Table : Comparative account of characteristics of the Five Kingdoms of Whittaker’s classification

Characters Five Kingdoms

Monera Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
Cell type Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic
Cell wall Non-cellulosic Present in some Present Present Absent
(polysaccharide + (without cellulose) (cellulosic)
amino acid)
Nuclear membrane Absent Present Present Present Present
Body organisation Cellular Cellular Multicellular/ loose Tissue/organ Tissue/organ/
tissue organ system
Mode of nutrition Autotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic Autotrophic Heterotrophic
(chemosynthetic (photosynthetic) and (saprotrophic or (photosynthetic) (holozoic)
or photosynthetic) heterotrophic parasitic)
and heterotrophic
(saprotrophic or
parasitic)
® Cryptogamae
ÚíÉ ìäèíÞ äÞVÕìÖ±ù ÚíÉìäèíÞ
(Plants without èùÝ
seeds) áíáAlgae
±õUnicellular
ÀÀùæíÝ, ÚèðorÀùæíÝ, ÉáíÝ áíáí
multicellular, áíáÞõgreen
aquatic,
® çðÀëÝÀ äÞVÕìÖ±ùThallophyta V×áíÝ äÞVÕìÖ±ùÞë ÕñäýÉ ÖßíÀõ ÃHëëÝ
algae is considered as ancestors Èõ.
of land
çðThalloid,
ÀëÝÀ, ìÛLÞ ÕëÜõároots,
distinct Üñâ Õþstem
Àë_Í ±Þõ
and ÕHëùý
leavesÞù absent
±Ûëä plants. e.g.,
® Øë.Ö.,, NÝð@ç, äùSä"ë@ç Fucus, Volvox

® 즱_Ãí ® ìèÕõËíÀùãMçÍë
Bryophyta Hepaticopsida
¶ÛÝ°äí
Plant äÞVÕìÖ±ù
amphibians, CanÖßíÀõ Üëhëonly
grow ÛõÉon
äëâðdamp,
_ ÕëHëí áíäßäË ÖßíÀõ çðthallose
Liverworts, ã¦åëÂíÝ
ÀëÝÀ ±×ïoräëfoliose;
ÉÜë ×ëÝplaces
watery IÝë_ ¶Ãõ Èõ. ÜëØëÉLÝð
as male gametesçðÔrequire
í ÕèùîÇäë ÜëËõ
water Úí½bÉÞÀ
sporophyteÕßùÕ°äí Øë.Ö.,,
is parasite. e.g.,ìßì@çÝë,
Riccia
toÞßÉLÝð
reachÞfemale
õ ÕëHëíÞígamete,
±ëäUÝÀÖë èùÝ Èõ.sex
protected ìá_Ãorgans,
í±_Ãù ÜëÀõãLåÝë
seeds
ßìZëÖ èùÝ Èõ. ÚíÉÞí ÃõßèëÉßí ÉLÝðÉÞÀ ÕþÛeg.,
absent, dominant gametophyte. ëäí. ±õL×õìçßùËùãMçÍë
Anthocerotopsida
Funaria
Øë.Ö., NÝðÞëìßÝë, ±õL×ùìçßùç ® èùÞýHorn
äËóûç, worts,
çðÀëÝÀ,thallose,
Úí½bÉÞÀ hornåíÃ_
likeÍë
Éõäí ±Ôý ÕßùÕ°äí ÉLÝðÉÞÀ Õß on
sporophyte is partial parasite èùÝ
KINGDOM - PLANTAE

