First Year Chemistry Short Questions Answers

CHAPTER

6 CHEMICAL BONDING
1. Define chemical bond.
Ans: A chemical bond is the force, which holds together two or more atoms or ions to form a large variety of
compounds.
2. What is the cause of chemical combination?
Ans: The chemical reactivities of elements, depend upon their characteristic electronic configurations. All
other elements except noble gases, combine with one another, due to an inherent tendency to stabilize
themselves. They get their stabilization by losing, gaining or sharing electrons to attain the nearest noble gas
configuration.
3. Why noble gases are most stable?
Ans: The noble gases with electronic configuration of valence shell 1s2 (He) or ns2 np6 (Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn)
show little tendency to react chemically. A noble gas does not react with another noble gas. Thus, these gases
are the most stable of all the elements. This is because of their special electronic configuration. Their outermost
s and p orbitals are completely filled.
4. What is octet rule? Give two examples.
Ans: The tendency of atoms to attain a maximum of eight electrons in the valence shell is known as the ‘octet
rule’.
For example, Mg (1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2) loses two electrons and attain electronic configuration of Ne (1s2 2s2 2p6).
Similarly, F (1s2 2s2 2p5) gains one electron and attain electronic configuration of Ne (1s2 2s2 2p6)
5. Bond distance is the compromise distance between two atoms. Explain with reason.
Ans: When two atoms approach each other to form a bond, forces of attraction and repulsion operate
simultaneously. The attractive forces tend to bring the two atoms close to each other and the potential energy
of the system is decreased and stability is increased. On the other hand, the repulsive forces tend to push the
atoms apart and potential energy of the system is increased and stability is increased.
Eventually, a state is reached, where the attractive forces dominate the repulsive forces. Here, the potential
energy of the system is minimum and the system is stabilized to maximum extent. The atoms are said to be
bonded to form a stable molecule. So, this distance is called bond distance or bond length or compromise
distance of two atoms.
6. What is atomic radius?
Ans: The atomic radius means the average distance between the nucleus of the atom and its outermost
electronic shell.
7. Why radius of an atom cannot be determined precisely?
Ans: The radius of an atom cannot be determined precisely due to the following reasons:
(i) There is no sharp boundary of an atom. The probability of finding an electron never becomes exactly zero
even at large distances from the nucleus.
(ii) The electronic probability distribution is affected by neighbouring atoms. For this reason, the size of an
atom may change from one compound to another.
8. How atomic radii can be determined?
Ans: Atomic radii can be determined, by measuring the distances between the centers of adjacent atoms with
the help of X-rays or by spectroscopic measurements.
9. What is the trend of atomic radii in periodic table?
Ans: In general, the atomic radii decrease from left to the right in a period and increase from top to bottom in
a group of the periodic table.

