4 5 2
Limousin 4 1 2 1 2 5 5 1
Maine-Anjou 4 2 3 1 2 4 4 2
Continental Dual Purpose
Braunvieh 3 3 3 2 2 4 4 2
Gelbvieh 4 4 4 1 2 4 4 2
Salers 4 3–4 3 1 2 3 4 3
Simmental 5 3–4 3 1 2 4 4 2
Dairy
Holstein 5 6 4 1 1 2 4 3
Jersey 1 5 5 2 2 1 1 5
Bos indicus
Brahman 4 4 1 4 3 3 3 1
American Beefmaster 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
Brangus 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Santa Gertrudis 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2
Specialty
Texas Longhorn 1 2 3 2 3 1 3 2
1
Breeds most numerous in Texas that have been evaluated by U.S. Meat Animal Research Center (MARC). Rankings are estimates of purebred
breed-wide averages reported by MARC IN 2012. See text for explanation of productive functions. Higher numbers = greater expression of the
trait. Range exists within these levels, so breeds with the same numerical designation do not necessarily average exactly the same level. Also,
considerable individual variation exists within breeds. Levels for cattle of multi-breed background can be estimated from proportions of the
constituent breeds.
2
Rate of gain and mature weight.
3
Higher numbers=earlier expression of puberty
4
On time-constant feeding. See text for explanation.
5
Horned and polled.
4
 maintain or possibly increase fertility if body merous of those combinations (and their registry
condition is maintained. associations) include Beef Builder (Braunvieh),
However, it may be difficult to keep dairy crosses ChiAngus (Chianina), Balancer (Gelbvieh), Lim-
in good flesh on typical rangeland or coarse pas- Flex (Limousin), MaineTainer (Maine Anjou),
ture, especially those of large body size. Signifi- Optimizer (Salers), and SimAngus (Simmental).
cant price discounts are common for stocker and Also, some American or Bos indicus have been
feeder animals of visible dairy breeding. combined with British or Continental to reduce
• Bos indicus the proportion of Bos indicus to 1/4 or less. The
more numerous of these breeds are Angus Plus
This group contains straight Bos indicus and are
(Red Angus), Advancer (Beefmaster), UltraBlack
used only for beef production: American Brah-
and UltraRed (Brangus), Southern Balancer (Gel-
man. They are used primarily to create crossbred
bvieh), and SimAngus HT (Simmental).
females that are adapted to hot climates and have
the most longevity, hybrid vigor, and calving Use the proportions of their constituent breeds
ease. to estimate the functional characteristics of these
new intermediate types and therefore their best
Generally, these females are best used in terminal
uses in commercial herds.
crossing systems. Do not straightbreed or cross
them with other cattle containing Bos indicus,
Matching functional levels
unless persistently hot and humid climatic condi-
tions preclude any other logical choice. to production criteria
• American Climate and nutrition are key variables affecting
This type includes beef breeds that were created where differing groups and breeds can be used effi-
in the United States from combinations of about ciently. Production suffers when cattle are not adapted
3/8 to 1/2 Brahman, with the remainder usually to climatic conditions. In hot, humid climates, cattle
consisting of a British Beef breed or breeds, or a benefit from some Bos indicus or other tropical-
Continental breed: Beefmaster, Braford, Brangus, adapted genetics.
Red Brangus, Santa Gertrudis, and Simbrah. Table 2, from the Beef Improvement Federation,
American breeds are widely applicable, especially shows the effects of nutrition on the optimum levels
for but not limited to hot climates. of the three primary production functions in cow
They can be straightbred, crossed with other herds. In general, as nutrition declines, the smaller,
American breeds, or crossed with other types ex- lower-milking, easier-fleshing cattle are better adapted
cept for purebred or high-percentage Bos indicus. and more efficient. This is discussed in detail in Texas
American breeds can be used effectively in gener- Adapted Genetic Strategies for Beef Cattle—III: Body
al-purpose production and in terminal systems. Size and Milking Level.
They often can be the most logical choice for sires
Appropriate functional levels can differ depending
used in natural service in hot climates.
on the breeding system implemented.
• Specialty Cattle for general-purpose, continuous systems
These breeds cannot be placed logically in any of should contain a blend of important production traits
the types above. They are often characterized by in both sires and dams.
strong emphasis on certain traits: Texas Long-
horn. Conversely, dissimilar types may be more effec-
tively used in terminal systems. To reduce cow herd
Specialty breeds vary considerably in level of
functional traits. They may be used where their nutritional needs or increase stocking rate, use rela-
particular combinations of unusual
traits are needed or desired. Table 2. Matching cowherd functional levels to nutrition (Source: Beef
Improvement Federation).
• “New” intermediate types
Nutritional Mature size Milking potential Fleshing ability
Just as Bos indicus and Bos tau-
availability1
rus were combined years ago to
form intermediates now known Low Low to Medium Low to Medium High
as American breeds, newer inter- Medium Medium Medium Medium to High
mediates have been formed. One High Medium to High Medium to High Medium
involves combining Continental 1
Quantity, quality, and consistency of nutrition whether from grazing, harvested
and British breeds. The more nu- forage, or supplemental concentrates
5
 tively small terminal dams complemented by high- nutritional, management, and market conditions.
growth sires. Maternal ability is unimportant in Knowing the functional levels of types and breeds can
terminal sires because their heifers are not kept for help you optimize animal performance to achieve the
replacements. highest profit.
For more discussion on breeding systems, see Texas
Adapted Genetic Strategies for Beef Cattle—IV: Breed- For further reading
ing Systems. Sire choice is greatly influenced by types repre-
sented in a cow herd. This subject is discussed in
Summary Extension publication Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies
Genetics vary widely within functional types and for Beef Cattle—VII: Sire Types for Commercial Herds.
breeds. However, in creating specific production levels, To obtain other publications in this Texas Adapted
it is usually more effective to exploit breed averages Genetics Strategies for Beef Cattle series, contact your
of applicable functional types than to look for genetic AgriLife Extension county office or see the website of
outliers in other types. the AgriLife Extension Bookstore at [Link]
A fundamental challenge in commercial beef pro- [Link] and the Texas A&M Animal Science
duction is to match genetic capability with climatic, Extension at [Link]

Appendix A. Additional cattle breeds, less numerous in Texas, with registry associations.
British Beef Continental Dual Dairy Bos indicus American Specialty
Beef Purpose
Belted Galloway Belgian Blue Amerifax Ayrshire Boran American Akaushi
Black Hereford Blonde d’Aquitaine Beef Friesian Brown Gyr Barzona Ankole-Watusi
British White Marchigiana Devon Swiss Indu-Brazil Bonsmara Beefalo
BueLingo Parthenais Dutch Belted Guernsey Nelore Brahmousin Corriente
Galloway Piedmontese Kerry Milking Sahiwal Bralers Dexter
Highland Romagnola Normande Shorthorn Braunbray Florida Cracker
Irish Black Norwegian Red Charbray Geltex
Irish Red Pinzgauer Gelbray Salorn
Lincoln Red Red Poll Mashona Texas Longhorn
Murray Grey South Devon Romosinuano Texon
RX3 Sussex Santa Cruz Wagyu
Welsh Black Tarentaise Senepol
White Park South Poll
Tuli

Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service

[Link]

More Extension publications can be found at [Link]

Educational programs of the Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service are open to all people without regard
to race, color, sex, religion, national origin, age, disability, genetic information, or veteran status.
The Texas A&M University System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the County Commissioners Courts of Texas Cooperating.

Revision
6
 E-164
09/09

Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies VIII:

Expected Progeny Difference (EPD)

The first EPD evaluation. (Courtesy of American

Simmental Association)

Stephen P. Hammack* and Joe C. Paschal*

W hen evaluating prospective breeding ani- in a contemporary group. EBV added an animal’s own
mals, it is helpful to have an estimate of records to those of relatives and progeny. It also incorpo-
their genetic transmitting potential. For rated heritability, the average part of the difference in a
most production traits, this estimate is best calculated us- trait derived from transmittable genetic content, which is
ing records of performance. not the same for all traits.
The first performance records of beef cattle were pri- However, EBV still consisted mostly of within-group
marily weights or weight gains measured at weaning or as records. Because this limitation was often ignored, faulty
yearlings. Sound comparisons of individuals were often comparisons were sometimes made of EBVs from different
impossible because of animal and management differ- groups or herds.
ences. Standard adjustments were developed for calf age,
sex, and age of dam, but there were no good ways to adjust *Professor and Extension Beef Cattle Specialist Emeritus, and Professor and
for differences in management, nutrition, location, season, Extension Livestock Specialist, The Texas A&M System

and year. So the comparisons had to be limited to animals

managed alike in a contemporary group.
To facilitate comparisons, ratios were sometimes
calculated for individual animal performance within a
contemporary group; however, these ratios still contained
unaccounted-for differences between groups.
Progress in genetic evaluation came with Estimated
Breeding Value (EBV), which used ratios calculated with-
 National Sire Evaluation • No more Reference Sires, because any individual
with progeny in more than one contemporary
More improvement in genetic evaluation came group is, in effect, a reference
with Expected Progeny Difference (EPD). The term • EPDs that are directly comparable within a
expected can be misleading as it implies a high breed for all individuals (males and females) in
degree of certainty, which may or may not be true. all locations and management systems across
Predicted or estimated would probably be better all years
terms than expected.
As was true for EBV, the basis of EPD is ratios
within a contemporary group, but EPD has more
EDP Traits
scope and precision. With EPD, more valid com- All of the breed associations that have EPD
parisons can be made of animals across contempo- report four traits:
rary groups, not just within a single group. • Birth Weight—in pounds at birth, excluding
The first practical implementation of EPD came maternal influence. Birth weight is the most
through National Sire Evaluation (NSE), conducted important factor in Direct Calving Ease (see
by some breed registry associations. The wide- below).
spread use of popular bulls through artificial in- • Weaning Weight—in pounds at 205 days of age,
semination, particularly in breeds first available in excluding maternal influence (evaluated as
the United States in the late 1960s, allowed them to Milk below)
serve as so-called Reference Sires, the benchmark • Yearling Weight—in pounds at 365 days of age,
in NSE. The first National Sire Summary, compar- excluding maternal influence
ing EPDs of 13 bulls, was published by one of those • Milk—expressed as pounds of weaning weight
breeds in 1971. (not pounds of milk) due to maternal influence
The only bulls that could be included in NSE of an individual’s daughters, excluding genet-
were those with adequate numbers of progeny ics for growth to weaning (evaluated as Wean-
managed in contemporary groups where at least ing Weight above). The use of “milk” is inexact
one Reference Sire was represented. Some often because this is an estimate of all maternal
incorrect assumptions reduced the validity of the influences on weaning weight, milk produc-
estimates. One of these assumptions was that bulls tion being the major element. Total Maternal
are not genetically related. Another was that bulls EPD, combining Milk and Weaning Weight,
are mated to females of equal genetic merit. It also is reported by some breeds. Total Maternal
was assumed that no progeny are culled before all should be ignored and the two components
records are collected and that breed averages for considered separately unless a producer merely
traits do not change over time. wishes to increase weaning weight without re-
gard for what causes the increase.
National Cattle Evaluation Other traits that may be included by a breed are:
• Direct Calving Ease—in percentage of unas-
Refined mathematical techniques and expanded sisted births or as a ratio. This is an estimate
computing capacity made possible the next step of a calf’s ease of birth, excluding maternal
in genetic prediction, National Cattle Evaluation factors (evaluated as Maternal Calving Ease
(NCE). This evaluation compares animals within below). Direct Calving Ease depends primarily
a breed more accurately than does NSE. All ma- on the size of the calf. If Direct Calving Ease
jor breed associations have such programs. Using is available, it should be emphasized instead of
NCE, breed-association EPD programs include: Birth Weight, which only indirectly estimates
• Data from the individual, relatives, and calving ease.
progeny • Maternal Calving Ease—in percentage of unas-
• An adjustment for differences in genetic merit of sisted births or a ratio. It is the ease of calv-
mates ing of daughters excluding factors associated
• Genetic correlation between traits with the calf (evaluated as Direct Calving Ease
• Adjustments for genetic change over time and above). This essentially involves the size, inter-
genetic relationships among individuals nal structure, uterine environment, and other
• Adjustments for differences between contempo- factors of the calving female.
rary groups in environment and management, • Calving Ease Total Maternal—combines Direct
such as climate and nutrition and Maternal Calving Ease
• The requirement by some associations for Total • Gestation Length—in days; is related to birth
Herd Reporting, which provides records on weight, calving ease, and calving interval
2 more individuals
• Yearling Height—in inches, another estimate with cost to produce and value of product.
of genetic size; a predictor, along with weight Various breed associations have indexes for
traits, of mature body size value: 1) as weaned calves, 2) after feeding,
• Scrotal Circumference (SC)—in centimeters; a 3) as carcasses marketed on a Quality Grade-
predictor of mass of sperm-producing tissue. Yield Grade price “grid”, 4) with combined
Also, SC is positively related to younger age at feeding and carcass value, and 5) for the total
puberty in males and their female relatives. production cycle from conception to carcass.
• Days to Finish—in days; the length of time
needed to reach a set amount of fat cover
• Carcass Weight—in pounds, another measure
of body size that is highly related to yearling
weight
• Marbling—in USDA marbling degrees, the pri-
mary factor in USDA Quality Grade
• Tenderness—in pounds of shear force; a me-
chanical estimate of tenderness
• Ribeye Area—in square inches between the 12th
and 13th rib; a predictor of total amount of
muscle. Ribeye area is highly related to carcass
and yearling weights.
• Fat Thickness—in inches over the ribeye at the
Individual animal records such as weight and ultrasound
12th/13th rib; a predictor of total carcass fat measurements are necessary to provide data that make
which is the most important factor in percent- EPD possible. (Photo on left by [Link])
age red-meat yield (cutability)
• Yield Grade—in USDA Yield Grade units; a
measure of cutability Interpreting EPD
• Retail Product (RP)—in percent; another mea- EPD values are calculated as average relative
sure of cutability deviations, not actual levels, of the unit of mea-
• Ultrasound measures—for Ribeye Area, Ribeye surement of the trait. Assume that one bull has a
Fat Thickness, Rump Fat Thickness, Retail Birth Weight EPD of +4.2 and another bull of the
Product, and Ribeye IMF (intramuscular fat, same breed has -1.4. This means that, if used on
in percent), which is a predictor of marbling genetically equal females managed under equal
• Mature Daughter Weight and Height—in conditions, the first bull is predicted to sire calves
pounds and inches; measures of mature size of averaging 5.6 pounds heavier at birth (the differ-
daughters ence between +4.2 and -1.4).
• Cow Energy Indexes—in dollars or units of As another example, if one bull has a Weaning
energy; assess differences in cow nutritional Weight EPD of +42 and another has +27, the pre-
energy requirements dicted average difference between the two bulls is
• Docility—in percentage of deviation from the 15 pounds in weight of their calves at weaning.
probability of Behavior Score being either doc- EPD does not predict performance level. If a
ile or restless as opposed to being nervous, ag- bull has +4 Birth Weight, this does not predict
gressive, or very aggressive. that he would increase birth weights by 4 pounds,
• Heifer Pregnancy—in percent; the pregnancy nor would a bull with -1 Birth Weight decrease
rate of daughters when exposed to calve first at birth weights by 1 pound. The two bulls are pre-
2 years of age dicted to sire calves averaging 5 pounds difference.
• Stayability—in percentage deviation from a 50 The actual average birth weights, depending on
percent probability of daughters remaining other factors, might be 75 pounds and 70 pounds
in the herd to at least 6 years of age. This in- or 95 pounds and 90 pounds or any other average
volves all factors in culling of females, and so is difference of 5 pounds. EPD predicts comparative
thought to be related to structural soundness, differences, not level of performance.
fleshing ability, reproductive efficiency, and If the EPDs of both parents are known, they
general fitness. can be combined to predict the relative perfor-
• Value Indexes—in dollars, also called economic mance of the progeny. For example, compare a sire
selection indexes and $ indexes; multi-trait of Weaning Weight +55 mated to a dam of +35
indexes combining relevant production EPDs with a sire of +40 mated to a dam of +30. Their
3
 progeny would be predicted to differ in weaning the trait, and number of contemporary comparison
weight by 20 pounds (55 + 35 minus 40 + 30). groups.
Breed associations calculate their own EPDs Accuracy is not related to variation in prog-
that are comparable only within the breed. How- eny. Progeny of low-Accuracy parents will vary no
ever, EPDs of individuals of the same breed can be more, on average, than progeny of high-Accuracy
legitimately compared even if they are to be mated parents. Also, difference in parental EPD is not
to another breed, or cross of breeds, as long as the related to progeny EPD variation. For example,
proposed mates are the same. For example, the consider a sire and dam both with Yearling Weight
EPDs of two Charolais bulls can be compared for EPD of +60 compared to a sire with +80 and a dam
use in a herd of Brahman-cross females. with +40. On average, there is no difference in
There are some adjustment factors for compar- progeny variation from these two matings and both
ing EPDs from different breeds, but they may be sets of progeny are predicted to average +60 EPD.
less reliable than within-breed EPDs. In most cas- So what is more important, the magnitude
es, producers should first determine which breed(s) of EPD or Accuracy? EPD is an estimate of true
to use and then decide which individuals to select breeding value in relation to other individuals in a
from within the breed(s). To assist in choosing ap- breed. Accuracy is a measure of confidence that the
plicable breeds, see the publication in this series EPD is the true breeding value. If a producer wants
E-190, Texas Adapted Genetic Strategies for Beef large and rapid change in a trait then EPD should
Cattle V: Type and Breed Characteristics and Uses. be stressed, even if Accuracy is low. But if predict-
All breed associations establish a base period ability is more important, higher Accuracy indi-
when the breed-average EPD value for a trait is viduals should be selected. Regardless of Accuracy,
zero, and those bases differ for each breed. Selec- EPD is the best estimate available of true breeding
tion changes genetic level over time. As time pass- value.
es since the base was established, the breed average
could differ increasingly from zero. Possible Change
Breed averages can vary considerably. For ex- Over time, Accuracy increases and EPD often
ample, recent average Yearling Weight EPD in one changes as more records relating to an individual
breed is +11 and is +76 in another breed. These (primarily progeny) are accumulated. Breed as-
breed averages cannot be compared, so the values sociations publish and regularly update Possible
do not mean that the second breed averages 65 Change Values, which are measures of the average
pounds heavier. amount that EPD could change over time.
Current breed averages can be used to see For a given Accuracy, about two-thirds of the
where an individual ranks within a breed. Main- time an individual should have a true progeny
taining a fixed base provides a benchmark that difference within the range of the EPD plus and
can be used to help determine the level of EPD in minus the Possible Change Value. But about one-
a breed that might be appropriate for particular third of the time, the true value could fall outside
production conditions. This benchmark would not that range. Therefore, “Possible Change” is another
be available if the breed average was reset to zero misleading term because it implies incorrectly that
every time EPDs are recalculated. greater change is not possible. However, for any
Once or twice a year, associations update indi- range of Possible Change the true progeny differ-
vidual animal EPDs, breed averages, distribution ence is much more likely to be toward the center of
of EPDs within the breed, and genetic trends. The the range than the extremes.
most recent reports should be used and EPDs from Assume a breed reports Possible Change in
different reports cannot be compared. Weaning Weight EPD as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Possible Change Values for Weaning Weight EPD*
Accuracy
Suppose two individuals have Weaning Weight Accuracy 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
EPDs of +32 (0.62) and +46 (0.41). The values in
parentheses are for Accuracy, which ranges be- Possible 16 13 9 6 2
tween 0 and 1. (Accuracy usually is not calculated Change
for Pedigree EPD, based only on parental EPDs, *This is only an example. Possible Change varies for every breed and trait.