ìhë±_Ãí gametophyte.
Øë.Ö.,, e.g., Anthoceros
±õL×ùìçßùç
Pteridophyta
® Õþ×Ü true
First V×áíÝ çëÇí
land äÞVÕìÖ,
plants, withäëèÀÕõ åíÖ_hsystem,
vascular ë Ôßëäõ Musci
Üðçë´ (Bryopsida)
(ÚþëÝùãMçÍë)
jacketed sex organs and dominant sporophyle. Mosses, foliose, sporophyte partially
ìá_Ãí ±_Ãù ±ëÔëìßÖ ±Þõ Úí½bÉÞÀ ±äV×ë ® Ü"ëç, ØõèßÇÞë, sex
dependent, Úí½bÉÞÀ ±ÔýVäÖ_
organs borne onhë,
e.g., Salvinia,
ÕþÛëäí. Øë.Ö.,,Pteris, Nephrolepis
çëSäíìÞÝë Ëõìßç (Pteris) ìá_ Ãí ±_Ãùbranches.
separate VäÖ_hë åëÂë±ù Õß ¶Ãõ.
e.g., Sphagnum,
Sphaerocarpes
Øë.Ö.,, VÎõÃÞÜ, çõÎõáùÀëÕýç
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
çëÝáùãMçÍë
Psilopsida áëÝÀùãMçÍë
Lycopsida çõÎõÞùãMçÍë
Sphenopsida ËõßùãMçÍë (ÎíáíÀùãMçÍë)
Pteropsida
MostÕþë×ìÜÀprimitive,
çú×í ½âìäèíÞ äçëèÖí Ü"ëçÀõ ÛñìÜÝpine,
Club moss/ground Õë³Þ,true CëùÍëÞítail,
Horse Õñ_Èmostly
Íí Éõäí èoçßëÉ ÕþÀë_Í Ãë_ÌëÜñâí
(Filicopsida)
rootless leaves usually
çëÜëLÝÖÑ ÕHëýìäèíÞ Øë.Ö. root,
çëÇë Üñâstem
, ÕþÀë_Í and leaves
±Þõ ÕHëùý extinct,
áð ×ëÝ Èõ. have
Ãë_Ì ÜèëÚí½bFerns, ÕHëùý
stem,Ôßëäõ
absent.
ßèíìÞÝë, are present, usually
Ôßëäõ, áCëð Úí½bÕHëùý, çëÜëLÝÖÑ distinct,
±ë_ÖßÃë_Ìù nodes
Ôßëäõ rhizomatous,
ÉLÝðÉÞÀ VäÖ_hë Øë.Ö.
gametophyte symbiotic, non- and internodes.
e.g., Rhynia
èùý ìÞ±ùÎëÝËùÞ ±UÜíÛñÖ ÉLÝðÉÞÀ, çè°äí, ÕþþÀëå
photosynthetic.
Øë.Ö. ³ã@äçõõËÜ
e.g., Equisetum
ÜëÀõýVmacrophyllus,
ËíÜë, ±õìÍÝõLËÜ
gametophyte,
ç_fáõLycopodium,
e.g., æí Þ èùÝ Øë.Ö.Selaginella
áëÝÀù ÛñìÜÝ äÞVÕìÖ
(sole living ×ëÝ independent.
Èõ.
ÕùìÍÝÜ, çõáë°Þõáë ÖßíÀõ °ä_Ö
member) e.g., Adiantum
Phanerogamae
® (Plants with seeds) Cycadopsida
® Comparitively primitive, small plants, female
Gymnospermae cones absent. e.g., Cycus, Zamia
® Well developed
±ÞëT²këvasculature
ÚíÉÔëßí but vessels
ìäÀìçÖ äëèÀÕõ å íÖ_
and companion cells h ë Õß_Öabsent,
ð ÉáäëìèÞí ±Þõ
mostly Coniferopsida
çë×íÀùæùÞù ±Ûëä.
extinct, ovary absent ÜùËõ thus
ÛëÃõ fruit
áð ÕëÜõ
is ánot
ð_ ® ® Larger, dominant, gymnosperms, evergreen
±_ ÍëåÝÞù and
formed ±Ûëäseeds
Éõ×í ÎâìÞÜëý
remainHë Þnaked,
×ëÝ e.g., Gingko, Taxus
gametophyte is highly
±Þõ ÚíÉ ±ÞëT²kë èùÝ. FLÝðÉÞÀ ±äV×ë reduced,
endosperm is haploid. e.g., Ginkgo, Gnetopsida
Âñ Ú É ÞëÞí. ÛþñHëÕùæ ±õÀÀíÝ èùÝ Èõ. ® Advanced gymnosperms with vessels in xylem
Pinus
Øë.Ö.,, ì{_Ãù, ÕëÝÞç embryo has two Cotyledons, Considered
closest to angiosperms. e.g., Gnetum

Monocotyledoneal
Angiospermae Seeds with single Cotyledon, leaves have
±ëT²Ö ÚíÉÔëßí
ÉáäëìèÞí ±Þõ çë×í Àùæù cells
Vessels and companion Ôßëäõ,are present, ®
Úí½åÝ
paralled venation, trimerous flowers, adventitious
ovary present thus seeds remain ® roots, lack secondary growth. e.g., Wheat, Rice
® èëÉß Öõ×í ÚíÉ ÎìáÖ ÎâùÜë_ èùÝ. ÕìßÕ@äÖë
protected inside fruits till matarity, triploid,
Ôí ìhëÀíÝ Ûþvery
çðendosperm ñHëÀùædiversified,
äÔð ìäÀçíÖ found
ÚÔë Éin all Dicotyledoneal
äçäëËÜë_ ® Seeds with two Cotyledon, reticulate venation in
habitats. ½õ äë Oryza,
e.g., Üâõ. Øë.Ö.,,
Citrus±ùìß{ë, çë´Ëÿç
leaves, Pentamerous flowers, tap roots,
secondary growth present. e.g., Mango, Beans
·
 FIVE KINGDOMS