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10. Atomic radii decrease in a period. Why?
Ans: The decreasing trend in a period is due to the increase in the nuclear charge. As the nuclear charge
increases, the pull on the electrons is increased and size of an atom decreases. Moreover, the shielding effect
remains the same from left to right in a period.
11. Atomic radii increase in a group. Why?
Ans: The increase in atomic radii in a group is due to increase in the number of shells and the screening effect.
12. The decrease in atomic radii is small, from left to right in transition elements. Why?
Ans: The decrease is small, when we travel from left to right in transition elements Sc(21)-Zn(30), Y(39)-
Cd(48) due to the intervening electrons.
13. What is screening effect or shielding effect?
Ans: The electrons present in the inner shells screen or shield the force of attraction of nucleus felt by the
valence shell electrons. This is called shielding effect. The shielding effect is also called screening effect.
This is responsible for the decrease in force of attraction of the nucleus for the electrons present in the valence
shell.
14. Define ionic radius.
Ans: The ionic radius of an ion is the radius of the ion while considering it to be spherical in shape.
15. Size of cation (positive ion) is smaller than that of parent atom (neutral atom). Why?
The radius of Na atom (186 pm) is smaller than the radius of Na+ ion (95 pm). Why?
Ans: A cation is formed by the loss of one or more than one electron from valence shell. Due to this:
(i) Electron-proton ratio becomes imbalance (no. of protons becomes greater than no. of electrons).
(ii) The nuclear charge attracts the remaining electrons with a greater force.
(iii)Loss of shell usually occur.
As a result, size of cation becomes smaller than that of parent atom.
For example, the radius of Na atom reduces from 186 pm to 95 pm after conversion into Na+ ion.
16. Size of anion (negative ion) is bigger than parent atom (neutral atom). Why?
The radius of Cl atom (99 pm) is bigger than the radius of Cl- ion (181 pm). Why?
Ans: An anion is formed by the gain of one or more than one electron from valence shell. Due to this:
(i) Electron-proton ratio becomes imbalance (no. of protons becomes lesser than no. of electrons).
(ii) The nuclear charge attracts the electrons with weaker force.
(iii)Electron-electron repulsion increases.
As a result, size of anion becomes bigger than size of parent atom.
For example, the ionic radius of Cl- ion increases from 99 pm to 181 pm.
17. Size of Al3+ ion is smaller than that of Mg2+. Why?
Ans: Al3+ ion has 13 protons and 10 electrons while Mg2+ ion has 12 protons and 10 electrons. Al3+ ion has
greater nuclear charge which holds the electrons more strongly than Mg2+ ion. That is why, size of Al3+ ion
is smaller than that of Mg2+.
18. What is the trend of ionic radii in periodic table?
Ans: The variation of ionic radii in groups and periods is that, it decreases from left to the right in a period
and increase from top to bottom in a group of the periodic table. But keep in mind that ionic radius for metals
is for positive ions and for elements of group number VA to VIIA are for negative ions.
19. What is interionic distance?
Ans: The interionic distance ‘R’ in a crystal lattice is equal to the sum of the cationic radius r+ and the anionic
radius r-.
R = r+ + r-
Pauling was able to determine the distance between K+ and Cl- ions in potassium chloride crystal and found
that it was equal to the sum of the radii of the two ions.
R = 133pm + 181 pm = 314 pm
Thus, the ionic radius appeared to be an additive property.
20. What is covalent radius? Give an example.
Ans: The covalent radius is defined as half of the single bond length between two similar atoms covalently
bonded in a molecule.
For example, the covalent radius of hydrogen is 37.7 pm. It is half of the single bond length (75.4 pm) between
the two H atoms in H-H molecule.

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21. Define ionization energy. Give one example.
Ans: The ionization energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound
electron from the valence shell of an isolated gaseous atom.
Mg Mg+ + e- = 738 kJmol-1
22. Name the factors influencing the ionization energies.
Ans: The ionization energies of atoms depend upon the following factors.
(i) Atomic radius of atom
(ii) Nuclear charge or proton number of the atom
(iii)Shielding effect of inner electrons
(iv) Nature of orbital
23. Explain variation of ionization energy in the periodic table.
Ans: If we move from left to right in a period, the value of ionization energy increases. It is because the
nuclear charge increases and size of atoms decreases, force of attraction between the nucleus and valence
electrons increases. It results in difficult removal of electrons and the value of ionization energy increases.
In groups, the ionization energy decreases from top to bottom, due to successive addition of electronic shells
and increasing shielding effect, the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outer electron decreases,
the electron can be removed more easily or with less energy.
24. Ionization energy increases from left to right in a period. Give reason.
Ans: If we move from left to right in a period, the value of ionization energy increases. It is because the
nuclear charge increases and size of atoms decreases, which leads to a stronger force of attraction between the
nucleus and valence electrons. The stronger force of attraction, ultimately results in difficult removal of
electrons and the value of ionization energy increases.
25. Ionization energy decreases from top to bottom in a group. Give reason.
Why does the ionization energy decrease down the group although the nuclear charge increases?
Ans: In groups, the ionization energy decreases inspite of the increase in proton number or nuclear charge.
This is due to successive addition of electronic shells as a result of which the valence electrons are placed at
a larger distance from the nucleus. As the force of attraction between the nucleus and the outer electron
decreases with the increase in distance, the electron can be removed more easily or with less energy. Moreover,
the force of attraction also decreases due to increasing shielding effect of the intervening electrons.
26. The ionization energies of group III-A and VI-A show abnormal trend. Why?
Ans: The ionization energies of group III-A and VI-A show abnormal trend. This can be understood from the
distribution of the electrons.
• The I.E values of group IIIA elements are low as compared to IIA. In IIIA group, electron is being removed
from the p-orbital which is more extended orbital than s-orbital. Moreover, s-orbital is completely filled
and we have to break the pairs from s-orbitals of group IIA elements. Due to this reason group IIA elements
show high I.E values. In this way, group IIIA elements have abnormal low ionization energies.
• The I.E values of group VIA elements are low as compared to group VA elements. In group VA, elements
have half-filled p-subshell. This half-filled p-subshell is extra stable. This extra stability associated with
group VA elements enhances their I.E values. In this way, group VIA elements have abnormal low
ionization energies.
27. Why the second ionization energy is higher than the first?
Why second I.P values of an element is always greater than first I.P values?
Why the second ionization energy value of an element is always greater than the first ionization
energy value?
Ans: The ionization energy values undergo an increase with the increase in the number of electrons to be
removed. This is due to the reason that second electron is removed from a positively charged ion rather than
a neutral atom. The dominant positive charge holds the electrons more tightly and thus further removal of
electrons becomes more difficult. For example,