or for Interim EPD, based on pedigree EPDs plus From this table, with Accuracy of 0.3, the Pos-
the individual’s record.) Accuracy is influenced by sible Change is ± 13 units of the EPD. So, for ex-
the number of records, genetic relationship among ample, with an EPD of +30 about two-thirds of
individuals providing the records, heritability of individuals are expected to have true progeny dif-
4
ferences between +17 and +43 (30 ± 13), sometimes Making a lot of change quickly in several traits
called the confidence range. With Accuracy of 0.7 requires unusual outlying sires. For example,
the Possible Change is only ± 6, so with EPD of a search in a breed with over 2,300 sires listed
+30 the true progeny difference is expected to be found only four in the top 10 percent for low Birth
between +24 and +36. Note in the table that Accu- Weight EPD, high Weaning Weight EPD, and high
racy of 0.9 predicts almost no change in EPD, but Milk EPD. And those four sires might be undesir-
Accuracy this high is possible only for individuals able in other important traits.
with hundreds of progeny records. In short, higher The fastest genetic change can be made by us-
Accuracy means greater predictability. ing superior sires from a breed noted for high
The anticipated direction of any future change expression of the trait of interest. However, other
is unrelated to the magnitude of the current EPD. changes would probably accompany a substitution
That is, a numerically high EPD is as likely to of breeds. Considering the number of factors that
change to an even higher value as it is to move should be considered in sire selection, only small
downward. And a low EPD is as likely to change to change may be feasible in any one trait in a short
an even lower value as it is to move upward. These time.
considerations are taken into account in the calcu-
lations. Does EPD Work?
What evidence is there to confirm the theory
Genetic Potential of EPD? A recent summary reviewed research re-
How much potential is there for genetic change sults. The first part of the study compared sire EPD
within a breed? A good estimate can be obtained with actual performance of progeny. Nine studies
from a percentile breakdown, which shows dis- of growth traits involved 27 trait analyses. In 23
tribution of EPD. Table 2 shows a percentile instances, progeny response was higher from high-
breakdown for Yearling Weight EPD and also lists EPD sires than for low-EPD sires. Five maternal
the total range within the breed. With this infor- studies had 14 trait analyses, of which 13 resulted
mation, a producer can determine potential for in higher response from cows whose sires had high
genetic change and also see where the EPD of a EPD for maternal traits. And four carcass studies
particular individual stands in the breed. included 23 trait analyses; in 16 of these the re-
sponse was higher from high-EPD sires.
Table 2. Percentile breakdown for Yearling Weight EPD*
In the second part of the review, progeny re-
• Producer A would benefit most from growth
sponse was regressed on what was predicted from
potential, so long
Percentile 1% as 5%carcass20%
weights are not
50% 80%
sire EPD. For growth traits there was an average
excessive. Milking ability is irrelevant, since
EPD response of 1.03 pounds in progeny for each 1.00
replacements+95are not+85
saved.+68 +53 Brah∑
With large +38
*An example only. Current breed average is at the 50th percentile (+53). The total breed pound of sire EPD. In maternal traits the response
range is from -13 to +131.
averaged 1.45 to 1.00. And for carcass traits the re-
This table shows an example of the EPD level sponse averaged 1.04 to 1.00.
for various percentiles. Based on the upper end of In conclusion, the review of available research
the range (+131), it would be possible to find a bull confirmed that EPD is a valid and useful estimate
with EPD 78 pounds (131 minus 53) above breed of true breeding value for growth, maternal, and
average. However, only 1 percent of the individuals carcass traits.
in the breed have EPDs of +95 or higher. Finding
a bull just 30 pounds above average would require Using EPD
restricting selection to the top 5 percent of the Suppose four producers are looking for sires of
breed. Broadening to the top 20 percent of bulls a particular breed. All four producers have used
reduces the difference to just 15 pounds above sires of this breed before in their herd.
average. • Producer A has F1 Brahman-cross cows weigh-
Although the range of genetic expression in a ing 1,200 to 1,400 pounds in moderate body
breed may be wide, the majority of EPDs will be condition. Calves are often retained through
near the average. But this means a producer who the feeding phase. All replacement females are
wants a performance level for a particular trait purchased.
that is near breed average has large numbers of • Producer B has a group of yearling heifers to
potential sires available. In that case, it is easier to breed. All calves will be sold at weaning. No
find sires acceptable in all traits important in the replacement heifers will be saved.
herd. • Producer C sells at weaning and wants to in-
crease weaning weights but not cow size. Cows
5
 usually stay in good body condition without and a little above average in Weaning and
much supplementation. Replacement heifers Yearling Weight EPDs. This is probably the
are saved to go back into this herd. best choice for this producer.
• Producer D saves heifers to go back into the The best choice depends on the particular herd
herd and feeds out some calves. The producer and what is needed from the sire. Many other
is generally satisfied with current levels of production traits are important besides the four
calving ease, weaning weight, and postwean- discussed above that are common to all breeds
ing performance. reporting EPD. Where EPD is available for other
Potential sires are shown in Table 3. For refer- important traits, it should be the primary selection
ence, the current breed-average EPDs are shown. criterion for that trait. For traits without EPD, oth-
Which of these potential sires should be selected? er valid measures of comparison should be used.
Production conditions and markets dictate
Table 3. Selecting a sire using EPD appropriate levels of animal performance. For ex-
ample, where forage is sparse or low in quality, ma-
Sire No. Birth Weaning Yearling Milk
EPD EPD EPD EPD ture cow size or milking potential may need to be
moderated. Producers with experience using par-
1 -1.3 +15 +39 +4 ticular breeds in their production conditions have
2 +4.7 +42 +81 -2 a better idea of appropriate levels of EPD within
those breeds.
3 +2.5 +34 +56 +13

4 +1.9 +28 +47 +22

Summary
EPDs can be directly compared for all animals
Breed +2.1 +30 +51 +12 (male and female), from all locations and manage-
average ment conditions, across all years, within an entire
breed. For the traits where available, EPD is the
most accurate estimator of true breeding value.
• Producer A would benefit most from growth
potential, so long as carcass weights are not
excessive. Milking ability is irrelevant, since
For further reading
To obtain other publications in this Texas
replacements are not saved. With large Brah-
Adapted Genetics Strategies for Beef Cattle series,
man-cross cows, calving difficulty (predicted
contact your county Extension office or see the Ex-
from Birth Weight EPD) is of little concern.
tension Web site [Link] and
Therefore, the best choice is probably Sire 2,
the Texas A&M Animal Science Extension Web
which is highest in Weaning and Yearling
site [Link]
Weight EPDs.
• Producer B should give primary consideration
to calving ease. Sire 1, with the lowest Birth
Weight EPD, is the best choice for that pur-
pose. Although Sire 1 is lowest in Weaning
and Yearling Weight EPDs, in this case growth
potential is secondary to calving ease. And no
replacement heifers are saved, so Milk EPD is
not a factor. Produced by AgriLife Communications, The Texas A&M System
• Producer C, to increase weaning weight but Extension publications can be found on the Web at: http://
[Link]
not cow size, appears to need increased milk
production in heifers going back in the herd. Visit the Texas AgriLife Extension Service at [Link]
The body condition of the herd indicates that [Link]
higher milking ability can probably be sup- Educational programs of the Texas AgriLife Extension Service are open
ported on existing production conditions. Sire to all people without regard to socioeconomic level, race, color, sex,
disability, religion, age, or national origin.
4, highest in Milk EPD and around breed aver-
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture
age in Birth, Weaning, and Yearling Weight
and Home Economics, Acts of Congress of May 8, 1914, as amended,
EPDs, is probably the best choice. and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the United States Department
• Producer D does not seem to need significant of Agriculture. Edward G. Smith, Director, Texas AgriLife Extension
change in any of these traits. Sire 3 is near Service, The Texas A&M System.
breed average in Birth Weight and Milk EPDs Revision
6
 L-5354
4-00

Factors and Feeds for Supplementing Beef Cows

Stephen P. Hammack and Ronald J. Gill*

beef cow requires energy, protein, minerals, high priority because deficiencies can be corrected

A and vitamins in its diet. What determines how

much of these nutrients is required? What
determines if they need to be supplemented in the
for relatively little cost.
After addressing mineral and vitamin needs, pro-
tein and energy deficiencies must be considered.
diet?
Forage protein and energy vary seasonally. Warm-
Many factors affect the amounts of required nutri- season forage typically becomes deficient in protein
ents. A female performs many functions—body in mid-summer and again in winter. Forage lacks
maintenance, activity, weight gain, reproduction, adequate energy content primarily in winter, but
and milk production—that all require nutrients. The energy available to the animal is restricted more
amount of nutrients required depends on body size, often by a limited supply of forage rather than by
environmental conditions, how far an animal trav- deficiencies in plant composition.
els, desired rate of gain, stage of gestation, and level
of milk production. Factors Affecting Supplementation
The nutritional value and quantity of available for- Many factors affect the type and amount of protein
age determine if nutrients need to be supplemented or energy supplement that a beef cow may require.
in the diet. During most of the year, warm-season There are six critical factors that affect supplemen-
forages are likely to be deficient in some minerals, tation needs.
especially phosphorus and certain trace elements
like copper and zinc. In most situations, supple- Forage Quantity. The amount of available forage
mentation should include at least year-round provi- obviously affects the need for supplemental feed. If
sion of salt and a mineral with 8 percent to 12 per- grazing or hay will be limited, take immediate
cent phosphorus and a similar level of calcium. action. Reduce the number of animals in order to
Vitamin A, which usually is low in dry or weath- lessen the need for supplemental feeding of the
ered forages, should be injected or fed in mineral or remaining cows. As forage supply declines, the
other supplements if it is suspected to be deficient. opportunity for animals to selectively graze
Mineral and vitamin supplementation should be a decreases, and so does diet quality. Then, supple-
mentation may become necessary even if animal
*Extension Beef Cattle Specialist and Extension Livestock numbers are reduced.
Specialist, The Texas A&M University System.
Forage Quality. Poor quality forage has less than 6
percent to 7 percent crude protein (CP) and is low
in digestibility, with less than 50 percent total
digestible nutrients (TDN). These deficiencies limit
the amount of such forage that an animal can eat.
Because both consumption and nutrient content of
poor quality forage are low, supplemental needs are
high. Medium quality forage (7 percent to 11 per-
cent CP, 50 percent to 57 percent TDN) eliminates
or significantly reduces the need for supplementa-
tion. High quality forage (above 12 percent to
14 percent CP and 57 percent TDN) can be con-
sumed in the largest amounts and usually removes
any need for supplementation, except possibly for
high milking cows in low body condition. However,
forage that is high in quality but low in quantity, a
common situation in early spring, increases the
need for supplementation of dietary bulk and ener- mature cows. For these reasons, young females
gy. The amount a cow can eat in a day ranges from require higher quality diets than mature cows and
as little as 1.5 percent of body weight for very low often require more and different supplements.
quality forage to near 3.0 percent for very high
quality forage. The typical amount is 2.0 percent to Feeds for Supplementation
2.5 percent.
What are some protein and energy supplements
Body Condition. The level of body condition and how should they be used?
(amount of fat) affects supplemental requirements.
Oilseed Meals. Cottonseed, soybean, and peanut
Low body condition markedly increases the need
meals often are manufactured as large pellets or
for supplemental nutrients, and meeting such needs
cubes for feeding convenience. These are high pro-
often is cost prohibitive. Moderate body condition
tein (38 percent to 45 percent CP), medium to high
significantly reduces or eliminates the need for
energy sources, commonly fed at 1 pound to 3
supplements. Fleshy cows generally need little if
pounds a day. Although relatively costly per ton,
any supplement and the daily amount of forage
they often are the cheapest source of protein.
required often can be reduced. If forage consump-
These feeds are most useful when supplemental
tion is not reduced, higher production is possible or
protein, and little or no energy, is needed. Oilseed
reserves of stored body energy can be maintained.
meals are especially suitable for dry cows in mod-
Body Size. The potential for forage consumption is erate to good flesh when they have access to ade-
related to body size, so larger animals may not quate amounts of low protein, medium energy for-
require more supplement than smaller ones. ages.
Adjustments in stocking rate, to allow adequate
Grain. Corn and grain sorghum (milo) are the most
amounts of forage per cow, may offset differences
common low protein, high energy sources. Other
in size but will increase the cost per cow. But if for-
grains include oats, wheat, and barley. Grains often
age is sparse or limited, larger cows require propor-
are the cheapest sources of supplemental energy.
tionately more supplement.
Similar feeds include processed byproducts such as
Milking Level. Higher milking cows can consume wheat mids, soybean hulls, and rice bran. These
somewhat more forage, but not enough to com- byproducts are slightly higher in protein and a little
pletely satisfy extra needs. When forage quality is lower in energy than grains and are relatively low
inadequate, higher milking cows need more supple- in starch. Starch can interfere with forage digestibil-
ment; from 50 percent to 100 percent more may be ity, so these are excellent supplements to forage.
required for high versus low milk production in Feeds in this category commonly are found in
cows of the same body size. breeder/range cubes.
Age. Young animals are still growing and require Breeder/Range Cubes. These are most commonly
extra nutrients, but their body size is not as large as 20 percent CP but also are found as 30 percent to
mature animals. Because of their smaller body size, 32 percent products. These feeds are designed to
growing heifers cannot consume as much forage as provide a combination of protein and energy, fed in
larger amounts (3 to 6 pounds a day) than high pro- to occur, sufficient amounts of at least moderately
tein feeds. The equivalent of a 20 percent cube can digestible forage must be available. These feeds
be prepared with a mix of about one-third oilseed work best when supplied year-round, allowing
meal and two-thirds grain. A mix of about three- accumulation of body fat reserves that animals can
fourths meal and one-fourth grain is the equivalent utilize during typical fall and winter decline in for-
of a 32 percent cube. Some cubes use nonprotein age quality and quantity. They generally will not
nitrogen (NPN), usually urea, to supply nitrogen for support high performance.
potential synthesis of rumen microbial protein.
Hays. High quality hays, such as alfalfa, peanut,
Cubes with low crude fiber (below 10 percent) gen-
and soybean, can be used as supplements. These
erally are highest in energy. Whole cottonseed,
medium protein (usually 15 percent to 20 percent
brewers grains, and some corn gluten meals are
CP), medium energy sources can be limit-fed in
similar in protein and energy content to these
place of one of the feeds discussed previously. Such
cubes.
hays also can be fed free choice, although protein is
Protein Blocks and Liquids. These feeds usually wasted, if their cost is competitive.
contain 30 percent to 40 percent CP and typically
are low to medium in energy. Their formulation or Supplementation Strategies
physical structure limits consumption to around 1
pound to 3 pounds daily. The protein portion often Supplements must be chosen to meet particular
consists of 50 percent to 90 percent from NPN, but nutrient deficiencies. Body condition is a key factor
can be considerably lower. Their primary use is to in the choice of supplements. Thin cows are rela-
provide supplemental protein on low protein, medi- tively more deficient in dietary energy than in pro-
um energy forages (below 7 percent CP, 50 percent tein. In contrast, fleshier cows may need extra pro -
to 52 percent TDN) where convenience of self-feed- tein, if they need anything.
ing is a priority. These feeds generally will not fill To minimize supplementation, use forage supplies
large voids of nutrient deficiency, nor support high- logically. In general, hay (excluding supplemental
er levels of animal performance. alfalfa, etc.) should not be limit-fed with standing
Syrup Blocks and Tubs. These generally range forage. Limit-feeding of hay encourages cows to
from 12 percent to 24 percent CP (often about half reduce grazing and fails to use pastures while qual-
from NPN) and are medium in energy. ity is reasonably good. For example, assume avail-
Consumption of these blocks usually is very low able forage for grazing or feeding includes some
tame pasture (such as coastal bermudagrass), some
(typically 1/2 pound to 1 1/2 pounds a day), so high-
native range, and some hay. As winter approaches,
er protein versions probably are most useful. These
the tame pasture should be used first, native range
products are not intended to directly supply much
next, and hay last. That way each forage is utilized
supplemental protein or energy. Rather, their theo-
most efficiently, and there is a better chance some
retical function is to stimulate rumen microbes to
hay will be left in late winter to early spring when
digest more forage and produce microbial protein,
high quality green growth begins but is limited in
which can be utilized in the small intestine. For this
amount.
It is difficult to make general recommendations Perhaps the most common supplement is a high
about supplementation of protein and energy. quality 20 percent CP breeder/range cube (high or
Usually, dry mature cows in medium or higher all-natural protein and low crude fiber), or the
body condition on typical dormant warm-season equivalent. Such a supplement often is a compro-
pasture or low quality hay often need only 1 pound mise for the common situation of low quality forage
to 2 pounds a day of a high protein feed. (On and low to medium body condition. But this must
extremely low quality forage, such as tall-grass be fed in adequate amounts, typically 3 to 6 pounds
prairie in winter, 3 pounds to 4 pounds of high pro- a day, to be effective. In fact, with the exception of
tein feed may be needed.) A thin, dry, mature cow managing weight loss in fleshy cows, there are few
may require 2 pounds to 4 pounds daily, but of a situations where feeding smaller amounts of such
medium-protein, high-energy supplement. After cubes is applicable. If a producer is unwilling or
calving, all of these amounts essentially should be unable to assume the cost of required amounts of
doubled. these cubes (or the equivalent), then a lower
amount of a higher protein feed should be fed. But
Daily feeding usually is not necessary when using
realize, however, that body condition, reproduction,
high-protein supplements such as cottonseed meal
productivity, and profit are likely to decline if
cubes. Instead, depending on the amounts, weekly
nutrient requirements are not met.
required totals can be divided and fed every other
day, twice a week, or even once a week. In fact,
nondaily feeding of these supplements often is The following Texas Agricultural Extension
more efficient. However, combination protein-ener- Service publications can provide additional
gy supplements, especially breeder/range cubes and information.
meal-grain mixes, that are required in larger daily
amounts, generally should be fed daily for best for- B-1526, “Body Condition, Nutrition and
age utilization, highest animal performance, and Reproduction of Beef Cows”
greatest efficiency. B-1553, “Nutrient Composition of Feeds”
Self-fed, controlled consumption can be accom- B-1554, “Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle”
plished with some feeds, especially oilseed meals
and meal-grain mixes, by including an intake lim- B-6056, “Mineral Supplementation of Beef
iter such as salt. Cattle then will consume salt in Cows in Texas”
maximum amounts of approximately 0.1 percent of B-6067, “Supplementation Strategies for Beef
body weight, or about 1 pound of salt consumption Cattle”
daily by a 1,000-pound cow. So, to obtain supple-
ment consumption of 3 pounds daily in a 1,000- L-2163, “Feed Label Information”
pound cow, a mix of 1 pound salt to 3 pounds sup- L-5194, “How to Control Cow Herd Feeding
plement should be provided. When using salt to Expense”
limit consumption, plenty of high quality water
must be available. Also, cows consume more of a
salt-limited supplement when it is located close to a
water supply.

Produced by Agricultural Communications, The Texas A&M University System

Extension publications can be found on the Web at: [Link]

Educational programs of the Texas Agricultural Extension Service are open to all people without regard to race, color, sex, disability, religion,
age or national origin.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics, Acts of Congress of May 8, 1914, as amend-
ed, and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. Chester P. Fehlis, Deputy Director, Texas
Agricultural Extension Service, The Texas A&M University System.
5M, New AS-1
 L-2291
4-98

Implanting beef calves

and stocker cattle
F.T. McCollum III
Extension Beef Cattle Specialist
The Texas A&M University System

O
f all the management practices available to cow/calf and stocker cattle produc-
ers, implanting suckling calves and stocker cattle offers one of the highest ben-
efit-to-cost ratios. Many implants are available, but selection of an implant is
less critical than the decision on whether to implant or not.

Implants for calves Protect implant cartridges and belts from

and stocker cattle dust and other contaminants during storage
and at chuteside. Some implants must be re-
Table 1 lists implants available for use in frigerated during storage.
suckling calves and pasture cattle. The ac-
Place the implant under the skin on the
tive compounds in calf implants are zeranol,
backside of the middle third of the ear (Fig-
estradiol benzoate-progesterone, or estradiol
ure 1). Implanting at any other location vio-
17-beta. Stocker cattle implants contain the
lates federal law.
same active compounds, plus a combination
of estradiol and trenbolone acetate. Some Applicators vary for different implants. Be-
stocker cattle implants are designated for use come familiar with the mechanical opera-
in heifers or steers; they generally are de- tion of the applicator to ensure proper im-
noted by an “H” or “S” in the implant name. plant placement, and avoid crushing, bunch-
These implants have no withdrawal time ing or wasting implant pellets. The needle
before sale or slaughter. on the implant applicator must be sharp and
free of spurs to avoid unnecessary trauma
Implant administration to the ear and implant site.
To administer implants, designate one
person to implant while processing or work-
ing cattle. To avoid infections and reduced
implant performance, make sure the ear sur-
face, the implant applicator needle and the
hands of the person implanting the cattle are
clean. Some companies distribute disinfec-
tant trays along with the implant applicator.
Use these trays at chuteside as a place to
rest the implant applicator when not in use
and to clean the applicator needle. Before
administering the implant, use a sponge
soaked in disinfectant to remove manure and
other foreign material from the ear surface.
You can also use the sponge to clean the ap- Figure 1. Proper implant placement on the
plicator needle. backside of the ear.
Table 1. Guidelines for currently approved implants for suckling beef calves and stocker cattle.
Implant Estimated
trade Marketing payout
name company Active ingredient(s) Target animal period
Implus-C®or UpJohn Co. 100 mg progesterone Suckling beef calves up to 400 lbs.; 100 - 140 days
Calf-oid® 10 mg estradiol benzoate not for use in calves less than 45 days
old or calves intended for reproduction
Component-C® VetLife, Inc. 100 mg progesterone Steer and heifer calves up to 400 lbs.; 100 - 140 days
10 mg estradiol benzoate not for use in calves less than 45 days
old or bull calves intended for reproduction
Synovex-C® Ft. Dodge Animal 100 mg progesterone Steer and heifer calves up to 400 lbs.; 100 - 140 days
Health 10 mg estradiol benzoate not for use in calves less than 45 days
old or bull calves intended for reproduction
Ralgro® Schering-Plough 36 mg zeranol Steer and heifer calves; weaned steers 70 - 100 days
Animal Health and heifers; not for use in calves less
than 30 days old or bull calves intended
for reproduction
Compudose® VetLife, Inc. 25.7 mg estradiol Suckling steers; weaned steers and heifers; 170 - 200 days
not for replacement heifers
Encore® VetLife, Inc. 43.9 mg estradiol Suckling steers; weaned steers and heifers; 400 days
not for replacement heifers
Component-H® VetLife, Inc. 200 mg testosterone Heifers over 400 lbs.; 100 - 140 days
20 mg estradiol benzoate not for replacement heifers
Component-S® Vetife, Inc. 200 mg progesterone Steers over 400 lbs. 100 - 140 days
20 mg estradiol benzoate
Implus-H® UpJohn Co. 200 mg testosterone Heifers over 400 lbs.; 100 - 140 days
20 mg estradiol benzoate not for replacement heifers
Implus-S® UpJohn Co. 200 mg progesterone Steers over 400 lbs. 100 - 140 days
20 mg estradiol benzoate
Synovex-H® Ft. Dodge Animal 200 mg testosterone Heifers over 400 lbs.; 100 - 140 days
Health 20 mg estradiol benzoate not for replacement heifers
Synovex-S® Ft. Dodge Animal 200 mg progesterone Steers over 400 lbs. 100 - 140 days
Health 20 mg estradiol benzoate
Revalor-G® Hoechst-Roussel 8 mg estradiol Weaned steers and heifers; 100 - 140 days
Agri-Vet Co. 40 mg trenbolone acetate not for replacement heifers