Kingdom 1 Kingdom 2 Kingdom 3 Kingdom 4 Kingdom 5

Monera Protoctista Fungi Plantae Animalia

Outline Classification of Animal Kingdom

ANIMALIA

PROTOZOA METAZOA
Now kingdom : Protoctista
Eg : Ameoba

PARAZOA EUMETAZOA
PHY : PORIFERA
Eg : Sponges

PHY : COELENTERATA RADIATA BILATERIA

Eg : Hydra DIPLOBLASTIC TRIPLOBLASTIC

ACOELOMATA PSEUDOCOELOMATA EUCOELOMATA

PHY : PLATYHELMINTHES PHY : ASCHELMINTHES
Eg : Tapeworm (or)
NEMATODA
Eg : Ascaris

PHY : ANNELIDA PHY : ARTHROPODA PHY : MOLLUSCA PHY : ECHINODERMATA PHY : CHORDATA
Eg : Earthworm Eg : Cockroach Eg : Pila Eg : Starfish Eg : Rat
 KINGDOM - ANIMALIA (Multicellular, Eukaryotic)
¯
¯ ¯ ¯
Mesozoa Parazoa Enterozoa or
Eumetazoa
No tissues, body comprising an No tissues, diploblastic, cellular level Tissue or organ system level
external layer of ciliated cells. of body organization, choanocytes of body organization
Minute body, Worm like, Parasites of present, called sponges. Phylum
marine Phylum Mesozoa e.g., Porifera e.g., Leucosolenia, Sycon
Dicyema
¯ ¯
Division-Radiata Division-Bilateria
Body radially symmetrical, diploblastic, tissue level of body Body bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic,
organization. Phylum-Cnidaria = Coelenterata. Cnidoblasts organ system level of body organization
present. e.g., Hydra, Phylum ctenophora e.g., Chenoplana
¯ ¯ ¯
Sub-division Acoelomata Sub-division Pseudocoelomata Sub-division
No Coelom Pseudocoelom Eucoelomata
Phylum Nemathelminthes True Coelom
Phylum Platyhelminthes
e.g., Ascaris
e.g., Fasciota, Taenia
¯ ¯
Schizocoelomata Enterocoelomata
Coelom develops from solid mesoderm Coelom develops from enteric pouches
Phylum Annelida e.g., Earthworm Phylum Echinodermata e.g., Starfish
Phylum Arthropoda e.g., Cockroach Phylum Hemichordata e.g., Balanoglossus
Phylum Mollusca e.g., Pila Phylum Chordata

Phylum - Chordata
¯
¯ ¯ ¯
Sub Phylum - Urochordata Sub Phylum - Cephalochordata Sub Phylum - Vertebrata
e.g., Herdmania e.g., Amphioxus
¯ ¯
Section-Agnatha Section-Gnathostomata
Jawless Vertebrates Jawed Vertebrates
Class : Cyclostomata e.g., Petromyzon, Myxine ¯
Class : Ostracodermi e.g., Cephalaspis, Pteraspis ¯ ¯
Superclass - Pisces Superclass - Tetrapoda
True Fishes Typically 4 limbs
¯ ¯ ¯
Class - Placodermi Class - Chodrichthyes Class - Osteichthyes
All fossils have protective Cartilagenous fishes Bony fishes e.g., Labeo
bony scales / plates e.g., Scoliodon
e.g., Both riolepis panderi ±ãV× ÜëÈáí±ù Øë.Ö., áõìÚ±ù ÛÙÃÍë±ù
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Class - Amphibia Class - Reptilia Class - Aves Class - Mammals
e.g., Uraeotyphlus, e.g., Tortoise, Lizards, e.g., Birds e.g., Rat, Man
Salamander, Frog Snakes