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Mg Mg+ + e- = 738 kJmol-1
(g) (g)

e-
+
Mg(g) Mg2+
(g)
+ = 1450 kJmol-1

e-
2+
Mg Mg3+ + = 7730 kJmol-1
(g) (g)

28. What are functions of I.E values?

Ans: (i) stability of an isolated atom: The ionization energy is the qualitative measure of the stability of an
isolated atom.
(ii) Index to the metallic character: Ionization energy is an index to the metallic character. The elements
having low ionization energies are metals and those having high ionization energies are non-metals. Those
with intermediate values are mostly metalloids.
(iii) Valency of an element: The gaps in the first, second, third and higher ionization energies help us to guess
the valency of an element. If, there is sufficient gap between first ionization energy and second one, then the
element shows valency of one.
29. Define electron affinity. Give one example.
Ans: The electron affinity of an atom is the energy released when an electron adds to an empty or partially
filled orbital of an isolated gaseous atom in its valence energy level to form an anion having a unit negative
charge. OR
The amount of energy released when an electron is added in the outermost shell of an isolated gaseous atom.
Cl + e- - = -349 kJmol-1
(g)
Cl (g)
Since, energy is released, so electron affinity is given the negative sign. Electron affinity is the measure of the
attraction of the nucleus of an atom for the extra electron.
30. Name the factors influencing the electron affinity.
Ans: The electron affinity, is influenced by the factors such as atomic radius, the nuclear charge and the
shielding effect of inner electrons.
31. Electron affinities of elements increase from left to right in the periodic table. Why?
Ans: In a period, the atomic radius decreases due to increase in the nuclear charge. The attraction of the
nucleus for the incoming electron increases. That means more is attraction for the electron, more energy will
be released. Thus, the electron affinities of elements increase from left to right in the periodic table. That is
why, the alkali metals have the lowest and the halogens have the highest electron affinities.
32. Electron affinities usually decrease from top to bottom in a group. Why?
Ans: In groups, the atomic radii increase with the increase in the proton number due to successive increase of
electronic shells. This also exerts a shielding effect on the force of attraction between the nucleus and the
valence electrons that results in poor attraction for the incoming electron i.e. less energy is released out. Thus,
the electron affinities usually decrease from top to bottom.
33. Why fluorine has electron affinity less than that of chlorine?
Ans: Fluorine has electron affinity less than that of chlorine. Actually, fluorine has very small size and seven
electrons in 2s and 2p subshells have thick electronic cloud. This thick cloud repels the incoming electron.
34. The elements of group IIA, VA and VIIIA show abnormally low electron affinities in every period
of the periodic table. Give reason?
Ans: The elements of group IIA, VA and VIII show abnormally low values in every period of the periodic
table. This can be understood from their electronic configurations.
• The elements of group IIA have two electrons in the s-orbital (ns2 configuration). They do not
accommodate the incoming electron. Their electron affinities are less than IA group elements. So in every
period of the periodic table IIA group elements show abnormal behaviour.
• Elements of VA group have half filled p-subshell (np3 configuration) which is extra stable. Hence in every
period, these elements show electron affinity values lower than IVA.
• Noble gases (VIIIA) have complete outermost shell and their electron affinities are zero.
35. Define Electronegativity.
Ans: The tendency of an atom to attract a shared electron pair towards itself in a molecule is called its
electronegativity.