After placing the implant in the ear, Ralgro®, and Synovex-C® are labeled for
palpate the site to ensure that the im- suckling steers and heifers. Component-
plant was properly placed. Apply pres- S®, Component-H®, Implus-S®, Implus-
sure on the area punctured by the H®, Synovex-S®, and Synovex-H® can
needle to help the wound close and pre- also be used in sucking calves but are
vent dirt and other foreign materials recommended for calves weighing over
from entering the implant site. 400 pounds. Table 1 lists specific infor-
mation and restrictions.
Cattle performance Potential replacement heifers:
Suckling calves: Implanting suck- Concerns about reproductive perfor-
ling calves once with zeranol or estra- mance have limited the use of growth
diol-progesterone type implants will in- implants in heifer calves that are po-
crease daily weight gains an average of tential herd placements. Currently,
0.10 pound per day for steer calves and Synovex-C®, Component-C® and Ralgro®
0.12 pound per day for heifer calves are the only implants labeled for use in
(Selk, 1997). Implus-C® (Calf-oid®), Com- replacement heifer calves (see Table 1).
ponent-C ® , Compudose ® , Encore ® , Use is restricted to heifers older than
30 days for Ralgro® and 45 days for some interval after the first implant,
Synovex-C® and Component-C®. improves performance if the plane of
Implanting heifers at or near birth nutrition is adequate. An implant re-
can reduce future reproductive perfor- leases (or “pays out”) compound for 70
mance. However, research has shown to 400 days depending on the implant
that one implant administered between (Table 1).
2 months of age and weaning has little Although the implant releases active
effect on subsequent reproductive per- compound over an extended period, at
formance. The impacts on future repro- some point the quantity of active ingre-
ductive performance are less predict- dient released declines to a level that
able and can be severe in some cases does not stimulate performance ad-
when implants are administered after equately. Therefore, the recommended
weaning. The probability and severity reimplanting interval for each implant
of reduced reproductive performance is shorter than the estimated payout.
increases when heifers are implanted As a rule of thumb, the window to
more than once between birth and pu- reimplant cattle is about 30 days less
berty. Heifer calves that have been im- than the estimated payout. So, if an
planted have a larger pelvic area at 1 implant has a 100- to 140-day payout,
year of age. However, by calving time then administer another implant be-
at 2 years of age, these differences are tween 70 and 100 days if you want to
small and calving ease is not improved. maintain circulating levels of the active
If replacement heifers are identified compounds.
at a young age, do not implant them, as
it provides no benefits; implants do not Food safety concerns
improve age at puberty nor calving ease. The Food and Drug Administration
However, if replacement heifers cannot requires no withdrawal period before
be identified at an early age, implant- slaughter of implanted cattle. Beef from
ing all the heifer calves once between 2 implanted cattle has a very low level of
months of age and weaning does not estrogen activity compared to other
significantly affect reproduction in common foods. Table 2 lists the estro-
heifer calves eventually selected for re- genic activity of several common foods.
placements. The remaining heifer Likewise, the potential amount of es-
calves will be heavier at weaning. trogen consumed in beef from im-
Potential herd bulls: No implants planted cattle is extremely low com-
are labeled for use in bull calves in- pared to that produced daily by the
tended for future use as herd sires. Im-
plants can suppress testicular develop-
ment and reduce libido and semen qual- Table 2. Estrogenic activity of several com-
ity. mon foods (adapted from Preston, 1997).
Stocker cattle: A single implant will
Estrogenic activity
increase weight gain 8 to 18 percent, or Food (nanograms/lb.
15 to 40 pounds, during the grazing sea- of food)
son (Kuhl, 1997). If the grazing season
is more than 100 to 120 days and the Soybean oil 908,000
plane of nutrition is adequate, reim- Cabbage 10,896
planting or using an implant with a Wheat germ 1,816
longer release period stimulates addi-
tional weight gain. All the implants Peas 1,816
listed in Table 1 can be used in stocker Eggs 15,890
cattle. Implus-C® (Calf-oid®), Compo-
Ice cream 2,724
nent-C®, and Synovex-C® are recom-
mended for calves weighing less than Milk 59
400 pounds and can be used with light- Beef from a pregnant cow 636
weight stocker cattle.
Beef from implanted cattle 10
Reimplanting cattle: Reimplanting,
or administering a second implant at Beef from non-implanted cattle 7
 human body. If a person consumed 1 performance and carcass value of
pound of beef per day from implanted beef cattle. Oklahoma Agricultural
cattle, the potential estrogen intake Experiment Station P-957.
would be about 10 nanograms. In com- Preston, R.L. 1997. Rationale for the
parison, the daily estrogen production safety of implants. pp. 199-203. In:
by the human body is about 100,000 Symposium: Impact of implants on
nanograms for adult men, about performance and carcass value of
5,000,000 nanograms for non-pregnant beef cattle. Oklahoma Agricultural
women, and about 40,000 nanograms Experiment Station P-957.
for a prepuberal child.
Selk, Glenn. 1997. Implants for suck-
References ling steer and heifer calves and po-
tential replacement heifers. pp. 40-
50. In: Symposium: Impact of im-
Kuhl, Gerry L. 1997. Stocker cattle re- plants on performance and carcass
sponses to implants. pp. 51-62. In: value of beef cattle. Oklahoma Agri-
Symposium: Impact of implants on cultural Experiment Station P-957.

10,000 copies—Revised AS
 B-1306

Managing External Parasites

of Texas
Livestock and Poultry

Texas Agricultural Extension Service • Zerle L. Carpenter Director • The Texas A&M University System
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Safety Tips for Using Presticides ......................................................................................................... 3

Livestock Pests ...................................................................................................................................... 4

House Fly ............................................................................................................................................... 4
Stable Fly ........................................................................................................................................ 4
Screwworm Fly ............................................................................................................................... 4
Horn Fly .......................................................................................................................................... 4
Management of Pyrethroid-resistant Horn Flies ............................................................................... 4
Blow Fly .......................................................................................................................................... 5
Cattle Grub (Heel Fly) ..................................................................................................................... 5
Bot Fly ............................................................................................................................................ 6
Horse Fly, Deer Fly, Mosquito, Black Fly ......................................................................................... 6
Lice ................................................................................................................................................. 6
Mites ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Ticks ............................................................................................................................................... 6
Fleas ................................................................................................................................................ 7

Pesticide Formulations ........................................................................................................................ 7

Sprays ............................................................................................................................................. 7
Dips ................................................................................................................................................ 7
Pour-ons .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Spot-ons .......................................................................................................................................... 7
Dusts ............................................................................................................................................... 7
Injectables ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Feed and Mineral Pesticide Additives ............................................................................................... 8
Insecticide-Impregnated Ear Tags .................................................................................................... 8
Baits ................................................................................................................................................ 8
Pastes .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Boluses ............................................................................................................................................ 8

Dilution Chart for Mixing Sprays or Dips .......................................................................................... 9

Pesticide Suggestions .......................................................................................................................... 10

Beef Cattle and Non-Lactating Dairy Cattle ................................................................................... 10
Lactating Dairy Cattle .................................................................................................................... 15
Sheep & Non-Lactating Goats ........................................................................................................ 16
Swine ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Horses ........................................................................................................................................... 19
Poultry .......................................................................................................................................... 20
Premises (Inside or outside of animal quarters) .............................................................................. 22

Insecticides and Corresponding Trade Names ................................................................................. 23

Policy Statement for Making Pest Management Suggestions ......................................................... 24

 Managing External Parasites of Texas
Livestock and Poultry
Clifford E. Hoelscher, Carl D. Patrick, and James V. Robinson
Extension Entomologists
The Texas A&M University System

Integrated Pest Management menace. These pests lower the energy loss. Suggested pesti-
(IPM) is a system approach that quality of animal products cides will aid in control of the
combines a variety of livestock (hides, hair, wool) by physical major parasites where insecti-
production practices using both feeding damage; reduce meat, cide resistance has not devel-
biological and chemical control milk and egg production by oped. A special section ad-
methods. External and internal sucking blood from animals; dresses the management of
arthropod parasites of livestock transmit diseases; and cause insecticide-resistant pests.
and poultry are a constant

Safety Tips for Using Pesticides

★ Read the labels and follow directions and safety precautions. (Never use pesticides inconsistent
with the label).
★ Record all pesticide usage including the common name, trade name, formulation, dilution, applica-
tion rate and date of treatment.
★ Use face masks or respirators and protective clothing during spraying. Avoid breathing spray mist
or dust.
★ If pesticides are spilled on the skin or clothing, wash thoroughly with soap and water and change
clothes.
★ Do not eat, drink or smoke when handling pesticides.
★ Provide adequate ventilation when applying pesticides.
★ To prevent illegal meat and milk residues and possible harm to the animal, never exceed label rates
of application.
★ Never apply pesticides closer to slaughter dates than the number of days listed on the label.
★ Avoid drift to adjacent cropland, yards, wood lots, lakes or ponds. Some materials may injure and
kill fish or wildlife crops.
★ Avoid treatment to animals that are sick, overheated or stressed from shipping, dehorning, castra-
tion, recent weaning, etc.
★ Avoid contamination of feed, mangers, water, milk and milking equipment.
★ Do not spread treated manure on cropland unless label approval is given.
★ Store pesticides in the original, labeled containers, safely locked away from children, pets and
livestock.
★ Dispose of empty pesticide containers promptly and properly according to specified recommenda-
tions. Stay out of the smoke if containers are burned.
★ Contact a physician at once in all cases of suspected poisoning. Symptoms of organic phosphate
poisoning include blurred vision, abdominal cramps and tightness in the chest. Atropine is anti-
dotal for some organophosphorus pesticides.

3
 Livestock Pests There is a constant threat of begin to use self-treatment
reintroduction of the screw- devices regularly. Forced use of
worm by the accidental trans- these self-applicating devices
House Fly portation of infested animals to results in more rapid and
uninfested areas. Producers effective control of horn flies
The house fly is suspected of must always be aware of the and may aid in lice control.
reducing weight gains and feed potential threat of screwworm
efficiency in livestock. Pesti- infestations. Producers are Insecticide-impregnated ear
cides alone will not control urged to inspect livestock for tags provide excellent horn fly
house flies. Sanitary measures screwworms and submit all control for periods of 2 1/2 to 5
that eliminate fly breeding areas suspect blow fly larvae found in months if properly attached to
such as spreading of manure, animals for positive identifica- the ear and if pyrethroid or
regular cleaning and prevention tion. Collect 10 larvae from organophosphate resistance is
of waste accumulation, and deep within the wound. Place not a factor.
regular removal of spilled feed them in alcohol and send Automatic, animal-activated
are necessary. Spread manure samples to the Southwest sprays often are installed in exit
thinly in fields so fly eggs and Screwworm Eradication Labora- chutes of milking barns. Ani-
larvae will be killed by drying tory, Box 969, Mission, TX mals can be treated conven-
and heat. Several pesticides can 78572. Telephone (409) 845- iently twice each day (or less
be used on manure piles to 7027 at Texas A&M University often as necessary) with very
prevent maggot development. for additional information. The small volumes of specially
Pesticides in spray or bait USDA, APHIS, international formulated pesticides for biting
forms may be used to control services office at (301) 734-8892 fly and other insect control.
adult flies in livestock barns and also can provide assistance.
poultry houses. Do not con- Suspect screwworm samples
taminate feed, utensils, drinking can be sent directly to the Management of
water or milking equipment National Veterinary Science Pyrethroid-resistant
with any pesticide. Laboratory, Box 844, Dayton Horn Flies
Road, Ames, IA 50010,
(515) 239-8301. Field observations and labora-
Stable Fly tory studies conducted during
Report any suspected screw- the summer and fall of 1984
Stable flies suck blood, worm cases to your county confirmed the development of
irritate animals and reduce Extension agent or local veteri- pyrethroid resistance in horn
weight gain and milk produc- narian. Eradication personnel flies. The combination of very
tion. These flies breed in can take the appropriate mea- effective insecticides and wide-
mixtures of manure and decay- sures only when they are aware spread ear tag use by cattlemen
ing litter around barns. Dispose of the problem. has allowed horn fly resistance
of manure and litter as outlined to develop. Cross-resistance to
for house flies. Sanitation is the common pyrethroids has
important in reducing stable fly Horn Fly been confirmed by field obser-
numbers. Immediate fly control Horn flies suck blood, irritate vations. Flies that have devel-
may be obtained by spraying fly cattle and reduce weight gains oped resistance to one of the
resting areas with approved by decreasing animal thrift and pyrethroids will be resistant to
pesticides. vigor. Horn flies can become all other pyrethroid insecticides
numerous on cattle from late currently labeled for use in
spring to early fall. There are Texas. However, the newer
Screwworm Fly several self-treatment devices products may continue to
The screwworm fly has been that may be used to control provide acceptable control for
eradicated from Texas. The last horn flies. Cable-type back several years by using more
confirmed case was reported in rubbers covered with an absor- potent materials.
1982. Eradication was accom- bent material treated with an Continued treatment of
plished over a 20-year period insecticide-oil solution, or fabric successive generations of flies
using sterile-male fly releases, dust bags partially filled with an with the same type of insecti-
insecticide baits and producer approved pesticide dust, have cide can cause insecticide
diligence and support. Screw- been used successfully. Place resistance to develop. Individu-
worm eradication has now been these devices near water, feed als in the population that are
achieved in the Republic of or mineral sources or in gaps or carrying genes susceptible to
Mexico. Eradication efforts are gateways to encourage use. A 2- the toxicant are quickly killed,
presently underway in Costa to 3-week adjustment period and the survivors, carrying
Rica and Panama. may be necessary before cattle

4
resistant genes, reproduce to removed, apply a spray or Cattle grubs are the larval
build the next, more difficult to dust treatment to reduce the stage of heel flies. Adult heel
kill generation. Rotation of potential population of flies emerge in late winter,
insecticides with different overwintering flies. spring or summer. Female flies
modes of action is extremely lay eggs on the legs and lower
important in avoiding or delay- Where there are flies resis- body regions of cattle. Heel fly
ing resistance. tant to pyrethroid or OP insecti- activity causes cattle to run
cides, continued use of these widely with tails in the air
Insecticide ear tags perform chemistry types can increase (gadding), or to stand in water
by dispensing a small amount of resistance levels. Do not use to protect themselves. Eggs
the insecticide continuously pyrethroids in any formulation attached to the hairs hatch into
over a 2 1/2- to 5-month period. including organophosphate/ tiny larvae that penetrate the
The insecticide diffuses to the pyrethroid combination ear tags skin and begin to migrate
tag surface and is deposited on where resistance is a problem. through the body of the animal.
the animal’s body through Left untreated, susceptible flies Larvae congregate in the tissues
normal body movement. Flow will mate with other susceptible of the esophagus, but eventually
of the insecticide from the tag or resistant flies. This reduces move to the back in later sum-
starts at a high rate and de- the rate at which resistance mer, fall or winter. Grubs
creases to a point where fly develops. Periodic application develop with a “cyst” or
control is no longer achieved. methods tend to increase resis- “warble” just under the skin on
Ear tags have provided economi- tance levels less than continu- the back. After 6 to 8 weeks,
cal control of the horn fly, Gulf ous release methods. grubs leave the animal’s body
Coast tick and spinose ear tick. through holes cut in the hide,
Data show that horn flies are The combination ear tags
include Double Barrel® and Max fall to the soil and pupate.
the most obvious pest that can
become resistant to pyrethroid Con®. These dual chemistry Although cattle grubs can be
insecticides dispensed from ear tags are not listed because controlled after they reach the
tags. resistance develops for both animal’s back, earlier control is
types of compounds. preferable. Once the grubs
The following are manage- reach the back, most of the
ment options for control of damage has been done.
pyrethroid-resistant horn flies: Blow Fly
Blow fly larvae, commonly Systemic pesticides adminis-
Option 1: Do not treat cattle tered as sprays, dips, pour-ons,
for horn flies. referred to as fleeceworms or
wool maggots, attack sheep and boluses and injectables are
Option 2: Treat cattle with goats. Infestations usually start distributed through the animal’s
insecticides only after horn fly around the crotch in wool or body; systemic pesticides
populations reach 250 to 300 mohair contaminated with feces destroy cattle grubs by contact
per head. Research has indi- and urine. Ordinarily, tagging action. To avoid the possibility
cated that if there are fewer and docking animals prevents of a host-parasite reaction, cattle
than 250 flies per animal, fleeceworm infestations. If should be treated with
economic losses rarely occur. fleeceworms occur, shear the systemics as soon as possible
affected area and treat with a after heel fly activity ceases but
Treatment Options: not within a 6- to 7-week period
labeled insecticide.
a) Use alternate chemistry type prior to the expected appear-
sprays, dusts or other formu- Blow fly maggots also are ance of grubs in the back.
lations. Treat only when found in wounds on other Typical host-parasite reaction
horn fly populations exceed livestock. Black blow fly larvae symptoms include a swollen
200 to 250 per head. frequently infest dehorning esophagus, bloat, profuse
wounds during winter months salivation, discomfort and, in
b) Use organophosphate (OP) and occasionally infest the extreme cases, death. Do not
ear tags such as Cutter 1®, navels of newborn animals. confuse a host-parasite reaction
Terminator®, Optimizer® or with organophosphate poison-
Commando®. Do not use ing, which is quite similar.
organophosphate ear tags if Cattle Grub (Heel Fly) Atropine, an antidote for OP
they have been used the poisoning, is NOT RECOM-
previous 2 or more successive Cattle grubs cause economic
losses because they reduce milk MENDED for a host-parasite
years. If ear tags are used, reaction and may make the
remove tags when calves are production, weight gain, feed
efficiency and hide value. problem worse.
weaned or cows are worked
in the fall. If horn fly popula- Losses also are suffered with
tions exceed 200 to 250 per carcass trim and lower meat
head at the time tags are quality.

5
Bot Fly The black fly is a small, on skin scales and hair. Both
humpbacked fly which can produce intense itching and
Two species of bot flies attack occur in tremendous numbers, irritation that cause the animal
horses. With heavy infestations causing irritation and even to rub and scratch.
horses become unthrifty. Eggs death to livestock. They are
are attached to hairs on the lip important vectors of diseases
and under the jaw or on the such as leucocytozoan disease of Mites
front legs of horses, depending turkeys. Smokey fires can give
upon the bot fly species. Eggs Mange mites burrow into the
animals relief from black flies. skin, producing tunnels in
hatch directly or in response to Insecticides also give temporary
warmth and moisture, usually which the eggs are deposited.
relief if applied frequently. Scab mites deposit their eggs at
where horses lick themselves. Larvae develop in rivers and
Larvae become attached to and the bases of hairs or in the skin.
streams. Larvacidal control Feeding of the mites produces
feed in various portions of the requires careful study and the
digestive tract, from the mouth scabs which constantly enlarge
accurate application of insecti- as feeding progresses.
to the rectum. Mature larvae cide.
are passed with the feces. Certain species of scab mites
Pupation occurs in the soil and attacking cattle, sheep or goats
adults emerge 3 to 10 weeks Lice are under state quarantine
later. Treatment for bots is an regulations. If the presence of
oral dose of an approved pesti- Lice cause the U.S. cattle
industry annual losses of several mites is suspected, contact
cide. personnel of the Texas Animal
million dollars. These losses
The sheep nose bot is a hairy, result from anemia, unthrifti- Health Commission, Box 12966,
yellowish fly about the size of a ness, reduced rates of growth, Austin, Texas 78711, (512) 719-
honey bee. It deposits living inefficient feed utilization, 0700.
larvae around the nostrils of secondary diseases resulting The chicken mite is an
sheep. The larvae crawl into from lowered resistance of the intermittent feeder, usually
nasal passages where they animals and even mortality. remaining on the host a short
remain until mature. After time. The northern fowl mite
varying lengths of time, they fall Four species of lice suck
blood from cattle; one feeds on and the tropical fowl mite
to the ground where they usually spend their entire life
pupate. hair and scales. Lice are more
abundant during winter and cycles on hosts.
spring when the hair is long and The scaley-leg mite burrows
Horse Fly, Deer Fly, animals are in close proximity. under the scales on the feet and
Mosquito, Black Fly For effective control, treat cattle legs of fowl, causing irritation,
in the late fall and early winter. sores and secretions.
Horse fly and deer fly adults
are vicious biters. They cause Several species of sucking Depluming mites burrow into
livestock to lose weight and may and biting lice attack sheep and the skin of chickens and cause
transmit anaplasmosis, anthrax goats. Animals infested with irritation around the bases of
and other diseases. Most horse lice rub, bite and pull the feathers.
flies and deer flies are found in infested area, damaging wool
and mohair. Chiggers are frequent pests of
brushy or low lying pasture chickens and turkeys on range.
areas near creeks, streams or Only one species of lice They cause irritation and low-
tanks that provide damp soils in occurs on hogs. These blood- ered feed conversion efficiency,
which the immature stages sucking lice transfer from one but the main concern is skin
develop. Moving livestock from animal to another when the blemishes which lower the
such areas may provide them animals are in close contact. carcass grade of processed
some relief from the attacks of poultry.
horse flies and deer flies. Poultry are attacked by
several species of biting lice that
Mosquitoes are important cause irritation and weight loss,
pests of livestock in irrigated
Ticks
reduce egg production, decrease
areas or where there is heavy market quality of birds and Several species of hard and
rainfall. Producers may not even kill some birds. soft ticks attack livestock and
fully appreciate the losses that poultry. The lone star tick
mosquitoes cause, for heaviest Two species of lice are com- occurs principally in wooded or
attacks often occur at night. monly found on horses in Texas. brushy areas during spring and
Mosquitoes are carriers of One sucks blood and the other summer, and is most abundant
several diseases, including is a chewing louse which feeds
sleeping sickness in horses.