·
 integument. i.e. the eggs are covered by skin forming a • Paedogenesis (or paedomorphosis) refers to the
single large brood pouch which opens posteriorly in front of development of gonads and/or production of young ones by
the cloacal aperture. an otherwise immature, larval or preadult animal e.g. gall fly,
• Hyla fabre prepares a nest in shallow water with mud and liverfluke, salamanders.
lays eggs in the nest. • Neoteny refers to the retention of a larval or embryonic
• Hyla resinfictrix lines a shallow tree cavity with bees wax trait in the adult body due to lack of metamorphosis.
obtained from the hives of certain stingless bees. Female • E.g. retention of embryonic cartilaginous skeleton in adult in
lays eggs when this cavity is filled with rainwater. Here, the chondrichthyes and larval gills in some adult salamanders.
youngs develop relatively free from predators. • Thus, neoteny emphasises the retention of embryonic or
• Rhacophorous schlegeli prepares small holes on the pond larval features in the adult body whereas paedogenesis
bank. During rains hatching tadpoles are washed down stresses precocious development of gonads in larval body.
the sloping funnel into pond or river water for further
• Axolotl represents the classical and most informative
development.
example of neoteny and paedogenesis because of the
Neoteny and paedogenesis absence of iodine in water or abundant supply of water
• The term neoteny and paedogenesis are not synonyms or it may be genetical process. 3 pairs of external gills and
to each other. They are basically different evolutionary tail fin are the larval characters which are retained in the
processes. sexually mature adult (axolotl).

Table : Important examples of amphibians

Scientific Common Important notes
name name
Apoda (Limbless amphibians)
Ichthyophis Blind worm • Dermal scales embedded in the skin.
• Male copulates with female by protrusible cloaca and thus fertilisation is internal.
• Large eggs are usually laid in masses in moist ground near water.
• Eggs hatch into tadpoles.
Urodela (Tailed amphibians)
Necturus Mud puppy • Eyes are small without eyelids.
• Tympanum absent, 3 pairs of external gills.
• Represents a permanent neotenic larval stage. (i.e. larva is capable to reproduce
again). This happens due to lack of iodine in water which causes deficiency of thyroxine
hormone.
• Unlike axolotl of Ambystoma, it cannot be induced to discard its external gills by
administration of thyroxine.
Ambystoma Tiger salamander • Its poisonous skin has round yellow and orange spots all over the body.
tigrinum • Shows both neoteny and paedogenesis.
• Larva is called axolotl.
Salamandra Spotted or Fire- • The terrestrial adult has shining black skin with yellow spots.
salamandra salamander • Viviparous.
• Gills are absent in the adult.
• Trunk bears fore and hindlimbs with four fingers and five toes respectively.
Siren lacertina Mud-eel • Permanent neotenic form showing almost no adult character.
• 3 pairs of external gills and 3 pairs of gill slits.
• It has no teeth, eyelids and hindlimbs, but only small forelimbs bearing 4 fingers each.
• A well developed vomeronasal organ is present.
 Anura (Tail-less amphibians)
Alytes Mid-wife toad • It is found in some European countries (France and Italy) and is 5 to 8 cm long.
obstetricans • It is characterised by having vertical pupil, disc-like, non-protrusible tongue, no teeth on
lower jaw, ribs throughout life and no vocal sacs in male.
• Males shows parental care by entangling eggs around their hindlegs.

Hyla Arboreal frog • Green in colour, adapted for life on trees.

• Has adhesive pads on the digits for climbing tree.
• An extra cartilage between two last phalanges gives them a better grip.
• Large vocal sacs help in making a very loud voice which can be heard a long distance.
Rhacophorus Flying frog • The limbs are thin and long with well developed webs between the digits.
• Webs and flattened body serve as a parachute in gliding from a higher elevation to a
lower one.

Rana tigrina Common Indian • Undergoes aestivation (summer sleep) and hibernation (winter sleep).
bull frog • Moulting and colour changes (called metachromasis) are well marked.
• Larva of frog called tadpole, undergoes metamorphosis to become adult.
• Males have vocal sacs and nuptial pad (used during amplexus which occur in water).
Bufo Indian toad • They occur in all continents except Australia.
melanostictus • Visits water only for breeding.
• They have broad waist, short hindlimbs, harsh warty skin, ridges on head.
• Mouth does not contain teeth.
• Secretions of its skin glands contain bufotalin, bufonin etc. which probably have the
healing property.
• Since it bears poisonous glands (parotoid glands), it is generally not eaten by other
animals like snakes, birds etc.