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36. How the electronegativity values of elements are calculated?
Ans: Pauling calculated the electronegativity values of elements from the difference between the expected
bond energies for their normal covalent bond and the experimentally determined values.
He devised an electronegativity scale on which fluorine is given an arbitrary standard value 4.0. It is the most
electronegative element. The electronegativity values of other elements are compared with fluorine.
37. What is the trend of electronegativity in periodic table?
How does electronegativity vary in periodic table?
Ans: Electronegativity values increase in a period with the decrease in atomic size. These values decrease in
a group as the size of the atoms increase.
38. Write application of electronegativity.
Ans: The difference in the electronegativity values of the bonded atoms is an index to the polar nature of the
covalent bond. When the difference is zero, the bond between the two atoms is non-polar. Thus, all the bonds
which are formed between similar atoms are nonpolar in character, while those formed between different
elements are mostly polar.
Elements of widely different electronegativities form ionic bonds.
A difference of 1.7 units shows roughly equal contributions of ionic and covalent bonds.
39. Define ionic bond or electrovalent bond.
Ans: According to the Lewis theory, the bond which is formed by the complete transfer of electron or electrons
from an atom with low ionization energy to another atom with high electron affinity.
40. Why there is no bond with 100% ionic character?
Ans: During formation of ionic bond, when cation comes close to anion, the positive charge on cation tends
to attract the electrons of anion and repel the nucleus of anion. These two factors polarize the anion. Also,
anion has same effect but not to a prominent extent due to small size of cation. Due to polarization of ions a
covalent character is observed in ionic compounds. So, there is no bond with 100% ionic character.
41. Define covalent bond or electron pair bond.
Ans: According to Lewis and Kossel, a covalent bond is a bond which is formed by the mutual sharing of
electrons between two atoms.
42. What is non-polar covalent bond?
Ans: The covalent bond, in which the bonding electron pairs are equally shared between the bonded atoms. It
is formed between two identical atoms having same electronegativities. Due to an even distribution of charge,
the bonded atoms remain electrically neutral.
For example, in H2 or Cl2 molecules, the two electrons forming the covalent bond are equally shared.
H H Cl Cl
43. Why is CCl4 a non-polar compound?
Ans: CCl4 is a non-polar compound. This is due to cancellation of all the dipoles of this molecules due to its
symmetry. Actually, all the C-Cl bonds are polar, but molecule is non-polar overall.
The molecules like CH4, SiH4, and SiCl4 also follow the same attitude of non-polarity due to symmetry of
structure.
44. What is polar covalent bond?
Ans: The covalent bond, in which the bonding electron pairs are not equally shared between the bonded atoms.
It is formed between two different atoms having different electronegativities. The bonding pair of electrons
will be displaced towards the more electronegative atom. This would make one end of the molecule partially
positive and the other partially negative
For example, in HCl or H2O molecules, the electrons forming the covalent bond are not equally shared.

O
H Cl H H
45. Differentiate between polar and non-polar covalent bonds.
Ans:
Non-Polar Covalent Bonds Polar Covalent Bonds
1. In non-polar covalent bond, the bonding electron 1. In polar covalent bond, the bonding electron pairs
pairs are equally shared between the bonded are not equally shared between the bonded atoms.
atoms.

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2. It is formed between two identical atoms having 2. It is formed between two different atoms having
same electronegativities. different electronegativities.
3. Due to an even distribution of charge, the bonded 3. The bonding pair of electrons will be displaced
atoms remain electrically neutral. towards the more electronegative atom. This
would make one end of the molecule partially
positive and the other partially negative
4. For example, in H2 or Cl2 molecules, the two 4. For example, in HCl or H2O molecules, the
electrons forming the covalent bond are equally electrons forming the covalent bond are not
shared. equally shared.
H H Cl Cl
O
H Cl H H
46. Define coordinate covalent bond or dative covalent bond. Give one example.
Ans: A coordinate covalent bond is a bond formed between two atoms when the shared pair of electrons is
donated by one of the bonded atoms.
For example, the coordinate covalent bond is formed between NH3 and BF3.

[ ]
H F H F
+ -
H N + B F H N B F
H F H F
donor acceptor complex
47. Differentiate between covalent bond and coordinate covalent bond.
Ans:
Covalent Bond Coordinate Covalent Bond
1. Covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of 1. Coordinate covalent bond is formed between
electrons between two atoms. two atoms when the shared pair of electrons is
donated by one of the bonded atom.
2. It is represented by a short line between bonded 2. It is represented by an arrow which is directed
atoms. from electron donor to electron acceptor.
3. It may be single, double or triple between two 3. It is always one between two atoms.
atoms.
4. It may be polar or non-polar. 4. It is polar bond.
5. It needs no electron donor and electron acceptor 5. It needs electron rich and electron deficient
atoms. atoms.
6. Lone pair electrons is not required for formation 6. Lone pair electrons is required for formation of
of this bond. this bond.
7. It may form between similar or dissimilar 7. It is formed between dissimilar atoms.
atoms.
8. Examples: 8. Examples:
O H +
+ H O H2
H H H Cl H H H N H2
H H
Ammonium ion Hydronium ion
48. The distinction between a coordinate covalent bond and a covalent bond vanishes after bond
formation in NH4+, H3O+ and CH3NH3+. Give reason.
Ans: In some of the compounds, after the formation of a coordinate covalent bond, the distinction between
covalent bond and coordinate bond vanishes.
Water donates its electron pair to H+ ion to give H3O+ ion. All the three bonds between oxygen and hydrogen
have equal status. Every bond is 33% coordinate covalent and 66% covalent.
Ammonia donates its electron pair to H+ ion to give NH4+ ion. All the four bonds between nitrogen and
hydrogen have equal status. Every bond is 25% coordinate covalent and 75% covalent.