6
in east central and west central Pesticide cost of filling and charging the
Texas. The Gulf Coast tick now vat is high, but cost per animal
ranges from the Gulf Coast of Formulations may be relatively low since
Texas to central Oklahoma. Livestock pesticides are many animals can be dipped in
Peak adult activity in Texas formulated as wettable powders, the vat during the season with
occurs in late summer and early pour-ons, spot-ons, emulsifiable little additional expense. Be-
fall. Adults attack cattle mainly concentrates, smears, feed cause animals are wet thor-
around the ears, eyes and poll of additives, dusts, injectables, oughly in a vat, good coverage is
the head; the lesions often aerosols, impregnated PVC, ensured.
resulted in screwworm infesta- baits and pastes. Only those
tions before fly eradication was When filling or recharging a
pesticides made specifically for dipping vat, use only formula-
achieved. The winter tick can animals should be used. Other
become a problem during the tions specially prepared for
formulations of the same pesti- dipping animals. Do not mix
late fall and winter. In the cide may be dangerous to the
eastern half of the state, the two or more different products
animal. Handle all pesticides unless specified on their labels.
black-legged tick occurs in the carefully and follow exactly all
spring and winter. The spinose Follow the manufacturer’s label
label instructions. directions for mixing fresh dips
ear tick is not found throughout
Texas. These ticks, which and for replenishing previously
used dips. Mix the material
attach deep within the ears of Sprays thoroughly in the vat before
livestock, cause intense irrita-
tion, wax accumulation and Prepare only enough solution each use.
excretions, which may cause ear to adequately spray the animals.
infections. Pesticides may undergo chemi-
cal changes after being mixed Pour-ons
The fowl tick (“blue bug”) with water, creating potential Pour-on pesticides are formu-
injures poultry by sucking hazards to the applicator and lated for direct application to
blood, transmitting disease, animals. Emulsifiable concen- the backlines of animals. They
causing weight loss, lowering trate or soluble formulations are are used principally for cattle
egg production and causing skin better than wettable powders grub and louse control. Recom-
blemishes which reduce market for use in small sprays because mended materials may be
value. less agitation is required to purchased in ready-to-use or
The tropical horse tick maintain a uniform mixture. water-miscible formulations.
attacks horses and is usually When spraying to control The chemical is absorbed
found attached within the ears ticks, lice and mites, use enough through the skin and circulates
and on the mane and nostrils. water to cover the animal through the animal’s system.
Its distribution is restricted to thoroughly. Wet animals to the Backline treatments with pour-
the southern tip of Texas and skin when spraying systemic on material also provide horn
Florida. Its feeding activity pesticides for cattle grub con- fly control for a short period of
causes intense irritation, making trol. Sprayers can be moved time.
infested horses very head shy. easily from pasture to pasture;
The tick also can transmit however, transporting water
equine piroplasmosis. may be a problem because up to
Spot-ons
1 gallon of spray per animal is Spot-on pesticides can be
often required for effective easily applied for cattle grub
Fleas parasite control. Sprayers and louse control. This method
Stick tight fleas are a com- should have a high-volume involves the application of a
mon pest of poultry throughout piston pump with a suitable small amount of pesticide with
the southern areas of the United agitator when applying sprays specially designed applicators in
States. When fleas are abun- made from wettable powders. a single spot on the backlines of
dant, their blood sucking re- Apply sprays at a pressure of animals.
duces egg production and kills 250 to 350 pounds per square
young birds. They attach to the inch.
comb and wattles and around Dusts
the eyes. Dusts can be applied to
Dips
animals by hand shakers or in
Properly maintained dip vats self-treatment dust bags. Their
provide effective parasite chief value is for horn fly and
control. Vats can be filled early lice control on large animals
in the season and used several and for lice and mite control on
times during the year. Initial poultry.

7
Injectables Pastes Boluses
Avermectin treatment for Several treatments for horses Boluses are designed to
beef cattle is labeled as a subcu- and cattle are formulated as slowly release materials in the
taneous injection. Present pastes to be applied orally with animal’s reticulum. Vigilante®
formulations are also labeled for a ready-to-use syringe. Label contains dimilin which is an
internal parasite control. instructions should be followed insect growth regulator. Ivomec
closely. SR Bolus® contains an
avermectin which controls a
Feed and Mineral broad spectrum of internal and
Pesticide Additives external pests.
Certain pesticides may be
administered as feed or mineral
additives. These control certain
fly species whose maggot stages
occur in animal manure.

Read the Label - Follow Directions

Insecticide-
Impregnated Ear Tags The Environmental Protection Agency establishes tolerances
for pesticide residues in agricultural commodities intended for
Ear tags are plastic devices human consumption. Follow suggestions in this publication and
that contain an insecticide for on the manufacturer’s label concerning dosage, frequency of
ear tick and horn fly control. application and slaughter interval to avoid illegal residues. Read
They control ear ticks for 4 to 5 thoroughly the remarks and safety restrictions in the following
months and horn flies for 2 1/2 table and on the manufacturer’s label.
to 5 months (in areas where
flies are not resistant to pyre-
throids). Observations across
Texas have indicated that longer
residual control can be expected
in the central and western areas
compared to the more humid
coastal areas of south Texas.
Pesticide Suggestions
NOTE: The tables on the following pages are intended to serve
Baits only as a guide to the selection of pesticides for control of specific
Baits are primarily used to parasites. Space does not permit presenting full instructions for
help control house flies around use of all products. Before purchasing any insecticide, read the
feedlots, dairies, poultry houses, label closely to determine whether the product is appropriate for
livestock barns and other places your uses. Pay particular attention to all directions, restrictions
flies tend to congregate. Baits and precautions and use the product in strict accordance with the
are made from dry sugar, syrup label to avoid personal or animal injury or illegal residues in meat
or other substances that attract or milk. A list of chemical and corresponding trade names for
flies. A small amount of pesti- various insecticides is provided on page 23 of this guide.
cide is added to the mixture to
kill flies that feed on the bait.

8
Dilution Chart for Mixing Sprays or Dips

9
 Pesticide Suggestions
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions

Beef Cattle and Non-Lactating Dairy Cattle

Cattle Note: Systemic pesticides for cattle grub control may be administered as dips, sprays, pour-
Grub ons, injectables or spot-ons. Administer treatments between May and September 1,
preferably soon after May 1 for best results. Animals should not be treated for grub control
and internal parasites with certain products on the same day. In addition to restrictions
listed below, follow all precautions and restrictions listed on the product label.
1. Dips Coumaphos
(Co-Ral®) 25% WP 0 Agitate dip vat thoroughly before use.
42% flowable Do not apply to non-lactating dairy animals
within 14 days of freshening. Do not treat
animals less than 3 months old. Do not treat
sick, convalescent or stressed livestock. Also
controls horn flies, lice and ticks.
Phosmet
(GX-118®) 11.6% EC 21 Agitate dip vat solution thoroughly before use.
Do not treat dairy animals. Do not treat calves
less than 3 months old. Do not treat sick or
debilitated animals. Also controls horn flies.
2. Sprays Note: Thoroughly wet the animals to skin with spray from a high pressure sprayer using up to 1
gallon of finished formulation per animal.

Coumaphos
(Co-Ral®) 25% WP 0 Spray restrictions same as for Coumaphos
11.6 EC above. Also do not spray animals for 10 days
before or after shipping or weaning, or after
exposure to contagious and infectious disease.
Also controls horn flies, ticks and lice.
Phosmet
(Prolate®) 11.6% EC 21 Do not treat dairy animals. Do not spray
(GX-118®) more than every 7 days. Do not treat calves
(Delphos®) less than 3 months old. Do not treat sick or
(Lintox-HD) debilitated animals. Also controls horn flies.
3. Pour- ons Note: Under certain conditions, some pour-ons may cause minor skin irritation and scurfing. Show
animals should be treated at least several weeks in advance of show time to allow any
unsightliness to disappear.

Famphur
(Warbex®) 13.2% 35 Use with caution on Brahman animals. Do not
use on dairy cows or within 21 days of
freshening. Do not treat calves less than 3
months old. Do not treat sick or stressed
animals. Also controls horn flies and aids in
louse control.
Fenthion
(Tiguvon®) 3.0% 35-45 Do not treat dry animals within 28 days
of freshening. Do not treat animals less than 3
months old. Do not treat sick or stressed
animals. Do not treat within 10 days of
shipping or weaning. Also controls lice.
Avermectin 0.5% 48 Do not treat animals within 48 days of
(Ivomec®) ready-to-use slaughter. Do not treat dairy cattle of
(Eprinex®) ready-to-use 0 breeding age. Apply 1 ml. per 22 lbs.
of body weight.
Phosmet
(Prolate®) 11.6% pour-on 21 Same restrictions as for Phosmet above.
(GX-118®)
(Delphos®)

10
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions
Cattle Grub
(Cont.)
4. Spot-ons Fenthion
(Spotton®) 20% 45 Do not treat dairy cattle of breeding
ready-to-use age; calves less than 3 months old; or sick,
convalescent or severely stressed livestock.
Do not treat within 10 days of shipping or
weaning.
5. Injectables Avermectin
(Ivomec®) 1% 35 Use subcutaneous injection only. Not
ready-to-use for intravenous or intramuscular use. Do not
(Ivomec®) injectable exceed 200 micrograms of avermectin per
each kilogram (2.2 lbs.) of animal weight. No
more than 10 mls. of Ivomec® should be used
on animals over 1,100 lbs. (See label for
specific instructions.)
(Dectomex®) 1% Subcutaneous or intramuscular injection.
injectable Do not treat animals within 35 days of
slaughter. 1 ml/110 lbs. of body weight.
Do not use on dairy cattle over 20 months
of age.
Horn Fly Cyfluthrin 10% ear tag 0 Use 2 tags per head.
(Cutter Gold®)
(CyLence®) 1%
ready-to-use
Coumaphos
(Co-Ral®) 1% dust 0 Do not apply to dry animals within 14
11.6% EC days of freshening.
42% ELI
Diazinon
(Cutter 1®) 40% ear tag 0 Use 1-2 tags per head when
(Terminator®) 20% ear tag 0 horn flies exceed 250-300 per head.
(Optimizer®) 20% ear tag 0
Dichlorvos
(Vapona®) 21.8% EC 0 DO NOT exceed recommended labeled
rates.
Ethion
(Commando®) 36% ear tag 0 Use 1-2 tags per animal.
Fenthion
(Lysoff®) 7.6% pour-on 21-35 Do not treat calves less than 3 months
old, or sick, convalescent or stressed live-
stock. Do not treat non-lactating dairy cattle
within 28 days of freshening.
(Cutter Blue®) 20% ear tag 0 Apply 2 per animal.
Fenvalerate
(Ectrin®) 8% ear tag 0 Use 1-2 tags per animal.
(Eartag 8% ear tag 0 Use 1-2 tags per animal.
Plus®)
Lambda-
cyhalothrin
(Saber Extra
Ear Tag®) 10% ear tag 0 Use 1-2 tags per animal.
Methoxychlor 50% WP 0 Do not apply to dry dairy animals within
(Marlate®) 14 days of freshening. Use only where
pyrethroid resistance is not suspected.

11
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions
Horn Fly Permethrin
(cont.) (Duraset®) 1% 0 Contains Forapearl.
(Brute®) 10% pour-on 0 Can use on dairy cows.
(Gardstar®) 40% EC 0
(GardStar®) 10% ear tag 0 Apply 1-2 tags per animal.
(Ectiban®) 0.25% dust 0 Use at 14-day intervals.
(Anchor®
Permectrin II) 10% EC 0 Spray at 14- to 21-day intervals.
Permectrin CD 10% pour-on 0 Ready-to-use.
Permectrin CD5 7.4% pour-on 0 Ready-to-use.
(Atroban®) 11 EC 0 Spray at 14- to 21- day intervals.
10% ear tag 0 Apply 1-2 tags per animal.
(Ectiban) 5.7% EC 0 Spray at 14- to 21- day intervals.
Phosmet
(Prolate®) 11.6% EC 21 Follow the same restrictions given for
(GX-118®) cattle grubs in preceding section.
(Delphos®)
Pirimiphos methyl
(Dominator®) 20% ear tag 0 Use 1-2 tags per animal.
S-cyanomethyl 10% ear tag 0
carboxylate
(Python®) Use 1-2 tags per animal.
Stirofos
(Rabon®) 50%WP 0 Use 1/2 to 1 gal. dilute spray per animal.
Stirofos + Dichlorvos
(Ravap®) 23.0%+5.3%EC 0 Beef cattle only. Do not treat more
often than every 10 days.
Apply as a coarse spray.
Ticks Amitraz 12.5% EC 0 Use 1 quart in 100 gal. water.
(Taktic®)
Coumaphos 5.8% LIS
(Co-Ral®) 25% WP 0 Do not apply to dry dairy animals
42% flowable within 14 days of freshening.
11.6% EC
Permethrin
(Anchor®
Permectrin II) 10% EC 0 Use 1/4 to 1/2 gal. per animal; spray at
14- to 21-day intervals.
(Atroban®) 11% EC 0 Spray at 14- to 21-day intervals.
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 0 Spray at 14- to 21-day intervals.
(Ectiban®) 0.25% dust 0 Dust at 14-day intervals.
Stifofos +
Dichlorvos
(Ravap®) 23.0% + 5.3% 0 Beef cattle only. Do not treat more often
EC than every 10 days.

12
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions
Lice Amitraz 12.5% EC 0 Use 1 qt. in 100 gals. water.
(Taktic®)
Coumaphos 5.8% LIS
(Co-Ral®) 11.6% ELT 0 Do not apply to dry dairy animals within 14
1% dust days of freshening.
Fenthion
(Lysoff®) 7.6 % pour-on 35-40 Do not treat calves less than 3 months old, or
sick, convalescent or stressed livestock.
Do not treat non-lactating dairy cattle
within 28 days of freshening.
(Spotton®) 20% 45 Do not treat calves less than 3 months old, or
ready-to-use sick, convalescent or stressed livestock.
Avermectin
(Ivomec®) 0.5% pour-on 48 Do not treat animals within 48 days of
slaughter. Do not treat dairy cattle of
breeding age. Apply 1 ml. per 22 lbs.
of body weight.
Permethrin
(Anchor®
Permectrin II) 10% EC 5 Use 1/2 to 1 gal. per animal. Repeat at
2-week intervals.
(Atroban®) 11% EC 5 Use 1/2 gal. spray mix per animal. Repeat
at 2-week intervals.
(De-Lice®) 1% pour-on 0 Ready-to-use. Do not dilute. Apply
1/2 fl. oz. per 100 lbs. body weight, or a
maximum of 5 fl. oz. per animal.
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 0 Spray to thorough coverage; repeat
application in 2 weeks.
Avermectin
(Ivomec®) 1% injectable 35 Use subcutaneous injection only. 200
micrograms/kilogram of body weight. Not
recommended for chewing lice.
(Detomax®) 1% injectable 35 Subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. Do
not treat animals within 35 days of slaughter.
1 mi/110 lbs. of body weight. Do not use on
dairy cattle over 20 months of age. Not
recommended for chewing lice.
(Cyfluthrin)
(CyLence®) 1% pour-on 0 Ready-to-use. 4 ml/400 lbs. of body weight.
Maximum of 12 ml.
0.25% dust 0 Rub into coat; repeat for lice at 14 days.
Phosmet
(Delphos®)
(Prolate®) 11.6% EC 21
(GX-118®) 11.6% EC
Stirofos +
Dichlorvos 23.0% + 5.3% EC 0 Repeat in 14 days but not in less than 1
(Ravap®) week.

13
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions
Gulf Coast Tick Coumaphos
and Spinose (Co-Ral®) 5% dust 0 Follow carefully all instructions and
Ear Tick 3% spray foam precautions on label.
Fenvalerate
(Ectrin®) 8% ear tag 0 Use a tag in both ears.
Permethrin
(Atroban®) 10% ear tag 0 For beef and dairy cattle. Use a tag in both
(GardStar®) ears.
(Anchor®
Permectrin II) 10% EC 0 Apply 1/2 oz. oil or water mix per ear
or 2-4 oz. per face or 12-18 oz.
down back line. Read label for
preparation of spot-on mixes.
Screwworm
and Other Treat wounds and surrounding area thoroughly, but do not use excessive amounts. Treat
Blow Fly twice first week and weekly thereafter until healed.
Larvae
1. Wound Coumaphos
Treatment (Co-Ral®) 5% dust 0 Follow carefully all instructions and
3% spray foam 0 precautions on labels.
2. Preventive Coumaphos
Spray or (Co-Ral®) 25% WP 0 Do not apply to dry dairy animals
Wound 11.6% ELI within 14 days of freshening.
Treatment 42% flowable
Mange and Amitraz Two treatments 7-10 days apart are required
Scab Mites (Taktic®) 12.5% EC 0 for scabies mites.
Coumaphos
(Co-Ral®) 25% WP 0 Repeat in 10 to 14 days.
42% ELI
Avermectin
(Ivomec®) 1% injectable 35 Use subcutaneous injection only.
Not for intravenous or intramuscular use.
Do not exceed 100 micrograms per kilogram
(2.2 lbs.) of body weight. No more than 10 mls. of
1% should be used on animals over 1,000 lbs.
5% pour-on 48 Apply 1 ml. per 22 lbs. of body weight.
(Dectomax®) 1% injectable 35 Subcutaneous or intramuscular injection.
1 ml/110 lbs. of body weight. Do not use on
dairy cattle over 20 months of age.
Lindane 10% EC 30-60 Can be used as a spray or dip.
Permethrin
(Anchor®
Permectrin II) 10% EC 0 Spray to run-off; repeat in 2 to 3 weeks.
(Atroban®) 11 EC 0 Repeat application in 2 to 3 weeks.
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 0 Repeat application in 2 to 3 weeks.

14
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions

Lactating Dairy Cattle

NOTE: Dairymen must use good judgment in selection and application of pesticides.
Certain materials may be used safely if they are applied correctly, but others are not
recommended because they may contaminate the milk. Milk entering interstate commerce
can be confiscated by the Environmental Protection Agency if it contains illegal pesticide
residues. Consequently, careless use of pesticides may be very costly to the milk
producer.

One important source of milk contamination with pesticides is hay or forage which the
animal consumes. In purchasing baled hay or similar feed material, be sure pesticide
residues do not exceed established tolerances.
Lice Coumaphos 5.8% LIS
(Co-Ral®) 11.6% EC 0 Follow carefully all instructions and
25% WP precautions on labels. Spray animals
to run-off to achieve coverage.
1% dust 0 Apply over head, neck, shoulders,
back and tail head.
Permethrin
(Anchor®
Permectrin II) 10% EC 0 Use 1/2-1 gal. per head of dilute
spray; repeat in 14 to 21 days.
(Atroban®) 11% EC 0 Use 1/2 gal. per head of dilute spray;
repeat in 14 to 21 days.
Permectrin CD 10% pour-on 0 Ready-to-use.
Permectrin CDS 7.4% pour-on 0 Ready-to-use.
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 0 Use 1/2-1 gal. per head of dilute
spray; repeat in 14 to 21 days.
0.25% dust 0 Rub into coat; repeat in 14 days.
Cyfluthrin 1% pour-on 0 Ready-to-use. 4ml/400 lb of body weight.
(Cylence®) Maximum of 12 ml.
Pyrethrins +
Synergist 0.03 + 0.25 0 Apply as a fine mist.
Horn Fly In addition to dust bags and backrubbers, certain automatic mist sprayers can be used for daily fly
control. Consult the product label, local veterinarian, professional entomologist, county Extension
agent or supplier representative for methods of using your selected product.
Coumaphos Carefully follow all instructions and
(Co-Ral®) 1% dust 0 precautions on label.
Cyfluthrin
(CyLence®) 1% pour-on 0 Ready-to-use. 4 ml/400 lbs. of body weight.
Maximum of 12 ml.

15
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions
Horn Fly Dichlorvos 21.8% EC 0 Carefully follow all instructions and
(Cont.) (Vapona®) precautions on label.
Methoxychlor 5% dust 0 Do not use in conjunction with or
(Marlate®) 50% WP following permethrin.
Permethrin
(Artroban®) 10% tag 0 Use 1-2 tags per animal.
(Brute®) 11% EC
(Ectiban®) 1.2 grams/ tape 0 Use 1-2 tapes per animal.
(GardStar®) 10% ear tag 0 Use 1-2 tags per animal.
40% EC
(Atroban®
Permectrin II) 11% EC 0 Use 1/2 gal. of dilute spray per cow.
Permectrin CD 10% pour-on 0
Permectrin CD5 7.4% pour-on 0
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC Use 1/2-1 gal. of dilute spray per cow.
(Ectiban® D) 0.25% dust Use no more than 2 oz. per animal;
rub into coat.
Pyrethrins +
Synergist 0.5% + 5% 0 Apply daily as a mist spray.
ready-to-use
Stable Fly & Dichlorvos
House Fly (Vapona®) 21.8% 0 Do not exceed 2 oz. diluted spray
mix per animal. Do not contaminate
dairy feed.
Permethrin
(Anchor®
Permectrin II) 10% EC 0 Use 1/2-1 gal. diluted mix per animal.
(Atroban®) 11% EC 0 Use 1/2-1 gal. diluted mix per animal.
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 0 Spray dilute mix for thorough
coverage.
Pyrethrins
(Ortho Dairy and 0.03% 0 Apply enough spray to wet ends of
Horse Fly Spray) ready-to-use hair but not hide.
Screwworm
& Other Treat wound and surrounding area twice the first week and then weekly until healed.
Blow Fly
Larvae

Sheep & Non-Lactating Goats

Lice, Ticks Coumaphos 25% WP 0 Use 0.06% spray or dip for lice or
& Keds (Co-Ral®) 0.125% for ticks or keds. Do not use
on lactating milk goats or dry
animals within 14 days of freshening.
Agitate dip fluid before using.
5% dust (Keds) 0 For spot treatment application.
Diazinon 50% W 14 Use as spray or sprinkler can
(Dryzon®) treatment for sheep only.

16
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions
Lice Ticks Fenvalerate
& Keds (Ectrin ) 10% WDL 0 Apply 2 pts. of 0.025% spray per
(Cont.) (Vet-Shack®) animal after shearing or up to 4 oz.
of a pour-on down backline.
Consult label for specific mixing
instructions for sprays and pour-ons.
Lindane 10% EC 30-60 Do not treat milk goats. Do not treat
animals less than 3 months old.

Methoxychlor
(Marlate®) 50% WP 0 Apply 0.25% dip or 0.5% spray for
lice. Do not apply to lactating milk
goats.
5% dust (lice) 0 Work thoroughly into wool or hair.
Permethrin Use 1-2 qts. per animal (sheep or goats) of
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 0 0.05% spray or 1-2 oz. per animal of the 1 qt.
formulation per 2.5 gallons of water mix.