Economic importance of amphibia Medicinal value

• Nearly all amphibians are beneficial to mankind but frogs • Toads are used in Chinese medicines.
and toads are of special economic importance. • Skin of toad secretes a digitalis-like substance that increases
blood pressure when injected into humans.
Scientific study
• Frogs are dissected in laboratories. Trade, art and recreation
• They are also used extensively for physiological experiments, • Skins of frogs are used for glue, book-bindings and making
human pregnancy tests, pharmacology and as fish bait. delicate purses.
• Toads have played a role in the religious beliefs of primitive
• Mud puppies (Necturus) are also dissected in U.S.A., while
the newt Diemictylus viridescens is widely used in research. people since ancient times.
• Tribal magicians in America used parts of frogs and toads in
As food their magic.
• Millions of frogs are consumed as food by gourmets in • Frogs and toads are kept as pets in household aquaria.
U.S.A., Japan and many other countries. Poisonous Amphibia
• Other edible amphibians esteemed as food are Necturus and • A wide variety of irritating toxic compounds are produced
axolotls in America and giant salamanders (Andrias) in Japan. by amphibians.
Predation • Poisonous secretions (bufotoxins) of Bufo marinus are fatal to
• Frogs and toads are destroyers of noxious insects. dogs and cats.
• Bufo marinus has been introduced in tropical sugarcane • Poison of Dendrobates, a South-American frog, is used by
fields to destroy injurious insects. tribal people to poison the points of their arrows.
 ® Tuberous ® Swells up due to storage of food. e.g. Potato
Underground stem ® Rhizome ® Underground, parallel to soil, with node,
indernodes, buds, scaly leaves.
e.g., Ginger, Turmeric
Note : Sometimes develop perpendicular to soil.

® Corm ® Perpendicular to soil, Amorphophallus, Colocasia,

Alocasia

® Bulb ® Disc like stem with fleshy scaly leaves.

e.g., Onion, Garlic

® Semiaerial Stem ® Runner ® Long, straight, aerial stem with long internodes
with root nodules. E.g., Oxalis

® Offset ® Small parallel branches on water surface,

Branches bear leaves on upper side and roots on
Adoptation of Stem

lower side.
e.g., Eichhornia, Pistia

® Suckers ® Underground stem produces underground

branches parallel to ground. Sometime comes out
of soil as stolon and bears leaves.
e.g., Mint, Crysenthemum

® Stolon ® Oblique branch comes out from underground soil

and bent again towards soil to produce new plant.
e.g., Nephrolepis, Jasmine, Strawberry

® Aerial Stem ® Stem ® Axillary bud transforms into thin, spiral and coiled
Tendril
Tendrils. e.g., Passion flower, Grapes

® Flat Stem ® Stem has only one internode

e.g., Asparagus

® Phylloclade ® Stem is fleshy and green. Leaves modified into

spines.
e.g., Opuntia, Cactus

® Axillary bud modifies into strong and woody thorn.

® Thorn
e.g., Bambax, Citrus, Acacia, Carissa

Buds stores food for the vegetative propagation.

® Bulbil ® e.g., Agave, Dioscorea
 Adaptation of Root
¯ ¯

¯
Adventitious Root Tap Root
¯ ¯
Food stored Fleshy root Support root Food stored Fleshy root
It gives mechanical support It is also swells up by storing food
This root stores food and swells
· Prop root - e.g., Banyan · Fusiform root -
in different shapes... e.g., Raphanus sativa
· Fasciculated tuberous root
(Ficus, bengalnensis), Ficus
· Conical Tap root -
e.g., Asparagus, Dahlia ementica e.g., Daucus (Carrot)
· Stilt root - e.g., Zea mays, · Tuberous root -
· Tuberous root -
e.g., Sweet potato Pandanus e.g., Mirabilis Jalapa
· Climbing root - · Napiform root - e.g., Brassica
(Ipomoea batatus)
e.g., Pothos, Betel rapa, Beta vulgaris
· Nodulose root -
e.g., Melilotus, Curcuma longa ¯ ¯
· Beaded or Moniliform root Breathing root Butress root
e.g., Portulaca, Momordica Halophytic plants : Produces negatively Root develops from basal
· Palmate - e.g. Orchid geotropic root. They bears lenticels or part of stem and spreaded
pneumatophores. e.g., Rhizophora, parallel to soil.
Avicennia, Jussiaea e.g., Terminalia

Specialized food : ¯
They are performing special functions like photosynthesis, symbiosis Root Nonules
etc., according to their functions, they can be classified as under : Leguminous plantlet let
develops Rhizobium into root
· Assimilory root - Tinospora, Trapa
nodules.
· Epiphytic root - Orchid
E.g., Pea, Ground nut, Cicer
· Parasitic root - Cuscuta, Viscum arietinum
· Root thorn - Pothos ametum
· Contractile root - Crocus, Alium cepa
· Microrhiza root - Pinus
Leaf Tendril : Support and Spine : It gives protection. Leaf of Hook : Helps in climbing.
protection. Leaf or its parts part of leaf transforms into spines. e.g., Bignonia, Asparagus
modifies into tendrils. . Stipules - e.g., Acacia, Zizyphus ®
. Smilax - e.g., Stipules. . Leaf margin - e.g., Argemone
. Petiole - e.g., Calamitis. . Leaf apex - e.g., Yucca, Phoenix Scalyor Protective leaves :
®
. Gloriosa - e.g., Leaflet apex. . Whole leaf - e.g., Berberis, opuntia Support buds.
e.g., Ectocarpus, Banyan
. Upper leaflets - e.g.,
Narvellia
. Whole leaf -
­
Leaf root (hair like) : Aquatic plant
e.g., Lathyrus like Salvinia produces hair like
¬ structure for balance in water body.
®
Leaf
Adaptations Bladder : To capture insects leaf
Slender stalk : Leaf modifies into bag like structure.
modifies into soft stalk
®
i.e. bladder.
like tendrils. Bladder has valve type covering at its
e.g., Drocera
¬
tip.
e.g., Utricularia

