English
Grammar
The constituents of sentences are known as parts of speech.
Words that name people, places, objects, or concepts are called nouns (e.g., dog, city,
freedom).
Pronouns are words that take the place of nouns, such as "he," "she," "it," and "they."
Verbs: Words like "run," "is," and "become" that convey activities or states of being.
Words that describe nouns are called adjectives (e.g., red, tall, lovely).
Adverbs are words (such as "quickly," "very," and "well") that modify verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs.
Prepositions are words (such as on, in, at, to, and from) that indicate the relationship
between a noun or pronoun and other words in the phrase.
Words that join words, phrases, or clauses are called conjunctions (e.g., and, but, or, so).
Words that convey intense emotion are called interjections (e.g., Wow! Ouch!).
Sentence structure is the arrangement of words in sentences.
Subject: The noun or pronoun that performs the action of the verb.
Verb: The action or state of being.
Object: The noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb.
Simple Sentence: Contains one independent clause (e.g., The dog barked.).
Compound Sentence: Contains two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction (e.g., The dog barked, and the cat meowed.).
Complex Sentence: Contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
(e.g., Because it was raining, I took my umbrella.).
Tenses: Indicate when an action takes place.
Past:
Simple Past: An action that happened in the past (e.g., I walked.).
Past Continuous: An action that was in progress in the past (e.g., I was walking.).
Past Perfect: An action that was completed before another action in the past (e.g., I
had walked.).
Past Perfect Continuous: An action that had been in progress before another action in
the past (e.g., I had been walking.)
Present:
Simple Present: An action that happens regularly or is a general truth (e.g., I walk.).
Present Continuous: An action that is happening now (e.g., I am walking.).
Present Perfect: An action that started in the past and continues to the present or has
a result in the present (e.g., I have walked.).
Present Perfect Continuous: An action that started in the past and is still in progress
(e.g., I have been walking.).
Future:
Simple Future: An action that will happen in the future (e.g., I will walk.).
Future Continuous: An action that will be in progress in the future (e.g., I will be
walking.).
Future Perfect: An action that will be completed before a specific time in the future
(e.g., I will have walked.).
Future Perfect Continuous: An action that will have been in progress for a period of
time before a specific time in the future (e.g., I will have been walking.).
Punctuation: Marks used to structure sentences and clarify meaning.
Commas: Used to separate items in a list, set off introductory phrases, and join
independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction.
Periods: Used to end declarative sentences.
Question Marks: Used to end interrogative sentences.
Exclamation Points: Used to end sentences that express strong emotion.
Apostrophes: Used to indicate possession or contractions.
Quotation Marks: Used to enclose direct quotations or titles of short works.
Vocabulary
Word Roots/Prefixes/Suffixes: Understanding these elements can help you decode the
meaning of unfamiliar words.
Prefixes: Added to the beginning of a word (e.g., un- in unhappy).
Suffixes: Added to the end of a word (e.g., -ness in happiness).
Roots: The core meaning of a word (e.g., port in transport).
Synonyms/Antonyms: Expanding your vocabulary with words that have similar or opposite
meanings.
Synonyms: Words that have similar meanings (e.g., happy, joyful).
Antonyms: Words that have opposite meanings (e.g., happy, sad).
Context Clues: Using the surrounding words and sentences to understand the meaning of an
unfamiliar word.
Reading Comprehension
Main Idea: The central point or argument of a text. Often found in the introduction or
conclusion.
Supporting Details: Facts, examples, and other information that support the main idea.
Inference: Drawing conclusions based on information that is implied but not explicitly stated
in the text. "Reading between the lines."
Author's Purpose: The reason the author wrote the text.
To inform: To provide information about a topic.
To persuade: To convince the reader to agree with a certain point of view.
To entertain: To amuse or engage the reader.
Writing
Essay Structure:
Introduction: Introduces the topic and states the thesis statement.
Thesis Statement: A clear and concise statement of the main argument of the essay.
Body Paragraphs: Develop and support the thesis statement with evidence and examples.
Topic Sentences: States the main point of each paragraph.
Conclusion: Summarizes the main points of the essay and restates the thesis statement
in a new way.
Clarity and Conciseness: Using precise language and avoiding unnecessary words.
Organization: Arranging ideas in a logical and coherent manner. Consider using
chronological, spatial, or logical order.
Grammar and Mechanics: Proofreading for errors in grammar, spelling, and punctuation.