(DeLice®) 1% ready-to-use 0 Apply 1/2 oz. per 100 lbs. of body wt.
Nose Bots Avermectin
(Ivomec®) 0.08% drench 11 Apply 3 ml per 26 lbs. of body weight as an
oral drench.
Screwworm
& Other
Wound NOTE: Treat wound twice the first week and then weekly until healed.
Infesting
Larvae
1. Wound Coumaphos
Treatment (Co-Ral®) 5% dust 0 Dust wound and surrounding area
thoroughly.
3% K.R.S 0 Cover wound thoroughly with foam.
Spray foam
2. Preventive Coumaphos
Spray or (Co-Ral®) 25% WP 3 Do not use on lactating dairy goats
Wound or dry animals within 14 days of
Treatment freshening. Immerse or spray
thoroughly. Repeat as needed.
Fleece- Coumaphos
worm or (Co-Ral®) 25% WP 3 Do not use on lactating dairy goats
Wool or dry animals within 14 days of
Maggot freshening. Immerse or spray
thoroughly. Cover infested area.
3% spray foam
or
5% dust 0 For spot treatment application.

17
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions

Swine

Lice Note: Treat thoroughly; amount depends on animal’s size and amount of hair. Do not treat sick or
stressed animals. Do not treat for external parasite control and vaccinate on the same day.
Repeat application after 2 to 3 weeks.
Amitraz
(Taktic®) 12.5% EC 1 Mix 1 pint in 25 gals. water.
Coumaphos 25% WP 0 Spray animal thoroughly.
(Co-Ral®) 11.6% ELT 0 Spray animal thoroughly
5% LIS 0 Do not apply dust more often than every 10 days.
1% Dust may be used simultaneously with 1%
dust bedding treatment for severe
infestations.
Fenthion 3% ready-to-use 14 May be used on gestating and
(Tiguvon®) lactating sows.
Fenvalerate 10% WDL 1 Wet animals thoroughly; repeat in 14
(Ectrin®) days if necessary.
Avermectin
(Ivomec®) 1% injectable 18 Subcutaneously inject 1 ml. of material for
0.27% injectable each 75 lbs. of body weight.
For pigs, subcutaneously inject 0.5 ml. per
10 lbs. of body weight.
Permethrin
(Atroban®) 11% EC 5 Thoroughly soak animal; repeat in
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 5 14 days.
(Ectoban® D) 0.25% dust 5 Rub into hair; repeat in 14 days.
Phosmet 11.6% EC 1 Use 0.125% spray mix only. Wet
(Prolate®) skin thoroughly using approximately
(GX 118®) 1 qt. per head on mature animals.
(Delphos®)
Sarcoptic Amitraz
Mange (Taktic®) 12.5 EC 1 Spray with a coarse nozzle; mix 1 pt. in 25
Mite gals. water.
Fenvalerate
(Ectrin®) 10% WDL 1 Wet animals thoroughly; repeat at
14-day intervals.
Avermectin
(Ivomec®) 1% injection 18 Subcutaneously inject 1 ml. (cc) for
each 75 lbs. of body weight.
Lindane 10% EC 30-60 Do not treat animals less than 3
months of age. Do not treat sows
within 3 weeks after farrowing.
Phosmet
(Prolate®) 11.6% EC 1 Use 0.125% spray mix only. Wet
(Delphos®) thoroughly using approximately 1 qt.
per head on mature animals.

18
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions

Horses

Bots Dichlorvos 17.5% Several formulations are available.

(Horse Some are for use only by or upon
Wormer®) order of licensed veterinarians; others may be
administered by owner. Check product label
for use restrictions on the particular product.
Avermectin
(Zimecterin®) 1.87% oral paste Refer to specific instructions on
(Equimectrin®) syringe usage.
(Eqvalan®)
Trichlorfon 40% oral paste Do not treat foals less than 4 months
(Combot®) old or mares in last month of pregnancy.
12.3% liquid Do not treat sick or debilitated horses.
Do not treat horses to be used for food.
Single oral dose in feed 1 month after killing
frost. Do not repeat within 30 days.
Lice,
Horn Fly,
Stable Fly, Numerous products are available for use. The following list includes examples.
Ticks &
Mosquitoes
Coumaphos 11.6% ELI Do not treat animals less than 3 months old.
(Co-Ral®) Spray 5.8% LIS Do not treat sick or stressed animals. Do not
42% flowable use in conjunction with oral drenches or other
internal parasite medications or with
pyrethroids or their synergists or other
organic phosphates. Repeat as necessary.
1% dust (horn fly) Dust lightly in ears for ticks.
5% dust For screwworms, treat wound thoroughly.
3% spray (foam) Cover thoroughly. Spray wound.
Fenvalerate 10% WDL Apply 8 oz. of mix per animal as a
(Ectrin®) light spray. Do not treat animals
for slaughter.
Pyrethrin +
(Repel-X®) ready-to-use
(Wipe®) ready-to-use
Repeat as necessary. For horn flies and
mosquitoes.
Permethrin
(Actroban®)
(Anchor® 11% EC
Permectrin II) 10% EC Wet horses thoroughly.
(Ectiban®) 11% EC Sponge animal thoroughly with 2 qts.
(Gardstar®) 40% EC of mix.

19
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions
Lice, Stirofos +
Horn Fly Pyrethrin +
Stable Fly, Piperonyl
Ticks & butoxide
Mosquitoes 1.27% Repeat as necessary. For horn flies and
(Cont.) ready-to-use mosquitoes.

Poultry

House Fly & Cyromazine

Soldier Fly (Larvadex®) 1% premix 3 Labeled for house fly only. Use as a feed
additive to control house fly larvae in manure.
Follow label directions.
Carbaryl
(Sevin®) 5% dust or 7 Use 1 lb. of 5% dust per 100 birds or 1.2 oz.
50% WP of 50% WP in 1 gal. of water per 100 birds.
Bird treatment is used as a supplement to
roost and building treatment.
5% dust (litter) 7 Use 1 lb. per 40 square feet of floor, roost
5% dust box 7 or interior surface.
Treat litter evenly and thoroughly. Mix evenly
in top layer of dust box contents. Use
2.5 lbs. of 5% dust per 50 birds in an
18x12x3-inch dust box.
Permethrin
(Anchor® 10% EC 0 Use 1-2 oz. per bird; cover vent
Permectrin II) thoroughly.
(Artroban®) 11% EC 0 Apply to birds thoroughly, particularly to vent.
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 0 Use 1 gal. spray per 100 birds; cover vent
areas thoroughly.
(Ectiban® D) 0.25% dust 0 Dust thoroughly around vent of each bird.
Stirofos
(Rabon®) 50% WP 0 For caged birds, apply as a 0.5% spray to
vent and fluff areas from below.
For floor-managed birds, spray lightly
while treating litter surface. Repeat as
necessary, but not more often than every
14 days.
1% roost paint 0 Spray or paint roost thoroughly.
or spray
Stirofos +
Dichlorvos
(Ravap®) 23% WP + 1 Spray vent and fluff areas with 0.6% spray.
5.3% EC Do not repeat more often than every 14
days.
Fowl Tick Carbaryl
(Sevin®) 50% WP 7 Treat roosts and buildings only.
80 S 7
Stirofos
(Rabon®) 50% WP 0 Apply 1% spray to walls, ceiling, floor
cracks and crevices.
Stirofos +
Dichlorvos
(Poultry Spray 23% WP + 0 Thoroughly cover walls, ceilings, cracks
& Larvicide®) 5.3% EC and crevices with 1.25% spray.

20
Pesticide Suggestions (Continued )
Minimum days
from last
application
Pest Pesticide Formulation to slaughter Remarks and safety restrictions
Northern Carbaryl
Fowl Mite (Sevin®) 5% dust 7 Use 1 lb. per 100 birds. Do not con-
taminate feed or drinking water. Bird
treatment is used as a supplement to
roost and building application. Do not
repeat application within 4 weeks.
5% dust 7 Use 2.5 lbs. of 5% dust per 50 birds in
(dust box) an 18x12x3-inch dust box.
50% WP 7 Refer to labels for specific instructions and
80 S 7 precautions.
Stirifos
(Rabon®) 50% WP 0 For birds in wire cages or on floor, use 1
gal. of 0.5% spray per 100 birds or 1 oz.
per bird. For caged birds, apply to vent and
fluff areas from below. For floor-managed
birds, spray birds lightly while treating litter
surface. Repeat as necessary, but not more
often than every 14 days.
and/or
50% WP 0 For litter treatment, use 1 to 2 gals. of 0.5%
spray per 1,000 sq. ft. Apply to litter, walls,
roosts, cracks and crevices.
and/or
0 Use 1 pt. of 1% mix per 100 ft. of roost.
50% WP 0 Dust 2.5 oz. per 100 sq. ft. of litter. Treat litter
evenly and thoroughly.
and/or
0 Use 2.5 oz. per 50 birds. Mix evenly in top
layer of dust box contents.
Permethrin
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC 0 1 qt. to 25 gals. of water. Use 1 gal. spray per
100 birds, paying particular attention to vents.
(Atroban®) 11% 0 1 pt. to 25 gals. of water.
(Permethrin II®) 10% EC 0 1 qt. to 50 gals. of water. Use 1-2 oz. per bird
or 1 gal. per 100 birds directed to vent areas.
(Gardstar®) 40% EC 0 1-4 fl. oz in 3.75 gals. of water.
Chiggers Chlorpyrifos
Infesting (Dursban®) 50W Do not apply directly to turkeys. Spray soil in
Area pens using 100-150 gals. of water per area.
Depluming Mite Sulfur Dust Elemental sulfur Use 25-50 lbs. of elemental sulfur per area.
Sulfur-soap 2 oz. sulfur 0 Dip birds thoroughly, wetting feathers.
mixture and 1 oz. soap
in 1 gal. water

21
 Procedures
Pest Pesticide Formulation for application Remarks and safety restrictions

Premises
(Inside or outside of animal quarters)

House Fly Cyfluthrin 20% WP Cover total For “crawling and flying” pests.
Stable Fly (Countdown®) area
Diazinon® 50% WP cover resting Remove animals from buildings prior to
areas spraying. Keep them out for at least 4 hours.
thoroughly
Dichlorvos
(Vapona®) 21.8% Direct Avoid direct application to exposed feed and
(Feedlot®) 0.5%-1.0% water.
40.2% Mist over entire Do not use where milk is processed.
area where Do not use during milking time
where flies when milk and utensils may become
congregate contaminated.
18.6% pest One strip per Most effective in spaces with little air
strip 1,000 cubic ft. movement.
Dimethoate
(Cygon®) 23.4% EC Thoroughly Remove animals from building before
spray interior spraying. Do not apply to milk rooms.
and exterior
surfaces
Fenvalerate
(Ectrin®) 10% WDL Apply to fly Do not contaminate feed or water.
resting areas
Lambda Cyhalothrin10% WP Mix with water Do not contaminate feed or water.
(Grenade®) for treatment
Methoxychlor
(Marlate®) 50% WP Cover resting Remove dairy cattle from building
surfaces prior to spraying.
thoroughly
with 2.5-5%
spray
Methomyl
(Golden Malrin®) ready-to-use Scatter in fly Do not use in poultry operations except
bait breeding with caged layers.
(Apache®) areas
Permethrin
(Atroban®) 11% EC Apply to fly Do not contaminate feed or water.
25% WP resting areas
(Anchor®
Permectrin II) 10% EC Apply to fly Do not contaminate feed or water.
resting areas
(Ectiban®) 5.7% EC Apply to fly Do not contaminate feed or water.
25% WP resting areas
Gardstar® 40% EC Apply to hands
and resting areas
Stirofos
(Rabon®) 50% WP Apply 1% Do not contaminate feed, water,
spray to utensils or equipment.
ceilings and
walls to the
point of run-off
Stirofos + 2.3% +5.3% Apply 1.25-2.5% Formulation and dosage will vary with
Dichlorvos spray to the type of surface.
(Ravap®) surfaces to the
point of run-off

22
 Insecticides and Corresponding Trade Names

Chemical Name Trade Name Chemical Name Trade Name

Amitraz Taktic® Lambda cyhalothrin Saber®
Avermectin Ivomec® Grenade®
Zimectin® Lambda cyhalothrin/ Double Barrell®
Eqvalan® Pirimiphos methyl
Dectomax® Lindane Lindane
Eprinex®
Lime-Sulphur Lime-Sulphur
Carbaryl Sevin® Methomyl Golden Malrin®
Chlorpyrifos Dursban® Apache®

Coumaphos CoRal® Methoxychlor Marlate

Spray Foam Pyrethrin Repel®
Wipe®
Cyfluthrin Cutter Gold®
Cylence® Permethrin Anchor® Permectrin II
Cypermethrin/Chlorpyrifos Max Con® Atroban®
Patrot®
Cyromazine Larvadex® GardStar®
Insecta-Gard®
Diazinon Countdown® Delice®
Diazinon Duraset®
Dryzon Brute®
Terminator® Permectrin CD®
Cutter 1® Permectrin CDS®
Diazinon/Chlorpyrifos Warrior®
Dichlorvos Horse Wormer® Pirimiphos-methyl Dominator®
Vapona®
Dimethoate Cygon® Phosmet GX-118
Ethion Commando® Prolate®
Famphur Warbex® Delphos®
Lintox HD®
Cutter Blue®
Lysoff® S-Cyanomethyl Python®
Spotton® Carboxylate
Tiguvon® Stirofos Rabon®

Fenvalerate Ectrin® Stirofos + Dichlorvos Ravap®

Ear Tag Plus® Trichlofon Combot®

The information given herein is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial
products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and
no endorsement by the Cooperative Extension Service is implied.

23
 Policy Statement for Making
Pest Management Suggestions
The information and suggestions included in this publication reflect the opinions of
Extension entomologists based on field tests and use experience. Our management
suggestions are a product of research and are believed to be reliable. However, it is
impossible to eliminate all risk. Conditions or circumstances which are unforeseen or
unexpected may result in less than satisfactory results even when these suggestions
are used. The Texas Agricultural Extension Service will not assume responsibility for
such risks. Such risks shall be assumed by the user of this publication.

Suggested pesticides must be registered and labeled for use by the Environmental
Protection Agency and the Texas Department of Agriculture. The status of pesticide
label clearances is subject to change and may have changed since this publication
was printed. County Extension agents and appropriate specialists are advised of
changes as they occur.

USERS are always responsible for the effects of pesticide residues on their livestock
and crops, as well as problems that could arise from drift or movement of the pesticide
from their property to that of others. Always read and follow carefully the instructions
on the container label.

Other information

For additional details on livestock parasites, refer to the following Texas Agricultural
Extension Service publications, available from your county Extension agent.

B-1088 Poultry Pest Management

B-6063The Livestock Insecticide Label Notebook (For sale only).

Educational programs of the Texas Agricultural Extension Service are open to all people without regard to race, color, sex,
disability, religion, age or national origin.

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics, Acts of Congress of
May 8, 1914, as amended, and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture.
Zerle L. Carpenter, Director, Texas Agricultural Extension Service, The Texas A&M University System.
8M, 8-97, Revised ENT;AS 1;PS 1-2
[Link]
 B-1203
5-03

Recognizing and Handling

Calving Problems
 CONTENTS
Necessary Equipment ............................................3
The Calving Process ..............................................4
Examining the Cow ................................................6
Giving Assistance ..................................................9
Helping the Calf ..................................................10
Caring for the Cow ..............................................11
Making the Decision ............................................11
Suggested Reading ..............................................11
 Recognizing and Handling
Calving Problems
L. R. Sprott
Extension Beef Cattle Specialist
The Texas A&M University System

Calving difficulty (dystocia) is a concern of every cat- NECESSARY EQUIPMENT

tleman because it is a major cause of calf deaths and is Veterinarians use a variety of instruments and drugs
second only to rebreeding failures in reducing calf crop in handling severe calving problems, but certain basic
percentages. Cows that have difficulty during calving supplies are needed by all cattlemen. Having the proper
have significantly lower fertility at rebreeding. equipment may mean the difference between saving or
Prevention through good heifer management and losing a problem calf.
proper bull selection is the best treatment for calving dif- Use a maternity stall when available. This is an
ficulties. Even with the best management, though, a cer- enclosed area approximately 4 x 8 feet, preferably with
tain percentage of young heifers will experience difficulty side and rear exits. It should be well bedded and sanitized
to some degree, and even older cows occasionally have thoroughly between calvings. Following delivery, move
difficulty. Watching a good heifer or cow go through the calves directly to clean pasture areas. If calves are allowed
agonies of a problem birth is not an uncommon experi- to stay in or near the delivery area, scour problems may
ence for anyone in the cattle business. Probably the most develop. Also, move cows to clean pastures after calving
frustrating aspect is trying to decide when and how to since constant contact of the fetal membranes to contam-
assist and whether or not professional attention is need- inated premises may lead to serious uterine and general
ed. infections.
Many cattlemen attempt to correct problems that they Other basic equipment includes obstetrical chains for
have neither the instruments nor the knowledge to han- use when traction is needed to extract the calf and
dle, while others refuse to intervene in even the simplest obstetrical handles that attach to the chains to aid in
dystocia problems. Neither approach is good. The ranch- applying traction (Fig. 1). Mechanical calf pullers also
er and veterinarian should cooperate to deal with prob- can be used; they may be attached to the chains in forced
lems. extractions (Fig. 2).
All cattlemen should be able to recognize early signs Obstetrical chains are preferred for applying traction
of dystocia and determine when or if professional help is because they are cleaned and sanitized more easily.
needed. Time lost waiting for help may jeopardize the Disinfect chains between uses by boiling in mineral oil.
calf’s life. The following guidelines can help cattlemen This prevents the spread of disease. After boiling, wrap
reduce calf losses when dystocia problems occur. the chains in a clean cloth until they are needed again.

3
 Figure 2. A mechanical calf extractor or puller which permits
additional traction in pulling the calf in difficult births. It is
designed to span the rear of the pelvis and insures pulling the
calf at the correct angle and tension to avoid unnecessary injury
to the cow and calf.

THE CALVING PROCESS

Figure 1. Obstetrical chains and handles used in forced extrac-
tions of the calf. Chains are available in 10-, 21-, 30- and 60-inch To reduce calving losses, cattlemen must understand
lengths. the progressive stages of birth and the time interval of
each stage. This knowledge can be gained by frequently
Boiling chains in water or placing them in a pressure observing the birth process. Familiarity with each stage
cooker is satisfactory, but causes rusting. Chains also may of birth as well as the skeletal structure of the cow (Figs. 3
be disinfected by placing them in a brown paper bag in a and 4) helps one to determine when and how assistance
400 oF oven for 30 minutes. Nylon obstetrical straps of may be provided.
varying lengths may be used in place of chains or in Parturition is best described by stages:
combination. Nylon straps may be easier to manipulate
STAGE 1 OR PREPARATORY STAGE starts when
than chains; however, as with chains, clean and disinfect
the uterus begins contracting and the cervix dilates, end-
the straps after each use. Cotton rope is not recommend-
ing with the movement of fetal parts into the birth canal.
ed unless the rope is discarded after use. Used repeatedly,
Generally, few signs of labor are evident at this time, but
rope becomes contaminated and can be a source of
the positioning of the calf causes discomfort to the cow.
infection to other cows.
Early labor symptoms vary greatly in cows during this
When manipulations are necessary, heavily lubricate
stage. Many older cows that have had several calves may
the fetus, birth canal and operator’s arms. Various obstet-
show almost no signs of labor, and only close observation
rical soaps are available, but a satisfactory lubricant can
and attention may give any indications of approaching
be made by dissolving a mild soap in warm water. The
birth. Subtle signs of this stage in older cows might
solution forms a gel when cool, but can be shaken and
include the animal lying in a slightly abnormal position
poured into a bucket for use. Keep a fresh supply of
or the fact that the cow is a little more alert than other
lubricant separate and uncontaminated. Use other lubri-
cows. Conversely, heifers may be very restless and show
cants such as mineral oil or mild soaps for a substitute;
signs of abdominal pain up to 24 hours before cervical
however, avoid detergents as they can cause severe irrita-
dilation is detectable. Signs of approaching birth may
tions.
include standing with the tail raised and back arched, tail
Keep some drugs on hand, including 1 to 3 grams of a twitching and general restlessness and discomfort which
broad-range antibiotic such as oxytetracycline or may include kicking at the stomach area. In a normal
chlorotetracycline in a 200- to 500-milliliter solution of labor, this period lasts from 2 to 6 hours, but may be only
physiological saline. Or, furacin boluses may be used. 30 minutes or as long as 24 hours. Stage 1 is normally
Both preparations are used as intrauterine medications. longer in heifers.
Most authorities feel that sulfa drugs are of questionable
Uterine contractions during this stage recur at about
value. Have tincture of iodine (2 1/2 percent) available
15-minute intervals and push the water-filled allanto-
for treating the navel cord of the calf following delivery.
chorion (Fig. 5) against the cervix, causing it to dilate. As
Keep surgical needles and suture material available, the cervix dilates and uterus contracts, the allantochorion
but cases requiring extensive surgical attention become water bag passes through the cervix and often ruptures.
quite complex and should be handled by a veterinarian. In about half of normal births the allantochorion mem-
brane passes through the vagina and reaches the vulva

4
 HIPBONE
SACRUM

PINBONE

PELVIC RIM

Figure 3. Skeletal structure of the cow.