Phyllode : Modification of ­
Petiole. ¬ Disc type structure : Lamina
e.g., Australian acacia becomes Disc like
Parkinsonia e.g., Nepenthus (Insectivory)
Dischidia rafflesiana
(non-insectivory)

·
 Adaptation of Root
¯ ¯

¯
Adventitious Root Tap Root
¯ ¯
Food stored Fleshy root Support root Food stored Fleshy root
It gives mechanical support It is also swells up by storing food
This root stores food and swells
· Prop root - e.g., Banyan · Fusiform root -
in different shapes... e.g., Raphanus sativa
· Fasciculated tuberous root
(Ficus, bengalnensis), Ficus
· Conical Tap root -
e.g., Asparagus, Dahlia ementica e.g., Daucus (Carrot)
· Stilt root - e.g., Zea mays, · Tuberous root -
· Tuberous root -
e.g., Sweet potato Pandanus e.g., Mirabilis Jalapa
· Climbing root - · Napiform root - e.g., Brassica
(Ipomoea batatus)
e.g., Pothos, Betel rapa, Beta vulgaris
· Nodulose root -
e.g., Melilotus, Curcuma longa ¯ ¯
· Beaded or Moniliform root Breathing root Butress root
e.g., Portulaca, Momordica Halophytic plants : Produces negatively Root develops from basal
· Palmate - e.g. Orchid geotropic root. They bears lenticels or part of stem and spreaded
pneumatophores. e.g., Rhizophora, parallel to soil.
Avicennia, Jussiaea e.g., Terminalia

Specialized food : ¯
They are performing special functions like photosynthesis, symbiosis Root Nonules
etc., according to their functions, they can be classified as under : Leguminous plantlet let
develops Rhizobium into root
· Assimilory root - Tinospora, Trapa
nodules.
· Epiphytic root - Orchid
E.g., Pea, Ground nut, Cicer
· Parasitic root - Cuscuta, Viscum arietinum
· Root thorn - Pothos ametum
· Contractile root - Crocus, Alium cepa
· Microrhiza root - Pinus
 ® Racemose

Raceme Compound Raceme Spike Catkin Spikelet Spadix Corymb

e.g., or Penicle e.g., Lilly e.g., e.g., wheat e.g., e.g., Iberis
®
Cruciferae e.g., Cassuarina Alocassia Umbel
Inflorescence

Mustard Delonix e.g., Coriander

Caesalpinia Capitate or Head
®
e.g., Acacia
®
Capitulum
®Cymose
e.g., Sunflower

Solitary Simple Uniparous Biparous Multiparous Compound raceme

e.g., cotton e.g., e.g., Lilly e.g., e.g., e.g.,
Bougainvillia Clarodendrone Calotropis Anthocephallus
Special types
Helicoid e.g., Hamelia Scorpioid e.g., Brinjal, Heliotropium

¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Cyathium Coryanthium Hypanthodium Verticillaster
e.g., Euphorbia e.g., Dorstemea e.g., Ficus e.g., Ocimum
® Mix type e.g., Tharsus
 · Fruit :
Fertilized and ripened ovary

Parthenocarpic fruit True fruit False fruit

· Fruit from ovary without · Fruit from ovary · Fruit develops other parts
fertilization than ovary

Apple Cashewnut
· from thalamus · from peduncle

Simple fruit Aggregate fruit Composite fruit

· Monocarpellary flower. · Fruit from Apocarpous multicarpellary flower · All flowers of inflorescence
· Syncarpouspolycarpellary flower. · Each carpel acts as a fruitlet transforms into fruits
· Main two types
Etaerio of Etaerio of Etaerio of Sorosis Syconus
berry follicles drupes · Spike inflorescence · Hypenthodium
· Custard · Calotropis · Raspberry · Sterile flowers inflorescence
apple · Seeds are absent · Unisexual flowers
· Bracts are part of · Banyan fruit
fruit · Fig fruit
· Pineapple