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+
Similarly, in CH3NH3 all the three bonds between nitrogen and hydrogen have equal status.
49. What are limitations of Lewis Model?
Ans: Classical Lewis model does explain, how do the electrons avoid each other inspite of their repulsions?
Lewis model seems to be an over simplification. It does not explain shapes of molecules which are very
important because many physical and chemical properties depend upon three dimensional arrangement of
their atoms.
50. What are requirements of a true molecular model?
Ans: A true molecular model should be able to justify molecular shapes and geometries of molecules, bond
polarities, bond distances and various energy transitions as evident by spectroscopic techniques.
This model should also make clear the unique behavioral features of molecules during chemical reactions.
51. Name modern theories of covalent bonding.
Ans: Following are the modern theories, of covalent bonding, based on wave-mechanical structure of atoms:
1. Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (VSEPR Theory)
2. Valence bond theory (VBT)
3. Molecular orbital theory (MOT)
In addition to above, crystal field theory and ligand field theory explain the formation of coordination complex
compounds formed by transition metals.
52. What is basic assumption of VSEPR theory?
Ans: The valence electron pairs (lone pairs and the bond pairs) are arranged around the central atom to remain
at a maximum distance apart to keep repulsions at a minimum.
53. The electron pairs of lone pairs occupy more space than the bond pairs. Give reason?
Ans: A bonding electron pair is attracted by both nuclei of atoms while non-bonding by only one nucleus.
Because a lone pair experiences less nuclear attraction, its electronic charge is spread out more in space than
that for bonding pair.
54. The magnitude of repulsions between the electron pairs in a given molecule decreases in the
following order: Lone pair- lone pair > lone pair -bond pair > bond pair - bond pair. Why?
Ans: A bonding electron pair is attracted by both nuclei of atoms while non- bonding by only one nucleus.
Because a lone pair experiences less nuclear attraction, its electronic charge is spread out more in space than
that for bonding pair. As a result, the non- bonding electron pairs exert greater repulsive forces on bonding
electron pairs and thus tend to compress the bond pairs.
Therefore, the magnitude of repulsions between the electron pairs in a given molecule decreases in the
following order:
Lone pair- lone pair > lone pair -bond pair > bond pair - bond pair
55. A double bond and a triple bond, behave like a single bond in determining the geometry of the
molecule. Explain it.
Ans: The two electron pairs of a double bond and three electron pairs of a triple bond, contain a higher
electronic charge density. Therefore, they occupy more space than one electron pair of a single bond, but
behave like a single electron pair in determining the geometry of the molecule. This is because, they tend to
occupy the same region between the two nuclei like a single bond.
56. Draw the diagrams on the basis of VSEPR Theory: (i) NH3 (ii) SO3
Ans: (i) NH3 (ii) SO3
O
N
H 107.5 H
o
S
H O O
57. Explain the structure of NH3 molecules on the basis of VSEPR Theory?
Ans: ⥮ ⥮ ↿ ↿ ↿
7 N = 1s 2s 2p x 2p y 2p z
This electronic configuration shows that nitrogen in NH3 is surrounded by four electron pairs i.e, three bond
pairs and one lone pair. These electron pairs arrange in such a way that the distance is maximum and repulsion
is minimum. The lone pair electrons takes up more space and exerts a strong repulsive force on the bonding
electron pairs. Consequently, to avoid a larger repulsion, the bonding electron pairs move closer that reduces

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the ideal bond angle from 109.5o to 107.5°. So, ammonia has a triangular pyramidal geometry instead of
tetrahedral, as in methane.
N
H 107.5 H
o