Amnionic membrane
SACRUM
Alla nto chorion ic
membrane

PINBONE

Fetal cotyledon

Figure 5. A young calf enclosed in the complete fetal mem-

branes. Note the amnion immediately surrounding the calf and
the allantochorion which covers the amnion and extends
throughout both horns of the uterus. Spots on the surface of the
PELVIC RIM
allantochorion are villi of the fetal cotyledons which pull away
Figure 4. Side view of the pelvic bone of the cow. Arrows indi- from the maternal caruncles when the fetus is removed from the
cate the guiding line or pelvic axis followed by the calf at birth. uterus.

intact. It may protrude as a water bag filled with dark remember that if a cow is moved during early labor or in
amber fluid. Occasionally the membrane breaks before it the early stages of active labor she may actually delay
becomes visible. Then it is observed simply as a sudden calving. Excitement and nervousness in cows may tem-
and large expulsion of straw-colored fluid rushing from porarily weaken uterine contractions. Thus, when
the vagina. This is followed by the amnion or water sac, observing cows during stage 2, consider any movement
which is the membrane immediately surrounding the or undue excitement of the cows when determining the
calf. The amnion is a white, clear membrane, in compari- length of delivery.
son with the allantochorion which is a darker color. STAGE 2 OR DELIVERY STAGE is the time of expul-
Appearance of the amnion or feet beginning to protrude sion and actual delivery of the calf. In normal deliveries,
through the vulva marks the beginning of the delivery this stage lasts from 30 minutes to 4 hours, but may be
stage. Ordinarily, birth occurs within 30 minutes to 4 longer in young heifers. Early symptoms are recognized
hours after the amnion or feet are first visible. Although easily. The second stage begins with the movement of the
the time limits specified for stage 2 are accepted norms, calf’s head and feet into the birth canal and the entrance

5
of the calf into the cervix. During this time, uterine con- ic ligament. This ligament is located on either side of and
tractions occur at about 2-minute intervals and each below the tailhead where it joins the pelvic bone. When
contraction lasts about 1 1/2 minutes. When the calf the edge of this ligament becomes very relaxed one can
enters the cervix, abdominal straining, commonly called reasonably predict that birth will begin within approxi-
the abdominal press, occurs. At this time the behavior of mately 12 hours. Several studies have demonstrated that
the cow changes markedly from being alert to becoming the softening of this ligament, which often coincides with
almost oblivious to her surroundings and concentrating some elevation in the tailhead, occurs simultaneously
on the uterine contractions. with the relaxation and dilation (enlargement) of the
The cow may be lying down or standing, but definite cervix.
and prolonged periods of straining are demonstrated. Assuming labor has continued for 2 to 3 hours with
After the straining, the amnion or, in some instances, the no progress, make all decisions based on an actual pelvic
calf’s feet appear within 1 to 2 hours. It is important not examination. Since the presence of the calf’s feet and
to hurry the cow at this time, but be prepared to help. head in the birth canal stimulates abdominal pressing, a
The extra time allows the vulva to dilate further and pre- normal press will not occur in abnormal deliveries. If the
vents tearing of the tissues. Pressure of the fetal parts fur- calf’s head and/or feet are turned back or if it is a breech
ther stimulates contractions that push the calf out. The birth (Fig. 6), contractions may be weak or nonexistent.
calf’s life usually is not in danger at this point, since the Thus, it is imperative that cows making little progress be
membranes remain attached to the uterus of the cow examined as early as possible to determine the problem.
until after the calf is born. In the mare and sow, there are This allows time for repositioning the calf.
few points of placental attachment; these are broken soon A careful examination of the cow is possibly the most
after fetal expulsion begins. Thus, birth must be rapid or critical step in assisted deliveries. Before the examination
the newborn will suffocate. In the cow there are numer- remember that sanitation is of utmost importance to pre-
ous points of attachment (placentomes, commonly called vent the introduction of infectious organisms into the
buttons), and since the membranes remain attached, reproductive tract and that the arm should be well lubri-
there is a continuous supply of oxygen from the cow cated to facilitate the examination and minimize the
even if labor is prolonged. A calf can survive in the trauma to delicate reproductive tissues.
uterus for 8 to 10 hours if delivery does not progress
The first step in examining the cow is to examine the
beyond the early phases of stage 2. However, delivery
cervix for dilation. If the cervix will admit only two to
should be completed within 2 hours after the water sac
three fingers, the case is probably one of nondilation of
or feet first appear.
the cervix or possibly uterine torsion. At this point one
STAGE 3 OR MEMBRANE EXPULSION STAGE is must have some idea of how long the cow has been in
the final expulsion of the fetal membranes after the calf is active labor. If the cervix has not dilated, one may be
born. The fetal membranes or placenta usually are interfering too soon; if labor has been going on for 2 to 3
expelled without complication within 30 minutes to 8 hours with no progress, professional help may be needed.
hours following delivery. If membranes are retained Dilation of the cervix begins on the internal extremity of
more than 12 hours, they are considered pathological the cervix and continues toward the external extreme
and may require attention. over a period of 6 to 12 hours. When the cervix is dilated
completely it is approximately 6 to 7 inches wide. At this
EXAMINING THE COW
time the cervix and the vagina become a continuous
If problems arise, they generally show up after the canal and in most instances are tightly engaged by the
water sac appears. Should labor go on for 2 to 3 hours stretched fetal membranes.
with no apparent progress, or if the water sac appears
The next step in examining the cow is to check for life
and delivery is not complete within 2 hours, a pelvic
signs in the unborn calf, because this determines the
examination is in order to determine the problem.
urgency and type of assistance needed. If the calf is alive,
Although it is difficult to actually determine if a cow will
pulling or pinching the foot causes movement of the leg,
calve within the next 12 hours without performing a
pinching the eyes causes movement of the head, and
pelvic examination, there is one external indication that
placing the fingers in the calf’s mouth elicits sucking or
may be used with some reliability to predict the actual
movement of the tongue. With posterior or breech pre-
time of birth. The most useful external evidence is the
sentations, inserting the finger into the anus causes con-
texture of the posterior or back border of the sacro-sciat-
striction of the anal sphincter. Absence of the vital signs,

6
sloughing of the hair or foul odors may indicate the calf Position describes how the calf is lying. The calf may
is dead. be upside down, right side up, or have its back to either
As the next step in the examination, determine the side of the pelvic canal of the cow.
presentation, position and posture of the calf. Posture indicates the location of the legs, head and
Presentation describes the relative direction of deliv- neck. If the calf is presented frontwards, one or both
ery. The calf may be presented frontwards, backwards or forelegs may be turned back or the head may be down
crosswise to the pelvic opening. and the feet in correct position. A fetus in a backwards
presentation may have one or both hindlegs flexed at the
hock or hips.

Figure 6. Posterior presentation with rear legs

extended under the calf’s body (breech presenta-
tion). May be corrected by pushing the calf for- Figure 8. Posterior presentation of the calf. Delivery
ward and grasping the legs one by one. As each may often proceed without complications.
leg is drawn into the birth canal, keep the hock Assistance may be important if labor is prolonged.
pointed toward the cow’s flank and the hoof to Death of the calf can occur due to rupture of the
the midline (see detail in Figure 9). navel cord and subsequent suffocation.

Figure 9. Correction of the hock flex in posterior presentation.

The calf is first pushed forward. The hand grasps and cups the
calf’s foot, then draws it back as the hock is flexed. The foot in
the cupped hand is lifted over the pelvic rim and into the vagina.
An alternated method in more difficult cases is to place a snare
around the pastern, attached at the front of the leg. The snare is
then pulled between the digits of the foot so that when traction
Figure 7. Normal anterior presentation, position and is applied the fetlock and pastern are flexed. The calf is pushed
posture of the calf before delivery. forward and the foot is guided over the pelvic rim as an assistant
pulls the snare.

7
 Figure 10. Correction of a simple leg flexion in an anterior
presentation. The calf is first pushed forward and the
retained foot is grasped in the cupped hand. The foot is
carried outwards and then forward in an arc over the
pelvic rim. More difficult cases may require that a snare be
attached to the retained fetlock to help extend the leg.

Figure 12. Anterior presentation with the head and

neck turned back over the body. Secure the legs with
chains. Push the calf back into the body. This often
brings the head into normal position (see Fig. 13).

Figure 11. Anterior presentation with the rear legs extended

beneath the body (dogsitting posture). A very serious type of
malpresentation. If allowed to progress into advanced labor, fetal
death may result. Early professional attention may be required.

The normal presentation of the calf (Fig. 7) is front- ed (Figs. 9 through 16). About 95 percent of all births
wards. Although a calf can be pulled in a backwards occur with normal presentation, position and posture.
presentation (Fig. 8), there is some danger. The normal Determining the relative size of the calf and birth
position of the calf is back side up. Never pull a calf in canal is the next step in examination. This is a critical
any other position because the chances of killing both the judgment and requires some experience. Forcing a large
cow and calf are great. The correct posture of the fetus is calf through a small pelvic opening almost invariably
with both front legs outstretched in the birth canal and results in death of the calf as well as injury, paralysis or
with the head and neck extended along the legs. Correct even death of the cow. If it is fairly certain the cow will
any deviation from this posture before the calf is extract- have serious calving difficulties, call a veterinarian. Once

8
Figure 13. Correction of head and neck deviation in anterior presenta-
tion. Correcting difficult cases may require pulling the head and neck
around with the hand. The calf is first pushed forward and the hand
quickly moved to grasp the calf’s muzzle. The head is pulled around and
Figure 15. Posterior presentation with fetus in an upside
in line with the birth canal. In some cases it may be necessary to apply a
down position. This situation can be caused by twisting
snare to the lower jaw for additional traction. Avoid excessive pressure,
of the uterus or rotation of the calf. Never attempt deliv-
as the jaw is not strong and will fracture easily. A safer and more com-
ery in this position. Professional assistance often is
mon practice is to loop the obstetrical chain around the poll, under the
required.
ears and through the mouth in a “war bridle” manner (see Fig. 14).

Figure 16. An anterior presentation with a vertex pos-

Figure 14. An alternate means of correcting a head and neck deviation in ture of the head. The vertex posture occurs when the
an anterior presentation. In difficult extractions, a safe and more common bridge of the nose is impacted against the floor of the
practice is to loop an obstetrical chain around the pole of the calf under cow’s pelvis. This causes the pole of the calf to be pre-
the ears and through the mouth in a “war bridle” manner. This attachment sented first. Repelling the body of the calf usually makes
permits greater traction than can be used in the jaw snare. Exercise care, sufficient room to correct the problem. In such cases of
however, since this arrangement permits the calf’s mouth to gape and can dystocia, the fetus is often dead; a living fetus usually
cause the calf’s sharp incisor teeth to cut the birth canal. To avoid this, moves enough to prevent this type of entrapment of the
guide the hand underneath the calf’s jaw as traction is applied. head.

the calf ’s feet and head are outside the cow’s body, the
veterinarian has lost the option of doing a Caesarean
section.
Figure 17. Correct application of an obstetrical chain to the fore- GIVING ASSISTANCE
leg. Position the first loop of the chain about 4 inches above the
ankle joint and dew claw. Close and secure the chain at the back If it is determined that professional help is not needed,
of the leg to avoid injury. Form a second loop (half hitch) 2 to 3 but that the calf requires adjustment and/or extraction,
inches below the first loop above the ankle joint. Positioning the
second loop below the ankle joint and dew claws may result in
there are some important points to remember. If, after
breaking the ankle or pulling the hoof off. Using the double giving assistance for 30 to 40 minutes, no progress has
loop, as described, distributes pressure from the chain and been made in the delivery, the situation has probably
avoids excessive pressure at any one location as would occur
with a single loop.
been misjudged and professional help is needed.
9
 Assistance is first begun by attaching the obstetrical
SACRUM
chains to the front legs. Don’t put a single loop of the
chain around both front legs. Instead, use a double loop
on each leg (Fig. 17). Place the first loop about 4 inches
above the ankle joint and dew claws. Next, form a half
HIPB ONE
hitch about 2 to 3 inches down the leg, but above the
ankle joint. If the chain is around the ankle below the
dew claw a leg may be broken or a hoof pulled off. Be
sure to position the loops so that one pulls from the back
of the legs. A chain on the front or sides causes a twisting
action that may break bones. Normally in forced extrac-
tions, the force exerted by one or two persons in pulling
PELVIC RIM
a calf is safe and sufficient. Never use fence stretchers,
tractors, trucks or other devices which may apply Figure 18. Front view of the pelvic bone of the cow. Notice that
extreme force. If additional extractive forces are neces- the vertical width exceeds the horizontal width of the birth canal.
sary, a mechanical calf extractor is the only safe means.
It usually is best to pull both legs with even pressure. If
the pelvic opening of the cow or heifer is small, pull the HELPING THE CALF
legs alternately until the shoulders are eased through the As the calf is delivered, it passes through the vulva and
birth canal. Then continue applying pressure to both the short umbilical or navel cord usually breaks. Survival
legs. Don’t hurry the cow. As the calf moves through the is then dependent upon functioning of the calf’s lungs
birth canal, the cow’s natural body mechanisms are help- and initiation of body activity. Once the navel cord is
ing by letting this area dilate. broken, the placental supply of oxygen is cut off. Oxygen
One cause of calf deaths and damage to heifers is in the blood of the calf drops rapidly and the carbon
hiplock. This is a situation in which the calf’s hips won’t dioxide level increases. These changes stimulate the res-
pass through the cow’s pelvic opening. Some cases of piratory centers of the brain and cause the calf to struggle
hiplock may require veterinary assistance. Proper trac- and gasp. As the calf gasps, the lungs fill with air and
tion often prevents or eases this problem by keeping the oxygen deficiency is rapidly overcome.
calf’s hips high as they pass through the pelvic opening, Occasionally a calf has trouble breathing after delivery.
thus taking advantage of the widest horizontal part of the In such instances it is important to quickly clear the
cow’s pelvis. Pull the calf out and down at a 45o to 60o mouth and nose of mucus. If the calf continues to have
angle. As the front legs come through the vulva, increase trouble breathing, pick him up by the hind legs and
the traction in a downward direction with the calf’s legs swing him back and forth or around to dislodge the
practically parallel with the cow’s legs. mucus. This procedure may sound harsh, but can be
If this does not help, release the calf puller or tension very effective. Rubbing or scratching the inside of the
on the chains and push the calf back far enough to calf’s nostrils with a straw irritates the delicate tissues and
relieve the lock up. Then rotate the calf clockwise or often causes the calf to sneeze or cough, thereby clearing
counter-clockwise to get a new angle for the hips to pass out the breathing passages.
through the cow’s pelvis. This technique works because Artificial respirators are available and can be of great
the vertical axis of the pelvis is greater than the horizon- assistance, especially for producers of valuable registered
tal axis (Fig. 18). stock. If no respirator is available, clean off the calf’s
Another method used for hiplock is to rotate the calf muzzle and blow your own breath into the calf’s nostril.
and then swing the shoulders and front feet to the cow’s Another alternative is to place a short section of 3/4-inch
side. Put the pulling chains around the calf’s barrel and garden hose in one nostril. The mouth and other nostril
pull gently to avoid injuring the calf’s spinal cord. This are then clasped so that air can enter and leave the calf
procedure often allows one hipbone at a time to ease only through the nose. Blow into the nose and allow the
through the cow’s pelvis. In this procedure the barrel of air to be exhaled. Repeat every 6 to 7 seconds until the
the calf is pulled to the rear and down while the front feet calf starts breathing, or until his heart stops beating. It is
are swung up and to the side. important to remember that the baby calf’s lungs are
considerably smaller than a human’s and care should be

10
taken not to over inflate and rupture the lungs. Results of MAKING THE DECISION
these resuscitation methods can be very dramatic. When deciding whether or not to assist with calving,
consider the circumstances. With mature cows it’s better
CARING FOR THE COW to wait than to start assistance too early because the cow
One of the rancher’s main concerns about the heifer usually takes care of her own problems. With heifers it
or cow is the possibility of retained placenta. Usually the may be different. Their immature bodies are not fully
fetal membranes are expelled within 8 to 12 hours. Leave developed and pelvic openings may simply be too small.
the cow alone until this occurs. Research shows that A minor problem may be created by assisting a heifer too
manual removal of the placenta, regardless of how pro- early, but if one waits too long, any problem will be a
fessionally and carefully done, can cause complications major one.
that would not occur otherwise. Calving problems are most common in heifers giving
In one of several studies, cows that received antibiotic birth to their first calves. Only about 3 percent of mature
treatments without removal of the membranes had a 79 cows have any trouble, but for heifers the figure may be
percent conception rate at first rebreeding. Manual 50 percent or more. Table 1 illustrates the hourly return
removal of the membranes without any drugs dropped to ranchers for time spent observing and assisting at calv-
the figure to only 39 percent. When drugs were given ing. Notice that observation frequency is the key to sav-
and membranes removed manually, the rebreeding rate ing a high percentage of calves. A single check for prob-
was also 39 percent. Cows receiving no drugs and no lems is scarcely worth the effort, but returns per hour of
assistance increased to 50 percent. Thus, removal of the time increase significantly as the cattle are observed more
membranes seems to be the deterring factor in uterine frequently.
recovery and rebreeding. In Texas, approximately 8 to 10 percent of all calves
Reports indicate that retained membranes occur in 5 born in beef cow herds die at or soon after birth.
to 15 percent of births in healthy herds. Retained placen- Approximately three-fourths of these deaths are due to
ta is common in premature and multiple births and calving difficulties. Losses due to calving difficulty cost
when birth has been induced. Research also indicates the cattle industry three to four times more annually
that retained membranes occur more frequently in cows than costs resulting from abortions, and are second only
producing bull calves. Once retention of the membranes to losses from cows failing to conceive. The only way to
has occurred, there is about a 20 percent chance of its reduce such losses is through good management of
recurring. A high incidence of retained membranes may heifers from weaning until first calving, frequent obser-
be associated with disease conditions in the herd and vation, and being ready to help when problems arise.
may require professional attention. Most authorities
agree that if a cow retains the membranes, you should Table 1. Cost and returns for checking a beef breeding herd
at calving time for 50-cow herds.*
not initiate treatment until 48 to 72 hours after birth,
Number of times checked each day
unless the cow loses appetite or has an elevated tempera-
1 2 3 4
Total hours
ture or other signs of septicemia. Treatment generally
consists of infusing the uterus with an inseminating expended per cow .8 .9 1.0 1.2
pipette placed through the cervix. Uterine infusion of 50 Returns from
to 100 milliliters of an oxytetracycline or chlorotetracy- additional calves** $153.60 $307.20 $460.80 $614.40
cline solution is the preferred treatment. In addition, Total labor cost*** $240.00 $270.00 $300.00 $360.00
injections of penicillin/streptomycin are commonly given Returns per hour (-$2.16) $0.83 $3.22 $4.24
*Research data adapted from Ohio Agricultural Experiment
Station Circular 103.
for 3 to 5 days. Females showing serious signs of sep-
ticemia should be treated by a veterinarian. **Calf value at weaning – $384 for a 480-pound calf.
***Labor valued at $6.00 per hour.

SUGGESTED READING
B-1077 Determining Pregnancy in Cattle
B-1213 Management of Replacement Heifers for a High Reproductive and Calving Rate
(both available at the Texas AgriLife Bookstore, [Link]
 Produced by AgriLife Communications, The Texas A&M System

Extension publications can be found on the Web at: [Link]

Visit Texas AgriLife Extension at: [Link]

Educational programs of Texas AgriLife Extension Service are open to all people without regard to race, color, sex, disability, religion, age or

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics, Acts of Congress of May 8, 1914, as amended, and
national origin.