Dry fruit Fleshy fruit

(Dry pericarp) (Juicy Pericarp)

Drupe Berry Pome

· Epicarp skiny · Epicarp and mesocarp like · False fruit
· Juicy mesocarp drupe · Apple
· Stony endocarp · Endocarp is fleshy
· Mango and coconut · Tomato, Orange, Cucumber

Dehiscent fruit Indehiscent fruit

· Mature fruit · Fruit will not
dehiscents various dehisce
ways
 Dry fruit
(Dry pericoarp)

Dehiscent fruit Indehiscent fruit

· Mature fruit dehiscents various ways · Fruit will not dehisce

Caryopsis Achene Nut Cypsela Samara

· Pericarp and · Pericarp and · Pericarp is hard · Pericarp and · Pericarp is
seed coat fused to seed coat are free and stony. Trapa seed coat are free flat like a
form "HULL" from each other. and cashewnut from each other wing.
wheat, maize Naravelia, and hairy. Tridax Hiptage,
Ocimum and vernonia Holoptelea

Follicles Legumes Capsule Siliqua

· Fruit dehisces by one · Fruit dehisces by two · Fruit dehisces by more · Fruit dehisces from
suture. Calotropis and sutures. Pea and Bean than two sutures. Cotton lower part to upper side
vinca and Datura by sutures. Mustard

Note : Calotropis flowers are bicarpellary. Stigma are joint but style and ovary are free, so that it
can be included both in simple fruit and aggregate fruit as well.
 · Seed :
Fertilized Ovule

According to number of cotyledons According to presence of Endosperm

Monocot Dicot Endospermic Non-Endospermic

(Single Cotyledon) (Two Cotylodons) · (Food Stored in · (Food Stored in
· Maize, Wheat · Pea, Bean Endosperm) cotyledons)
Maize, Castor Bean, Pea

· Structure of Bean Seed : Hilum is on seed which is meant for connection of seed with fruit. It
is flat, kindey shape and yellowish white in colour. It is dicot and non-endospermic seed. It has
parts are as under : Seed

Seedcoat Embryo

Testa (outer) Tegman (Inner) Two large Tip of plumule Embryonic

· Tough and yellow · Thin and Transparent cotyledons (It is protected by axis
(White, Fleshy) two papery and
minute leaves)

(Top) Tip region Lower region

· Plumule · Radicle
(forms shoot system) (forms root system)
· Region between plumule and · Region between radicle and
cotyledons is known as Epicotyl two cotyledons is known as
hypocotyl
· Structure of Maize Seed : It is narrow at one end and broad at other end. It is yellow in colour.
Longitudinal section of seed stained with iodine shows purple endospermic region due to storage of
starch and embryo is stained yellow due to protein. It has parts as mentioned below :

Endosperm Region Embryo Region

Hull or Aleurone Main large Shield shaped Embryonic

(Seedcoat Protein rich region starch Scutellum axis
and pericarp layer is stored (Cotyledon)
fused)
Between these two Radicle Plumule
regious, enzyme rich · Covered with · Covered with
epithelial layer is present coleorhiza coleoptile
 Plant tissue
¯
¯ ¯
Meristematic tissue Permanent tissue

- Divisible active cells - Temporary growth

- Live and thin walled cells - Definite volume, shape and size
- Diverse shape ¯
- Compactly arranged on the basis of division and structure
- located at root tip and shoot tip ¯
¯ ¯ ¯
® According to origin and development Simple tissue Complex tissue Secretory
¯ tissue
¯ ¯ only one type more than one type Forms secretory
Primary Secondary of cells of cells
® Parenchyma ®substance
Glandular tissue
meristematic tissue meristematic tissue e.g.,
- Thin wall cell ® Xylem
Insectivory
- Isodiamatric or Conducts water
® Protoderm (epidermis) plants
spherical cell and minerals
¯ ® Lactiferous tissue
According to function