H
58. In NH3 the bond angle is 107.5o but in NF3 the bond angle is 102o. Explain.
Ans: In NH3 the lone pair electrons in 2s orbital of N takes up more space and exerts a strong repulsive force
on the bonding electron pairs. Consequently, to avoid a larger repulsion, the bonding electron pairs move
closer that reduces the ideal bond angle from 109.5o to 107.5°. This effect compels ammonia to assume a
triangular pyramidal geometry instead of tetrahedral, as in methane.
Substitution of hydrogen with electronegative atoms like F or Cl further reduces the bond angle.
In NF3, the strong polarity of N-F bond pulls the lone pair of N atom closer to its nucleus, which in turn exerts
a stronger repulsion over bonding electrons. Thus, the angle further shrinks to 102°. Moreover, the bond pairs
N-F bonds are closer to F atoms than N atoms. The increased distances in these bond pairs makes their
repulsions less operative.
59. Why the bond angle of H2O is not 109.5o like that of CH4?
Ans: In water molecule, central atom oxygen has two lone pairs which occupy more space and exerts a strong
repulsive force on the bond pairs. Consequently, to avoid a larger repulsion, the bond pairs move closer that
reduces the bond angle from 109.5o to 104.5°.
In methane (CH4) central atom carbon has four bond pairs and no lone pair, therefore it has perfect tetrahedral
geometry and bond angle 109.5o.
60. Write two postulates of VBT.
Ans:
i) A covalent bond is formed when half-filled orbitals in the outer or valence shells of two atoms overlap, so
that a pair of electrons, one electron from each atom, occupies the overlapped orbital.
ii) As a result of this overlap, the electrons with opposite spins become paired to stabilize themselves.
iii) Larger the overlap, the stronger is the bond.
iv) The essential condition for chemical bonding, is that the orbitals of atoms participating in bond formation
must overlap.
v) The direction of the bond is determined by the direction of the two overlapping orbitals.
vi) As a result of overlapping sigma (σ) and pi (π) bonds are formed.
61. Differentiate between σ-bond and π-bond?
Ans:
σ-bond π-bond
1. σ-bond is formed by linear overlapping of 1. π-bond is formed by parallel overlapping of
partially filled atomic orbitals. partially filled atomic orbitals.
2. In σ-bond, electron density is maximum between 2. In π-bond, the electron density is maximum
the nuclei of two atoms. above and below the internuclear axis.
3. σ-bond may form between s-s, s-p or p-p atomic 3. π-bond is formed between p-p atomic orbitals.
orbitals.
4. σ-bond is less diffused than π-bond. 4. π-bond is more diffused than σ-bond.
5. No. of σ-bond between two atoms is always one. 5. No. of π-bond between two atoms may be zero,
one or two.
6. σ-bond is stronger than π-bond. 6. π-bond is weaker than σ-bond
7. σ-bond has one overlapped region. 7. π-bond has two overlapped regions.
8. σ-bond is formed earlier than π-bond. 8. π-bond is formed later than σ-bond.
9. It is more stable than π-bond. 9. It is less stable than σ-bond.
62. What is sigma (σ) bond?
Ans: The covalent bond which is formed by linear or head to head overlapping of partially filled atomic
orbitals is called sigma bond. In σ-bond, electron density is maximum between the nuclei of two atoms.
63. What is pi (π) bond?