June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. Edward Smith, Director, Texas AgriLife Extension Service, The
Texas A&M System.
10M, Revision
 Beef Cattle Handbook

BCH-2010 Product of Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee

Reproductive Tract Anatomy and Physiology of the Bull

E. J. Turman, Animal Science Department Oklahoma State University

T. D. Rich, Animal Science Department Oklahoma State University

The reproductive tract of the bull consists of the testicles normally and usually produces enough sperm so that
and secondary sex organs, which transport the sperma- the male will be of near normal fertility. However, since
tozoa from the testicle and eventually deposits them in this condition appears to have a hereditary basis, such
the female reproductive tract. These organs are the epi- males should not be used for breeding. If both testicles
didymis, vas deferens and penis, plus three accessory are retained, the male will be sterile.
sex glands, the seminal vesicles, prostate and Cowper’s Usually, hormone production is near normal in the
gland. This basic anatomy is illustrated in figure 1 as a cryptorchid testicle and the male develops and behaves
greatly simplified diagrammatic sketch. like a normal male. If the retained testicle is not
The testicle has two very vital functions: (1) produc- removed at time of castration, the male will develop the
ing the spermatozoa; and (2) producing the specific secondary sex characters of an uncastrated male. This
male hormone, testosterone. The testicles are located operation is not as simple, nor as safe, as removing tes-
outside of the body cavity in the scrotum. This is essen- ticles that are in the scrotum. Thus, it is recommended
tial for normal sperm formation since this occurs only at to select against this trait by culling cryptorchid males.
a temperature several degrees below normal body tem- In addition to cryptorchidism, there are other cir-
perature. However, very cold temperatures could dam- cumstances which may cause sterility by raising the
age the testicle. The scrotum, therefore, must help temperature of the testicle. Examples of such conditions
protect the testicle against both of these extremes of are: excessive fat deposits in the scrotum; several days
temperature. This is done by means of a temperature of very high fever; and exposing the males for extended
sensitive layer of muscle (cremaster muscle) located in periods to very high environmental temperatures.
the walls of the scrotum, which relaxes when hot, and Usually, if a male was producing sperm prior to expo-
contracts when cold. Relaxation increases the relative sure to such conditions, and the period of exposure is
length of the scrotum thus moving the testicles away not too prolonged, the resulting sterility is only tempo-
from body heat. In cold weather, the reverse happens— rary (6 to 10 weeks) and, if the conditions are corrected,
the scrotum shortens and the testicles are held close to normal fertility will eventually return.
the warm body. The testicle contains many long tiny, coiled tubules,
Occasionally, one or both testicles fail to descend the seminiferous tubules, within which the sperm are
into the scrotum during embryological development, formed and mature. Scattered throughout the loose con-
and are retained in the body cavity. Such male are nective tissue which surrounds the seminiferous tubules
referred to as cryptorchids. Since body heat can destroy are many highly specialized cells, the interstitial cells of
sperm producing ability, no sperm are produced by the Leydig which produce the male hormone.
retained testicle. The testicle in the scrotum will function

BCH-2010 1
 week or so after recovering from a high fever and then
go through a infertile period of several weeks.
Since the epididymis is a single tube which serves
as an outlet for all the sperm produced in the testicle,
any blockage of this tube is a serious matter.
Sometimes, there is a temporary blockage due to
swelling following an injury or infection (epididymitis).
However, occasionally this swelling or infection results
in the formation of scar tissue in the tubule, permanent-
ly blocking it and preventing the passage of sperm.
The spermatic cord includes, in addition to the vas
deferens, the blood vessels and nerves supplying the
testicle and the supporting muscles and connective tis-
sue. Males may be sterilized by an operation called
vasectomy in which the vas deferens are cut so sperm
cannot pass to the outside of the body. If only the vas
deferens are cut, the testicle continues to function nor-
mally producing both sperm and male hormone.
However, if the blood vessels of the spermatic cord are
cut or blocked, shutting off the blood supply, the testicle
will stop functioning and waste away.
One of the weak spots of the male anatomy is the
inguinal ring, the opening through which the spermatic
cord passes into the body cavity. If it enlarges, usually
as a result of an injury, a loop of the intestine can pass
into the scrotum, resulting in a scrotal hernia. Since pre-
disposition to injury at this point appears to have a
Figure 1. Diagramatic Drawing of the Reproductive Tract of the hereditary basis, males with scrotal hernias should not
Bull. be used for breeding even though they may be of nor-
mal fertility.
There are many hundreds of individual seminiferous The two vas deferens eventually unite into a single
tubules in the testicle. However, they unite with one tube (the urethra), the channel passing through the
another until, eventually, some dozen tubules pass out penis. The urethra serves as the common passage way
of the testicle into the head of the epididymis. for the excretory products of the two male tracts—
The epididymis is a compact, flat, elongated struc- semen of the reproductive tract and urine of the urinary
ture closely attached to one side of the testicle. In it the tract.
dozen or so vasa efferentia from the testicle are com- Two of the accessory glands are found in the gener-
bined into a single tubule some 130 to 160 feet in al region where the vas deferens unite to become the
length, but which is packed into the relatively short epi- urethra. These glands produce the secretions that make
didymis. Eventually, this tubule emerges from the tail of up most of the liquid portion of the semen of the bull. In
the epididymis as a single straight tubule (the vas defer- addition, the secretions activate the sperm to become
ens) and passes, as part of the spermatic cord, through motile.
the inguinal ring into the body cavity. The largest of these, and the one producing the
It requires 45 to 50 days for sperm to be formed in largest fraction of the seminal fluid, is the seminal vesi-
the seminiferous tubules and move through the epi- cles. They consist of two lobes about 4 to 5 inches long
didymis where they mature for ejaculation. About one each connected to the urethra by a duct. The other
week of this time is spent in the epididymis, a period of accessory gland in this region is the prostrate gland,
time that appears to be necessary for the sperm cells to located at the neck of the urinary bladder where it emp-
mature into fertile sperm. The sperm in the epididymis ties into the urethra. The prostate is poorly developed in
are much more resistant to damage from heat than are the bull and does not produce a very large volume of
the sperm that have already been formed and are stored secretion.
in the epididymis. This may result in a slight delay The third accessory gland, the Cowper’s glands are
between the time a male is exposed to some unfavor- small, firm glands located on either side of the urethra. It
able condition and the time his fertility is reduced. is believed that one of the chief functions of their secre-
However, this period of reduced fertility may last for the tion is to cleanse the urethra of any residue of urine
45 to 50 days required for producing a new sperm cell. which might be harmful to spermatozoa. The clear secre-
This may explain why a male may settle females for a tion that often drips from the penis during sexual excite-

2 Beef Cattle Handbook

ment prior to service is largely produced by these glands. chemical substance produced by a specialized gland,
Occasionally, one of the accessory glands may called an endocrine gland, which passes into the body
become infected, resulting in semen samples that are fluids (blood and lymph) and is transported to various
yellow and cloudy and which contain many pus cells. In parts of the body where it exerts some specific effect.
bulls it is not uncommon for the seminal vesicles to be The testicle functions as an endocrine gland
so affected (seminal vesiculitis). because of the production of the male hormone, testos-
The sigmoid flexure is an anatomical structure terone, by the interstitial cells. Testosterone has several
which provides the means by which the penis is held major effects:
inside the body and sheath, except during time of ser-
vice. Strong retractor muscles serve to hold the penis in (1). It is largely responsible for the development and
the “S” shaped configuration. Occasionally, these mus- maintenance of the male reproductive tract.
cles are too weak to function properly and a portion of (2). It causes the development and maintenance of the
the penis and sheath lining protrude at all times. This secondary sex characters of the male. These are
exposes the male to the danger of mechanical injury, those characteristics associated with “masculinity,”
particularly in rough brushy country, or on ranges where such as: growth of beard and change of voice in
there is considerable cactus and prickly pear. man; the spur and comb of the rooster; the
The penis is the organ of insemination. In all tusks of the boar; and the crest and heavily muscled
domestic animals it consists of two, and in man three, shoulders of the bull.
cylindrical bodies called the corpora cavernose penis. (3). It is a major factor in normal sex drive and behavior
The spaces of the corpora cavernosa become filled with of the male.
blood during sexual excitement, resulting in erection of (4). It increases muscular and skeletal growth.
the organ. The end of the penis is the glans penis. The (5). It is essential for normal sperm formation.
glans penis is richly supplied with nerves and is the
source of the sensations associated with copulation. The testicle is, in turn, under the influence of
hormones produced by other glands in the body.
Semen The primary hormones regulating the testicle are the
Semen consists of the spermatozoa and a liquid portion gonadotropic hormones produced by the anterior lobe
composed largely of the secretions of the accessory of the pituitary gland . The pituitary gland is a small
glands. The volume of semen and numbers of sperm gland located under the brain at the base of the skull.
ejaculated by different bulls varies considerably. The pituitary hormones regulating reproduction in both
However, most bulls will ejaculate 3 to 5cc of semen con- the male and the female, (by stimulating the testes or
taining about 1 billion sperm per cc or 3 to 5 billion ovaries) are called gonadotropic hormones.
sperm per ejaculate. Not only is the hormal production by the testicle
Once sexual maturity is reached in farm animals, regulated by hormones released by the anterior pituitary
sperm production is continuous throughout the remain- but the reverse is true. The level of testosterone in the
der of reproductive life. During periods of sexual rest blood regulates the secretion of the gonadotropic hor-
old sperm in the upper part of the tract die, degenerate mones by means of a feedback mechanism.
and are absorbed. For this reason, the first sample col- Either purified preparations of gonadotropic hor-
lected after a long period of sexual inactivity may mones described or preparations with a similar physio-
appear to have a high percentage of dead and abnormal logical action are available for use by veterinarians.
sperm. Therefore, semen evaluation of a bull should not They can be useful in treating some cases of reproduc-
be made on one collection alone. tive failures, but only if the trouble is caused by a
Semen evaluation is being practiced more and deficiency of that hormone.
more. However, it should be realized that its primary Because of the feedback mechanism controlling
value lies in detecting males that have very definite hormone release, normal functioning depends on a
semen deficiencies such as: either no sperm, or a very proper balance of the hormones and too much can be
low number of sperm cells; poor motility; excessively just as undesirable as too little. The use of hormone
large numbers of abnormal sperm; a large percentage therapy should not be routinely carried out, but should
of dead sperm; and the presence of large amounts of be done only by qualified persons, and with the expec-
pus. Males producing semen of this sort will usually, at tation that they may not be of benefit.
best, be of low fertility. However, there is a wide range
of semen quality in males of normal fertility, and it is
usually difficult, if not impossible, to accurately predict
the level of fertility of a male that does not have grossly
deficient semen.

Hormonal Regulation of the Male Reproductive System

The normal functioning of the male in reproduction is
largely controlled by hormones. A hormone is a specific

BCH-2010 3
Authors:
E. J. Turman, Animal Science Department Oklahoma State University
T. D. Rich, Animal Science Department Oklahoma State University

This publication was prepared in cooperation with the Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee and its member states and produced in
an electronic format by the University of Wisconsin-Extension, Cooperative Extension. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension
work, ACTS of May 8 and June 30, 1914.

BCH-2010 Reproductive Tract Anatomy and Physiology of the Bull

4 Beef Cattle Handbook

 Beef Cattle Handbook

BCH-2200 Product of Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee

Reproductive Tract Anatomy and Physiology of the Cow

T. D. Rich, Animal Science Department, Oklahoma State University

E. J. Turman, Animal Science Department, Oklahoma State University

Anatomy The secondary sex organs are, in effect, a series of

A diagrammatic sketch of the reproductive tract of the tubes which receive the semen of the male, transport
cow is presented in Figure 1. The female reproductive the sperm to the egg so it can be fertilized, nourish the
tract of various farm animals have similar parts to those fertilized egg (embryo), and expel the offspring. These
shown for the cow, but with major differences in the organs include the vagina, cervix, uterus, uterine horns,
shape of the uterus. and oviducts (also called Fallopian tubes) which have a
The ovary is the primary reproductive organ of the funnel shaped opening called the infundibulum.
female and has two important functions: (1) production The ovary produces the egg by a process called
of the female reproductive cell, the egg or ovum and oogenesis. In contrast to spermatogenesis in the bull,
(2) production of two hormones, estrogen and proges- which is continuous, oogenesis is cyclic. This cycle,
terone. Each of the two ovaries of the cow are oval to (called the estrual cycle), is of a characteristic length,
bean-shaped organs 1 - 11/2 inches long, located in the depending on the species, and consists of a definite
abdominal cavity. sequence of events, both of a physiological and a

Figure 1. Diagrammatic Sketch of the Reproductive Tract of the Cow.

BCH-2200 1
behavioral nature. is restricted in size because of sphincter muscles asso-
The ovary contains several thousand tiny structures, ciated with the urethral opening. The region posterior to
called primary follicles, which consist of a germ cell the external urethral orifice is called the vestibule and is
surrounded by a layer of cells. This germ cell has the a common passage way for both the urinary and the
potential to mature into an egg if the follicle completes reproductive systems. The external opening of the vagi-
development. However, most of the primary follicles na is called the vulva.
never complete development. Rather they die, are
absorbed by the ovary and replaced by newly formed Hormonal Regulation of the Female Reproductive Tract
primary follicles. Normal reproduction in the female depends upon hor-
The relatively few primary follicles which complete mones, which are specific chemical substances produced
development do so through a series of developmental by specialized glands, called endocrine glands. These
phases. Many layers of cells are added to the single secretions pass into the body fluids (blood and lymph)
layer of cells surrounding the egg in the primary follicle, and are transported to various parts of the body where
and a central cavity forms. As the follicle and the cavity they exert several specific effects.
grow larger, the egg is attached by a stalk of cells to the The female hormone, estrogen, is produced by the
back side of the follicle opposite the site of ovulation. As Graafian follicle. A second hormone of the ovary is
the follicle continues to grow rapidly, the side opposite progesterone produced by the corpus luteum. Each has
the egg bulges from the surface of the ovary and an important role in the female reproductive process.
becomes very thin. This follicle is then mature and called Estrogen has varied effects:
a Graafian follicle. At ovulation, the thin portion ruptures (1) responsible for the development and function-
to release the contents of the follicle, including the egg. ing of the secondary sex organs, (2) responsible for the
Following ovulation, the cells that developed within onset of heat, estrus, the period of sexual receptivity, (3)
the follicle differentiate to form the corpus luteum. The affects rate and type of growth, especially the deposition
corpus luteum has the very important function of pro- of fat, and (4) primes or prepares the prepuberal heifer
ducing progesterone. and post-partum cow for onset of sexual activity.
The released egg is caught by the infundibulum and Progesterone is the hormone of pregnancy. It sup-
moves into the oviduct where fertilization occurs if presses the further development of follicles and secre-
viable sperm are present. The egg remains capable of tion of estrogen. While progesterone is being produced,
fertilization for only a few hours; thus, it is very impor- the female does not come into heat. Progesterone is
tant that fertile sperm be present near the time of ovula- necessary for preparing the uterus to receive the fertil-
tion. The egg moves through the oviduct into the uterus ized egg and maintains the proper uterine environment
within the next 3 - 4 days. If it is fertilized, it begins for the maintenance of pregnancy.
embryological development in the uterus. If it is not fer- Estrogen and progesterone are not completely
tilized, it degenerates and disappears. separate in their effects since both are necessary for
The body of the uterus of the cow, as well as that of complete development of important organs. The deveop-
the ewe and sow, is short and poorly developed while ment of the uterus is initiated by estrogen and complet-
the uterine horns are relatively long and well developed. ed by progesterone. The fertilized egg will not implant
The embryo develops in the uterine horns in these and survive in the uterus unless that tissue has been
species. In the mare the uterine horns are poorly devel- properly prepared by the action of estrogen, and then of
oped and embryological development occurs in the progesterone. Estrogen causes rhythmic contractions of
body of the uterus. Wherever it occurs, the fetus devel- the uterus. Progesterone, on the other hand, has a quiet-
ops within a layer of membranes, called the placenta, ing effect on the uterus, so there are no contractions
through which nourishment from the mother diffuses, which might disturb pregnancy.
since there is no direct blood connection between fetus Complete development of the mammary gland is
and mother. also dependent upon both hormones. Estrogen pro-
The cervix is, in effect, the neck of the uterus. It has motes the growth of the duct system and progesterone
thick walls and a small opening that is difficult to pene- is necessary for the development of the clusters of milk-
trate in the cow because of overlapping or interlocking secreting alveoli on the ducts.
folds. It serves as a passageway for sperm deposited in Thus, it can be seen that, in general estrogen makes
the vagina and for the fetus at the time of birth. During things happen and progesterone calms them down.
pregnancy it is usually filled with a thick secretion which As in the male, the production of the hormones of
serves as a plug to protect the uterus from infection the ovary is under the direct influence of the gonado-
entering from the vagina. trophic hormones of the anterior pituitary gland, located
The vagina serves as the receptacle for the male at the base of the brain. The names follicle stimulating
penis during service. In the cow, the semen is deposited hormones (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) were
in the vagina near the cervix, although in some other given because of the effects of these hormones on the
species the cervix may be penetrated. The urinary blad- female. FSH stimulates the growth, development and
der opens to the exterior through the urethra which function of the follicle, while LH causes the rupture of
opens into the vagina. This region of the cow’s vagina the follicle and development of the corpus luteum.

2 Beef Cattle Handbook

 terone. Of the several follicles that commence growth,
one becomes more prominent by a surge in rapid
growth and activity. As the Graafian follicle grows, it
secretes increasing amounts of estrogen. The remainder
of the follicles regress.
Days 19-20: With the increase in estrogen release by
the Graafian follicle and a corresponding decrease in
progesterone by the regressing corpus luteum, estrus or
heat will occur (cycle has now returned to day 0). The
high estrogen level in the blood triggers a release of LH
near the end of heat. Following this surge in blood lev-
els of LH, the mature follicle ruptures to release the egg
and the cellular tissue left behind becomes luteinized in
response to the stimulation of a hormonal complex to
form a new corpus luteum (cycle has now returned to
day 1-2). Progesterone again becomes the dominant
hormone.
It must be appreciated that the timing given for the
preceding events is only approximate, and would differ
for different cycle lengths.
Also, the discussion of events occurring during the
Figure 2. The Sequence of Events in a Typical 21-day Estrous estrous cycle was based on a full cycle in which preg-
Cycle in Which Pregnancy Does Not Occur nancy does not occur. If the egg is fertilized and begins
development in the uterus, the corpus luteum does not
regress but continues to function by secreting proges-
The Estrual Cycle terone. No follicles develop to maturity and heat does
The reproductive cycle of the cow consists of a series of not occur. Progesterone keeps the uterus quiet and thus
events which occur in a definite order over a period of provides the most favorable conditions for the develop-
days. The estrual cycle in the cow averages 21-days ing fetus.
(range is 17 - 24) and is concerned with preparing the Any condition that prolongs the period of time that
reproductive tract for estrus or heat (the period of sexual blood levels of progesterone remain high (such as
receptivity) and ovulation (the release of the egg). Figure implanting, injecting or feeding progestin materials for
2 outlines the sequence of events and hormones estrus synchronization) will have the same effect as
involved for a typical 21-day cycle in which pregnancy does pregnancy. Occasionally, the corpus luteum does
does not occur. not regress normally even though the animal does not
Day 0: The cow is in estrus (standing heat). Near the become pregnant. This requires the diagnosis and treat-
end of the standing heat, the mature Graafian follicle ment of a veterinarian.
ovulates (ruptures) in response to a surge of LH Occasionally, abnormally short estrous cycles (7 - 11
released by the pituitary gland. days) occur and this condition appears to be caused by,
Day 1-2: The cells that formerly lined the follicle either no corpus luteum being formed, or if one is
change and become the lutein cells of the corpus formed, it is nonfunctional as progesterone levels
luteum. This change in cell form is caused by hormonal remain low.
action, primarily the action of LH. Most animal species, including all farm livestock,
Day 2-5: The corpus luteum grows rapidly in both are spontaneous ovulators, which means ovulation
size and function. At this stage, numerous follicles may occurs at a certain time during the estrous cycle
be seen on the ovary but by day 5 they have begun to whether mating occurs or not. Females from some
regress. species are induced ovulators and ovulation occurs only
Days 5-16: The corpus luteum continues to develop following the stimulus of mating. Included in this group
and reaches its maximum growth and function at about are the rabbit, cat, and mink. In these species it has
day 12. It secretes the hormone progesterone which been established that ovulation is the result of LH secre-
inhibits (blocks) LH release by the pituitary gland. tion in response to nerve impulses resulting from the
During this period, the ovaries are relatively inactive mating act. Thus, both hormonal and nerve pathways
except for the functional corpus luteum. No follicles are important factors in the reproductive process.
reach maturity and/or ovulate because of the existence There are wide differences between the species of
of the high levels of progesterone. mammals in the various characteristics of the estrual
Days 16-18: The corpus luteum regresses rapidly due cycle. Some species have only one heat period each
to some luteum activity of the uterus (prostaglandin). year and are called monoestrous. The cow is in a group
Days 18-19: The corpus luteum is almost nonfunc- that exhibit heat more than one time per year and is
tional and this releases the blocking action of proges- called polyestrous. There is considerable variation in the

BCH-2200 3
latter group, however, from those having estrus continu-
ously throughout the year to those that have only a few
cycles during a restricted season. Most wild animals and
sheep among the domestic animals are said to be
seasonal breeders. The non-breeding period is called
anestrus.
Species that are considered to be continuous
breeders (such as the cow) are not without periods of
anestrus during which the estrous cycles stop. For
example, anestrus is commonly observed in cows,
especially young cows, when nursing calves and
subsisting on low planes of nutrition.
Estrus is not always accompanied by ovulation, nor
ovulation by estrus. Heat without ovulation (anovulatory
heat) will not result in pregnancy even though the
female is bred. Ovulation without the external signs of
heat (quiet or silent heats) is not uncommon in cows,
especially the first few weeks after calving. Such
females will not accept service .

Authors:
T. D. Rich, Animal Science Department, Oklahoma State University
E. J. Turman, Animal Science Department, Oklahoma State University

This publication was prepared in cooperation with the Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee and its member states and produced in
an electronic format by the University of Wisconsin-Extension, Cooperative Extension. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension
work, ACTS of May 8 and June 30, 1914.

BCH-2200 Reproductive Tract Anatomy and Physiology of the Cow

4 Beef Cattle Handbook

infected cow and then breed a clean cow soon thereafter. Vibriosis
Bulls occasionally become infected; this is usually exhibit-
ed by a swollen testicle or scrotum. Producers using artifi- Vibriosis is a venereal disease causing infertility and,
cial insemination should avoid semen from brucellosis- occasionally, abortion. It is caused by the bacterium
infected bulls. Their semen can infect cows. Campylobacter fetus, which lives in the crevices of a bullÕs
prepuce (foreskin), but usually does not become established
Leptospirosis in the bull until it is about 4 years old or older.
Vibriosis is spread from an infected bull to a cow during
Leptospirosis is a widespread problem in the South,
the breeding act. Bulls also may be infected by breeding
especially in unvaccinated herds. It causes repeat breeders,
infected cows. Although semen from reputable bull studs is
low-grade uterine infections, abortions, mastitis and occa-
usually ÒcleanÓ because of proper health examinations of
sionally systemic infection. Of the five or more strains of
the bulls and treatment of semen, this disease can be trans-
the organism, the three most common causing problems in
mitted through artificial insemination if these precautions
cattle are Leptospira pomona, Leptospira hardjo and
are not taken.
Leptospira grippotyphosa.
Untreated, infected bulls can remain carriers for a long
Leptospirosis can build up unrecognized in a herd.
time. They also can be ÒcleanÓ yet transmit the germ from
Closely confined cattle are particularly susceptible.
an infected cow to a ÒcleanÓ cow.
Droplets of urine from infected cows can infect normal
cows after contact with the eye or mucous membranes of Vibriosis in females causes endometritis (infection of the
the nose or mouth. The disease infects more cattle each day, inner lining of the uterus), resulting in failure to conceive or
preventing cows from settling and lengthening their calving death of the embryo. Affected cows may conceive and not
intervals. return to heat 21 days later. However, the newly formed
embryo may then die, become absorbed by the cow and
To prevent leptospirosis:
then she may exhibit estrus from 27 to 53 days after breed-
■ Vaccinate cattle with bacterins containing three or ing. Abortions late in gestation can occur, but are unusual.
five serotypes every six months;
Diagnosis is difficult and depends on identifying cul-
■ Drain stagnant bodies of water; and tures of the organism from the genitalia of the infected cow
or bull, or from the abomasum (fourth stomach chamber) of
■ Eliminate rodents, especially rats, from any barns or an aborted fetus. Prevent vibriosis by vaccinating cattle,
sheds where cattle congregate. using artificial insemination, treating infected animals, or
combining all three.
IBR and BVD complexes
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) and bovine virus Trichomoniasis
diarrhea (BVD) complexes are virus-caused diseases A protozoan organism, Trichomonas fetus, causes tri-
responsible for many abortions and possibly respiratory chomoniasis. It is also a venereal disease. Symptoms
infections, ÒpinkeyeÓ-type lesions and foot lesions. include occasional abortions and pyometra (pus in uterus)
Temporary infertility may follow IBR because of vaginitis that impairs breeding efficiency. Pyometra develops after
and/or a mild uterine infection. the infected cowÕs embryo dies.
Because these diseases are so complex, be careful when To treat the female, treat any uterine infection and pro-
using IBR and BVD vaccines. Some vaccines may result in vide sexual rest. Usually a 90-day period of sexual rest
abortions. Before vaccinating, consult a veterinarian for eliminates the organisms from the uterus. Vaccination is
advice on the vaccination procedure for a particular herd. also an option in cows.
Before use, test bulls, except virgins, through culture
methods at least three times at weekly intervals. Using clean
semen from reputable bull studs also prevents infection.
Frozen semen containing the organism can cause infection
if put into the uterus.
 Diseases Causing Abortions in Cattle
State of Samples
gestation needed for
Diseases Organism How spread at abortion diagnosis Vaccination Remarks

Brucellosis Bacterial Aborted fetuses, 6-9 months Blood sample Live vaccine in Cull infected animals. Do
(Brucella abortus) fetal membranes from aborting heifers at 4-12 not vaccinate bulls.
cow; fetus; months.
placenta

Leptospirosis Bacterial (At least Urine of infected Any stage, Sample 10 Every 6 months Laboratory should deter-
5 serotypes) animals, aborted usually 6-9 percent of herd at 2-4 weeks mine the type of lepto
fetuses months before breeding. causing infection.