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Ans: The covalent bond which is formed by parallel or side-to-side overlapping of partially filled atomic
orbitals is called pi-bond. In π-bond, the electron density is maximum above and below the internuclear axis.
64. Explain why π-bond is more diffused than σ-bond?
Ans: σ-bond is formed by linear overlapping of partially filled atomic orbitals. In σ-bond, electron charge
density lies along the internuclear axis and is strongly attracted by both nuclei. π-bond is formed by parallel
overlapping of partially filled atomic orbitals. In π-bond, electron charge density lies above and below the
internuclear axis and is weakly attracted by nuclei. Due to this weak nuclear attraction, π-bond is more diffused
than σ-bond
65. Define Atomic Orbital Hybridization.
Ans: When two or more than two atomic orbitals of different shapes and energies are intermix to form a new
equivalent set of orbitals which have same shapes and energies are called hybrid orbitals and this phenomenon
is called atomic orbital hybridization.
66. Describe sp2-Hybridization. Mention a molecule in which sp2-Hybridization is applied.
Ans: In sp2 hybridization, one ‘s’ and two ‘p’ atomic orbitals of an atom intermix to form three equivalent
orbitals called sp2 hybrid orbitals.
The three half-filled sp2 hybrid orbitals are planar and are oriented at an angle of 120°. The sp2 hybridization
explains the geometry of planar molecules such as BF3. The structure is triangular planer.
67. The bond angles of H2O and NH3 are not 109.5° like that of CH4. Although, O- and N-atoms are
sp3 hybridized. Give reason.
Ans: In water molecule, two sp3 hybrid orbitals of central atom oxygen is occupied by lone pairs which occupy
more space and exert a strong repulsive force on the bond pairs. Consequently, to avoid a larger repulsion, the
bond pairs move closer that reduces the bond angle from 109.5o to 104.5°.
In ammonia molecule, one sp3 hybrid orbital of central atom nitrogen is occupied by lone pair which occupy
more space and exerts a strong repulsive force on the bond pairs. Consequently, to avoid a larger repulsion,
the bond pairs move closer that reduces the bond angle from 109.5o to 107.5°.
In methane (CH4) central atom carbon has four bond pairs and no lone pair, therefore it has perfect tetrahedral
geometry and bond angle 109.5o.
68. What are molecular orbitals?
Ans: The atomic orbitals of the combining atoms overlap to form new orbitals called molecular orbitals which
are characteristic of the whole molecule. The molecular orbital surrounds two or more nuclei of the bonded
atoms.
69. Differentiate between Bonding and Antibonding Molecular Orbitals.
Ans:
Bonding Molecular Orbitals (BMOs) Antibonding Molecular Orbitals (ABMOs)
1. The molecular orbitals having lower energies 1. The molecular orbitals having higher energies
than atomic orbitals are called bonding molecular than atomic orbitals are called antibonding
orbitals. molecular orbitals.
2. It is formed by the addition overlapping of 2. It is formed by the subtraction overlapping of
atomic orbitals. atomic orbitals.
3. The electron density is high in the region 3. The electron density is low in the region between
between the nuclei of bonded atoms. the nuclei of bonded atoms.
4. Every electron in bonding molecular orbital 4. Every electron in antibonding molecular orbital
contributes toward the attractive force. contributes toward repulsive force.
5. e.g. sigma(σ) and pi(π) BMO. 5. e.g. sigma(σ*) and pi(π*) ABMO.
70. Give the sequence of molecular orbitals in Nitrogen molecule.
Ans: The molecular orbitals in diatomic molecules, such as N2 and other lighter molecules like Be2, B2, C2
show slightly different energy order.
σ(1s) < σ*(1s) < σ(2s) < σ*(2s) < π(2py) = π(2pz) < σ(2px) < π*(2py) = π*(2pz) < σ*(2px)
71. In case of B2, C2 and N2, σ2px is higher in energy than π2py = π2pz MOs. Explain it.
Ans: In case of B2, C2 and N2, σ2px is higher in energy than π2py = π2pz MOs. This reversal is due to mixing
of 2s and 2px atomic orbitals.

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Actually, the energy difference of 2s and 2p atomic orbitals is small. There is a possibility of mixing of these
orbitals (i.e. hybridization of A.O.) as a result of which σ2s and σ*2s MOs do not retain pure s-character.
Similarly, σ2px and σ*2px MOs do not have pure p-character. All the four MOs acquire sp-character. Due to
this mixing, their energies change in such a way that MOs σ2s and σ*2s become more stable and are lowered
in energy MOs as σ2px and σ*2px become less stable and are raised in energy. Since, πp-orbitals are not
involved in mixing, so energy of π2py = π2pz remains unchanged. σ2px is raised to such an extent that it
becomes higher in energy than π-bondings.
72. What do you mean by bond order? Give one example.
Ans: The number of bonds formed between two atoms after the atomic orbitals overlap, is called the bond
order.
It is taken as half of the difference between the number of bonding electrons and anti-bonding electrons.
Number of electrons in the BMOs - Number of electrons in the ABMOs
Bond Order =
2
The number of bonds formed between H-atoms in hydrogen molecule may be calculated as follows:
Number of electrons in the bonding orbitals = 2
Number of electrons in the anti-bonding orbitals = 0
2-0
Bond Order = =1
2
73. Discuss He-Molecule on the basis of MOT. OR
He2 molecule is not formed. Justify it. OR
Helium shows diamagnetic behaviour, give reason.
Ans: The electronic configuration of He is 1s2. The 1s orbitals of He-atoms combine to form one bonding
σ(1s) and one anti-bonding σ*(1s) orbitals.
Each He-atom contributes two electrons. Two electrons enter bonding molecular orbital σ(1s) and the
remaining two go to antibonding molecular orbital σ*(1s).
The bond order for He2 is zero i.e.
2-2
Bond Order = =0
2
He2 molecule is not formed.

It has no unpaired electrons in molecular orbitals, therefore helium shows diamagnetic behaviour.
74. Why Molecular Orbital Theory (MOT) is superior to Valence Bond Theory (VBT)?
Ans: (i) MOT describes the paramagnetic behaviour of substance while VBT does not explain the
paramagnetic behaviour of substance.
(ii) MOT gives bond order (no. of bonds between two atoms) while VBT does not give idea about bond order.
(iii)MOT gives concept of bonding and antibonding molecular orbitals while VBT does not give idea of BMOs
and ABMOs.
(iv) MOT gives energy order of MOs while VBT does not give concept of energy order.
(v) MOT explains delocalization of chemical bonding while VBT cannot explain delocalization of chemical
bonding.
75. Define Bond Energy.

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Ans: “The bond energy is the average amount of energy required to break all bonds of a particular type in one
mole of the substance”.
76. Name the factors affecting bond energy.
Ans: Bond energy depends upon the following factors:
(i) Electronegativity difference of bonded atoms
(ii) Sizes of the atoms
(iii) Bond length
77. What is Bond Length?
Ans: The distance between the nuclei of two atoms forming a covalent bond is called the bond length.
The bond lengths are experimentally determined by physical techniques. The techniques may be electron
diffraction, X-ray diffraction or spectral studies.
78. Describe the factors affecting bond length.
Ans: (i) Electronegativity difference: With an increase in electronegativity difference between the bonded
atoms, the bond becomes shortened.
(ii) s-Character: Greater the s character in the hybrid orbitals used, the shorter will be the bond distance.
(iii) Atomic radius: As the atomic radii increase, the effect of the effective nuclear charge decreases on
electrons. As a result, the bond length will increase.
79. Define dipole moment. Give its units.
Ans: The dipole moment (μ) is be defined as the product of the electric charge (q) and the distance between
the positive and negative centres (r).
μ=qxr
The SI units of dipole moment is m.C or C.m. Another unit of dipole moment is Debye (D).
1 D = 3.336×10-30 m.C
80. The abnormality of bond length and bond strength in HI is less prominent than that of HCl. Give
reason.
Ans: The abnormality of bond length and bond strength depends upon the % ionic character in covalent bond
which in turn depends upon electronegativity difference between the atoms. More is the electronegativity
difference between bonded atoms, more will be the % ionic character and more prominent the abnormality of
bond length and bond strength. The electronegativity difference in HI is less than HCl, therefore, The
abnormality of bond length and bond strength in HI is less prominent than that of HCl.
81. How dipole moment is helpful to determine the molecular structure?
Ans: Dipole moment provides two types of information about the molecular structure:
(i) Percentage ionic character of a bond
(ii) Angles between the bonds or the geometry of molecules
82. Why diploe moment of CO2 is zero and dipole moment of H2O is 1.85 D?
Ans: Diploe moment of CO2 is zero, the reason is that CO2 has a linear structure, where the dipoles being
equal and opposite, cancel out effect of each other. Water has an angular structure with a bond angle 104.5°
between the two O-H bonds. Therefore, the net dipole moment 1.85 D of water is the resultant of the vector
addition of the individual bond moments.
83. The dipole moment of CO2 and CS2 is zero but that of SO2 is 1.61 D. Why?
Ans: Diploe moment of CO2 and CS2 is zero, the reason is that CO2 and CS2 have linear structures, where the
dipoles being equal and opposite, cancel out effect of each other.
SO2 has an angular structure. Therefore, the net dipole moment 1.61 D of SO2 is the resultant of the vector
addition of the individual bond moments.
84. Why CO2 and CH4 has no dipole moment?
Ans: Diploe moment of CO2 is zero, the reason is that CO2 has a linear structure, where the dipoles being
equal and opposite, cancel out effect of each other.
Perfectly tetrahedral molecules like CH4, also have zero dipole moments. This is all due to the cancellation of
individual bond moments.
85. Reactions of ionic compounds are faster than reactions of covalent compounds, give reason.

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Ans: The ionic compounds exist in the form of ions in an aqueous solution. The chemical reaction between
ions occurs rapidly. The reaction is rapid because on mixing the solutions, no bonds have to be broken, only
a new bond is formed. The ionic compounds have already been broken while forming their aqueous solutions.
For example, addition of silver nitrate solution to sodium chloride solution produces a white precipitate of
silver chloride instantaneously.
The covalent compounds are generally much slower to react as they involve bond breaking and making of
bonds. The molecules undergo a chemical change as a whole.
86. The melting points, boiling points, heat of vaporizations and heat of sublimations of electrovalent
compounds are higher as compared with those of covalent compounds. Give reason.
Ans: This is because electrovalent compounds (ionic compounds) have strong electrostatic forces of attraction
between oppositely charged ions, which require more energy to break. As a result, they have higher melting
points, boiling points, heat of vaporization and sublimation. In contrast, covalent compounds have weaker
intermolecular forces, requiring less energy to break.

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