Red nose (IBR) Viral Contagious from 6-9 months Fetus; placenta; Killed or modified Abortion may or may
cow to cow blood samples live vaccine. See not be associated with
veterinarian. illness in cows.

Virus diarrhea Viral Contagious from Variable, Two blood Killed or modified Calves born with disease
(BVD) cow to cow usually early samples, 3 live vaccine. See (loss of hair, brain
in gestation weeks apart veterinarian. damage)

Vibriosis Bacterial Venereal Early abortion, Vaginal mucus Two injections of Also causes few
(Campylobacter disease spread repeat from infected vaccine the first abortions
fetus venerealis) by infected bulls breeding cow, cervical year, 30-60 days
mucus; fetus; before breeding.
preputial Bulls and cows
washings from should be
the bull vaccinated.

Vibriosis (Campylobacter Ingested +6 months Fetus None Sporadic abortions

fetus intestinals)

Trichomoniasis Protozoal Venereal disease 2-4 months Preputial 1st dose: 60 days Treatment consists of
(Trichomonas spread by washings from prebreeding. 2nd sexual rest of cows for
fetus) infected bulls infected bulls; dose: 30 days 90 days; artificial insem-
uterus from cull prebreeding. inations; cull infected bulls
cows Single booster and open cows.
annually.
 Produced by AgriLife Communications and Marketing, The Texas A&M University System
Extension publications can be found on the Web at: [Link]
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Educational programs of the Texas AgriLife Extension Service are open to all people without regard to race, color, sex,
disability, religion, age, or national origin.
 Beef Cattle Handbook

BCH-3000 Product of Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee

Adapted from the Cattle Producer’s Library

Vital Signs in Animals: What Cattle Producers Should Know About Them

Edward A. Le Viness, Area Livestock Specialist, University of Arizona

Disease may be defined as “any abnormal structural or the veterinarian’s ultimate diagnosis of a disease, and the
functional change in the tissues of the body.” Though dis- visual symptoms of abnormal temperature are often the
eases have many direct and indirect causes, such as trau- first noticeable clue the owner may detect. When an ani-
ma (wound or injury), parasites, congenital (present at mal’s temperature is above normal limits, it’s considered
birth), viruses, and others, they all affect to some degree to have a fever; if it’s below normal, it’s called hypother-
the vital signs of the body. In animal physiology, the term mia. Domestic animals do not have constant normal tem-
“vital signs” pertains to the temperature, respiration rates, peratures and considerable variations will be found in the
and pulse of the body. Obviously, there are other important temperature of normal animals under different condi-
functions in the body, but these three are fundamental for tions. In general, animal temperatures will vary, depend-
the maintenance of life. Without them all else is secondary. ing on physical activity, stage of pregnancy, the time of
Animal owners need not only to recognize changes day, and environmental surroundings.
in the condition and appearance of their animals, but also In the United States, body temperature is measured
to learn to what extent an abnormality may be reflected with a clinical Fahrenheit thermometer. The thermometer
in the vital signs of the body. Usually, the first signs of has a scale ranging from 94° to 200°F, and each degree is
disease are slight and may go unnoticed. The observant divided into fifths. The procedure for taking an animal’s
individual who detects the early symptoms and initiates temperature is: (a) shake the mercury column into the
the proper action can play a big role in disease control. bulb end of the thermometer; (b) moisten or lubricate the
The vital signs of the body, what they might mean and tube; and (c) insert the bulb end through the anus into the
how they may aid the stockman in describing symptoms rectum. Insert the full length of the tube into the rectum,
to the veterinarian, are described in the following. and leave the thermometer in the rectum for about 3
minutes. Note: Most animals object to insertion of the
Temperature thermometer in the anus, so be sure to use an appropri-
Temperature is defined as “the degree of heat of a living ate restraint on the animal. The normal temperatures for
body.” An animal’s temperature is actually the result of the different animals are as follows:
balance between heat produced by the basal metabolism1
and muscular activity of the body, and the heat lost from Species Degrees Fahrenheit
the body. Approximately 85 percent of heat loss is through Horse 99.5 to 101.3
the skin, the remainder is lost by the lungs and through Foal 99.5 to 102.2
digestive and urinary secretions. The actual regulation of Cattle 100.4 to 103.1
body temperature is accomplished mainly through thermo- Sheep and goats 102.2 to 104.9
regulatory centers located in the brain. Swine 100.4 to 104.0
An animal’s abnormal temperature may play a part in

BCH-3000 1
 When the body temperature increases by at least
1°F over the normal upper limit, the animal is consid-
ered to have a fever. In most fevers, the temperature
usually rises rapidly, reaches a peak, and then falls to a
lower level. Generally, the height of the temperature
indicates the height of the fever. Four categories of fever
are distinguished here:

Degrees Fahrenheit
Horse Cow
Mild fever 101.3-103.0 103.1-104.6
Moderate fever 103.0-104.8 104.6-105.8
High fever 104.8-106.0 105.8-107.0
Very high fever 106.0-110.0 107.0-110.0

Usually the temperature never exceeds 106°F in

horses or 107°F in cows—even in severe infectious dis-
eases. However, in all animals suffering from heat stroke,
the temperature may exceed 110°F. where the radial artery travels down the bone. In sheep
Although the measurement of temperature is one of and goats, the saphenous artery, which runs down the
the most characteristic and reliable methods to judge inside of the hind leg, is the most accessible location. In
the degree of fever, it does not always have a direct swine, the pulse cannot be felt at all. With this animal,
relationship in animals, especially in cattle. You must the heart itself must be palpated directly.
also consider other symptoms, such as chill, uneven dis- The normal pulse frequency varies in different
tribution of the external temperature, pulse and respira- species and individual animals. Age, size, sex, breed,
tion rates, appetite, digestion, morbidity, etc. atmospheric conditions, time of day, exercise, eating,
Subnormal temperature (hypothermia) may or may and excitement are all factors that influence variations
not indicate disease. It occurs in a variety of ailments, in the pulse rate. The average pulse frequency, or the
such as chemical poisoning, indigestion, and calving normal pulse rate, for large domestic animals is:
paralysis. Subnormal temperatures are much less fre-
quent than fever temperatures. Heart beats per minute
Adult horses 28 to 40
Pulse Newborn foals 100
The pulse may be defined as “the rhythmic, periodic Foals (6 to 12 months) 45 to 60
thrust felt over an artery in time with the heartbeat.” The Cattle 40 to 70
important factors to note in taking the pulse are: (1) fre- Sheep and goats 60 to 90
quency, (2) rhythm, and (3) quality. Frequency is deter- Swine 60 to 100
mined by counting the number of heartbeats occurring in
one minute. Rhythm typifies a normal pulse seen in a The terms used to define pulse frequency are frequent
series of rhythmic beats that follow each other at regular (quick or rapid) and infrequent (slow).
intervals. Quality is best described as the tension on the
arterial wall; it is an indication of the volume of blood Respiration
flow. Respiration is the act of breathing, or more specifically,
The pulse can be palpated (touched with fingers) in the acts of taking in oxygen, using it in the body tissues,
superficial arteries when they are in soft tissue and can and giving off carbon dioxide. The respiratory system is
be pressed against a hard or bony structure. When you frequently subjected to primary and secondary disease,
have located an artery, hold it steady with the fingers so stock owners must consider the area affected when
and apply gentle pressure. To determine the rate accu- an animal is not normal. A long list of serious diseases
rately, count the pulse for one full minute. Judge the that affect all classes of farm animals eventually spread
rhythm and quality by alternating pressure on the artery and settle in areas of the respiratory system.
for another full minute. In observing the respiratory system of an animal,
The pulse in cattle and horses can be felt in approxi- begin at the nostrils and work rearward. Note anything
mately the same location: where the external maxillary abnormal in respiration, breath, nasal discharge, nasal
artery crosses the lower edge of the mandible, just in cavities, sub-maxillary lymph nodes, cough, larynx and
front of the masseter muscle (Fig. 1). trachea, surface of thorax (chest), and ausculation of
When you place your fingers flat on the cheek in thorax (sounds in chest). Although the average stock
front of the masseter muscle and move them back and owner is neither trained nor equipped to examine all
forth, you can easily feel the artery. In horses, pulse may these areas, he can make some intelligent observations
also be taken on the inside of the forearm (radial bone) concerning many of them.

2 Beef Cattle Handbook

 Respiration consists of (1) inspiration, or the expan-
sion of the chest or thorax—the part of the body
between the neck and abdomen containing the heart
and lungs; and (2) expiration, or the expulsion of air
from the lungs. In examining respiration in an animal,
check movement and sound at the nostrils and in the
chest area. Give attention to the following factors:

a. Rate –number of inspirations per minute.

b. Depth – the intensity or indication of straining.
c. Character – normal breathing involves an observ-
able expansion and relaxation of the ribs (costa) and
abdominal wall. Any interference in breathing that
may show more or less effort in either of these
areas affects the character of the breathing.
d. Rhythm – change in duration of inspiration and
expiration.
e. Sound – normal breathing is noiseless except when
the animal is exercising or at work. Snuffling, sneez-
ing, wheezing, rattling, or groaning may indicate
something abnormal.
f. Dyspnea – labored or difficult breathing.

Variations in rate of respiration can be caused by

many factors including body size, age, exercise, excite-
ment, environmental temperature, atmospheric condi-
tions, pregnancy, and fullness of the digestive tract. If
variations in respiration rates are encountered and envi-
ronmental conditions are suspected as being a possible
cause, it’s a good idea to check the rate of two or three
other animals for comparative purposes. The normal
range in respiratory rate in mature animals at rest is:

Horse 8 to 16 per minute

Beef cow 10 to 30 per minute
Dairy cow 18 to 28 per minute
Sheep and goat 12 to 20 per minute
Pig 8 to 18 per minute

Adapted from CATTLE PRODUCER’S LIBRARY CL610

Author:
Edward A. Le Viness, Area Livestock Specialist, University of Arizona

This publication was prepared in cooperation with the Extension Beef Cattle Resource Committee and its member states and produced in
an electronic format by the University of Wisconsin-Extension, Cooperative Extension. Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension
work, ACTS of May 8 and June 30, 1914.

BCH-3000 Vital Signs in Animals: What Cattle Producers Should Know About Them

BCH-3000 3
 L-2374
6-98

Water quality: Its relationship to livestock

Floron C. Faries Jr., John M. Sweeten and John C. Reagor*

S
afe supplies of water are absolutely associated with water quality have been
reported.
essential for livestock. If livestock
When evaluating the quality of water
do not drink enough safe water for livestock, consider whether live-
every day, intake of feed (roughages stock performance will be affected;
whether water could serve as a carrier
and concentrates) will drop, production will fall to spread disease; and whether the acceptabili-
and the livestock producer will lose money. ty or safety of animal products for human con-
Water constitutes 60 to 70 percent of the sumption will be affected.
body of livestock. Consuming water is more Several elements found in water seldom offer
important than consuming food, the amount problems to livestock because they do not
depending on the weather and the character of occur at high levels in soluble form, or because
food consumed. they are toxic only
Animals should be in excessive concen-
given all the water trations. Examples
they can drink. are iron, copper,
Those that do not cobalt, zinc, iodide
drink water may suf- and manganese.
fer stress or even These elements do
dehydration. not seem to accumu-
Dry cows need late in meat or milk
about 8 to 10 gallons to the extent that
of water daily. Cows they would cause a
in their last 3 problem.
months of pregnancy may drink up to 15 gal- The most common water quality problems
lons a day. Those in milk need about five times affecting livestock production are:
as much water as the volume of milk produced.
And calves require much more water after ■ High concentration of minerals (excess
weaning than before. Ignoring this fact may salinity);
result in a growth check in calves from which ■ High nitrogen content (nitrates, nitrites);
they may never fully recover.
■ Bacterial contamination;
Livestock may have health problems result-
ing from substandard quality water. They may ■ Heavy growths of blue-green algae; and
drink less or may ingest mineral or organic ■ Accidental spills of petroleum, pesticides
contaminants, which can cause poor perfor- and fertilizers.
mance and nonspecific disease conditions,
although no major livestock health problems Livestock tolerance of minerals in water
depends on many factors: kind, age, diet and
physiological condition of the animal; season;
*Respectively, Extension Veterinarian, Resident Director,
and Diagnostic Toxicologist, The Texas A&M University
climate; and kind of salts in the water.
System. Livestock may drink less if the water tastes
 bad. Livestock restricted to
Table 1. Recommended limits of concentration of some potentially waters with high salt content
toxic substances in drinking water for livestock.
may suffer physiological
Safe upper limit of concentration (mg/l) upset or death.

EPAa
U.S. Common compounds found
Substance (for humans) NASb CASTc in waters of excess salinity
include sodium, chloride, cal-
Primary Secondary cium, magnesium, sulfate and
Arsenic 0.05 0.2 0.5 bicarbonate. Bicarbonates and
carbonates may contribute
Barium 1.0 Not established heavily to alkalinity (pH) lev-
Boron 5.0 els. When feed also is high in
salt, lower water salinity
Cadmium 0.01 0.05 0.5 would be desirable. Moreover,
animals consuming high-
Chromium 0.05 1.0 5.0
moisture forage can tolerate
Chloridee 250 more saline waters than those
grazing dry brush or scrub.
Cobalt 1.0 1.0 Hard water without high
Copper 1.0 0.5 0.5 salinity does not harm ani-
mals.
Fluoride 4.0 2.0 2.0 3.0
Sources of nitrates and
Iron 0.3 Not established No limitd nitrites include decaying ani-
mal or plant protein, animal
Lead 0.05 0.1 0.1
metabolic waste, nitrogen fer-
Manganese 0.05 Not established No limit tilizers, silage juices and soil
high in nitrogen-fixing bacte-
Mercury 0.002 0.01 0.01 ria. Nitrates and nitrites are
Molybdenum Not established No limit water-soluble and may be
leached away to the water
Nickel 1.0 table or into ponded water.
Tables 1 and 2 give limits of
Nitrate-N 10.0 100 300
concentrations of specific
Nitrite-N 10 10 substances in water for live-
stock. Levels may be affected
Salinity See Table 2 by runoff or by concentration
Selenium 0.01 caused by water evaporation
from a pond or storage tank.
Silver 0.05
All surface waters must be
Sulfatee 250 assumed to carry bacteria.
Keep livestock from contami-
Total Dissolved Solidse 500
nated water that has not been
Vanadium 0.1 1.0 adequately oxygenated
because of bacterial
Zinc 5.0 25.0 25.0 pathogens living there.
a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Most surface water sources
b National Academy of Sciences have problems with algae
c Council for Agricultural Science and Technology growth as a result of high
d nutrient loading in runoff
Data available are not sufficient to made definite recommendations.
water. Avoid using waters
e The Texas Department of Health has different values. bearing heavy growths of
From: Herrick, J.B., Water Quality for Animals blue-green algae, as several
species can produce animal
toxins (poisons). To control
algae in storage tanks, reduce Table 2. Guide to using saline waters for livestock.
the introduced organic pollu-
tion and exclude light. Disin- Total soluble salts
fect water storage tanks by content of waters
adding 1 ounce of chlorine (mg/l) Comments
bleach per 30 gallons of water, Less than 1,000 These waters have a relatively low level of salinity and
holding for 12 hours before should present no serious burden.
draining, and then refilling
1,000 to 2,999 These waters should be satisfactory. They may cause
with clean water. Chlorination temporary and mild diarrhea in livestock unaccustomed
can also control certain bacte- to them, but they should not affect their health or
ria. performance.
To evaluate water quality in 3,000 to 4,999 These waters should be satisfactory, although they may
relation to livestock health cause temporary diarrhea or be refused at first by animals
problems, it is imperative to unaccustomed to them.
obtain a thorough history, 5,000 to 6,999 These waters can be used with reasonable safety. It may be
make accurate observations, well to avoid using those approaching the higher levels for
ask intelligent questions and pregnant or lactating animals.
submit suspected water and
properly prepared tissue spec- 7,000 to 10,000 Considerable risk may exist in using these waters for
pregnant or lactating livestock, the young of these species,
imens without delay to a qual-
or for any animals subjected to heavy heat stress or water
ified laboratory. Obtain assis- loss. In general, their use should be avoided, although older
tance from a local veterinari- livestock my subsist on them for long periods under condi-
an, county Extension agent or tions of low stress.
the Texas Veterinary Medical
Diagnostic Laboratory in More than 10,000 The risks with these highly saline waters are so great that
they cannot be recommended for use under any conditions.
College Station or Amarillo.
From: NAS, Nutrients and Toxic Substances in Water for Livestock and Poultry
Livestock grazing opera-
tions may influence stream
water quality where cattle are and applied to land in strict ified in water well drillers’
watered in or along the accordance with soil and crop guidelines.
streams or drainage features. requirements. This will help
Generally speaking, animal
Livestock manure accumula- prevent contaminating under-
health problems usually are
tions around water wells, lying aquifers with such nutri-
NOT caused by poor water
ponds and stock pens, and ents as nitrate, ammonia,
quality. Water-related health
agricultural chemicals or con- potassium or such salts as
problems in livestock are usu-
tainers at spray pens, dipping chloride. Always apply pesti-
ally stress problems caused
vats and disposal sites are in cides at rates recommended
by an inadequate water supply
some cases potential sources on the label. Do not apply
or by unpalatable water with a
of localized groundwater con- them to vulnerable sites or
high level of dissolved sub-
tamination. during unfavorable climatic
stances.
conditions that can increase
Other potential nonpoint environmental risks. Protect livestock from dan-
pollution sources require gerous drinking water by pro-
careful site selection and Locate wells at least 150 to
viding alternative sources of
management. They include 300 feet from livestock cor-
safe water. Adequate rain
open, unpaved feedlots; rals, septic tanks, manure
dilutes dangerous surface
wastewater holding ponds; treatment lagoons and runoff
waters. Livestock producers
lagoons; manure stockpiles; holding ponds. To prevent
should provide sufficient safe
silos; dead animal disposal infiltration, case and grout
water for animals by prevent-
sites; and onsite sewage treat- wells down to a restrictive
ing contamination, minimiz-
ment systems. layer or to the water table,
ing evaporation and providing
and seal around the wellhead
Fertilizers, including enough sources of supply
with a concrete pad. Wellhead
manure and wastewater, year-round.
protection measures are spec-
should be carefully selected
 References
1. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. (1974) Quality of Water for Livestock. Vol. I. Report No. 26.
2. Davis, D.I. (1974) The Importance of Evaluating Livestock Water. Texas Agricultural Extension Service, L-1024.
3. Herrick, J.B. (1976) Water Quality for Animals. Symposium Proceedings. Ames, Iowa.
4. McWilliams, D.A. T.D. Valco, H.D. Pennington, B.L. Harris, J.M. Sweeten and W.B. Gass. (1989) Protection of
Groundwater from Fertilizers and Pesticides. Texas Agricultural Extension Service, B-1642.
5. Midwest Plan Service. (1979) Private Water Systems Handbook. MWPS-14, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa.
6. National Academy of Sciences. (1974) Nutrients and Toxic Substances in Water for Livestock and Poultry.
Washington, D.C.
7. Quiring, S.M. and H.D. Pennington. (1989) Drinking Water Standards. Texas Agricultural Extension Service,
B-1643.
8. Sweeten, J.M. (1989) Groundwater Quality Protection for Livestock Feeding Operations. Texas Agricultural
Extension Service, L-2348.
9. Texas Water Commission. (1989) Groundwater Quality in Texas An Overview of Natural and Man-Affected
Conditions. Report 89-01, Austin, Texas.
10. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1973) Quality of Water for Livestock. Vol. I. Washington, D.C.
11. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1975) Primary Drinking Water Proposed Interim Standards. Federal
Register. 40 (51):11990.
12. Weeth, H.J. (1973) Non-applicability of Federal Water Quality Standards When Applied to Cattle. Water-Animal
Relations Symposium Proceedings. Kimberly, Idaho.

Produced by Agricultural Communications, The Texas A&M University System

Educational programs of the Texas Agricultural Extension Service are open to all people without regard to race, color, sex, disability, religion, age
or national origin.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension Work in Agriculture and Home Economics, Acts of Congress of May 8, 1914, as amended, and
June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. Zerle L. Carpenter, Director, Texas Agricultural Extension Service,
The Texas A&M University System.
5,000 copies, Reprint E&NR 5-2, AS