® Procambium - Protection and storage Tracheids e.g.,

- Growth of area and
(Mature xylem, Phloem, Cambium) Dead, elongated cells Secrets Latex
photosynthesis
® Ground meristem with sharp tapering
- Three subtypes
Vessels
(Hypodermis, cortex, Endodermis, pith) Aeranchyma, Chloren-
chyma, simple parenchyma Dead, tapering cells,
® According to location arranged in raw
¯ ® Collenchyma Xylem fibers
¯ ¯ ¯ -secondary tissue absent Lignified fibers
Apical Inter Lateral
calary - In hypodermis Xylem parenchyma
- Polygonal living cells Living and cellulosed
® According to division plane
- Mechanical support
® mass meristem ® Sclerenchyma
(All plane forms a mass) ® Phloem
- cells empty and dead - conducts food
® Rib/File meristem - Lignified
Forms a row - differentiated
Sieve tube
® Fibers tubular structure with large
® meristem plate ® Sclereids
Forms a plate Pentagonal or hexagonal shaped Companion cells
1. Brachy sclercids
Only present in angiosperm
(Stone cells)
Phloem parenchyma
2. Osteosclereids
(Bone shape) Living parenchyma cells
3. Astrosclereids Absent in monocot some dicot
(Star shape) Phloem fibers
4. Filiform sclereids Mechanical support
(Fibre like) Thick walled cells
5. Trichosclereids Sclerenchyma cells
(hair like)
·
· Anatomy of sunflower and maize stem :
Region Layer's name Maize Sunflower
(A) Epidermal Epidermis Structure : Unilayered parenchyma, Multicellular trichomes are
tissue cuticle is present, scattered present
system stomata are present
Function: Protection and regulation
of transpiration
(B) Ground Hypodermis Structure : 2-4 layers of sclerenchyma Multilayered collenchyma
tissue Function : Mechanical support Flexibility and elasticity
system
Cortex Absent Structure : Parenchyma with
intercellular space, Multilayered
Function: Conduction and
gaseous exchange
Endodermis Absent Structure : Starch sheath,
Inner most layer of cortex
Function : control over conduction
Pericycle Absent Structure : Multilayered
Alternate parenchyma and
sclerenchyma, Hard-bast
(Bundle cap) is present above
phloem and is schlerenchyma
Function: Lateral branches
Conjuctive Absent Structure : Parenchymatous
tissue strips from pith to cortex is
called medullary rays.
Function: Packing tissue or
support
 Pith Absent Function : support and conduction
Structure : Inner most cells of
Parenchyma
(C) Vascular Vascular Scatteredly arranged. Small wavy circular, ring
tissue bundle size at periphery and large size arrangement
system toward central part
Conjoint, unicollateral and closed Conjoint, unicollateral and open
- Endarch xylem - Endarch xylem
- Phloem parenchyma absent - Phloem parenchyma present
- Lysigenous cavity present - Lysigenous cavity absent
- Sclerenchymatous sheath - Bundle sheath is absent
around vascular bundle is
present
· Anatomy of Root :
(A) Anatomy of sunflower and Maize root : A very thin transverse section of young root of sunflower and
maize stained with very dilute solution of safranine, show the structure under the microscope as follows :
Region Name of Layer Maize Sunflower
(A) Epidermal Epiblema Structure : Unilayer, barrel shaped cells, Like maize
tissue parenchymatous tissue, root root
system hairs are present, cuticle is absent
Function : Absorption of water and minerals
(B) Ground Exodermis Structure : Unilayered, parenchymatous tissue, Absent
tissue Thick walled.
system Function : Protection
Hypodermis Structure : Multilayered and sclerenchy matous Absent
Function : Mechanical Support

Cortex Structure : Thin walled, parenchymatous, Like Maize

Multilayered, Intercellular space root
present
Function : Conduction and gaseous exchange
Endodermis Structure : Inner most layer of cortex, Casperial strips are
Unilayesed parenchyma present on wall of
Function : Regulation of conduction radial endodermis
 Pericycle Structure : Unilayered, Parenchyma, Like Maize
barrel shaped cells root
Function : Lateral branch arise from it
Conjuctive Structure : Parenchymatous region Only Parenchyma
tissue between xylem and phloem. It
is sometime of sclerenchyma
Function : Helps and supports to function
of xylem and phloem
Pith Structure : Inner most, cells of Comparatively it
Parenchyma is smaller
Function : Support / Storage
(C) Vascular Stele Structure : Radial, Alternate, Polyarch, Alternate, Radial,
tissue Exarch xylem. Tetrach, Exarch
system Function : Conduction of water - mineral xylem
and food

Note : Stele includes pericycle, Vascular bundles and pith. In exarch type of xylem,
protoxylem remains towards pericycle and metaxylem remain towards pith.
 ANIMAL TISSUES
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Epithelial tissues Connective tissues Muscular Nervous tissues
tissues - Controls the body
- One or more layers. - Structural frame, support to - Contractive according to stimulation
body. and body response.
- Outer and inner layer - Becomes
of organ or body. - Interstitial liquid, cells and active by - It has conduction,
electricity co-ordination and
fibers.
- Helpful in response.
movement - Nerve cells, Neuroglial
® Simple Epithelium cells, Neuroganglion,
etc.
® Semiliquid/Semi solid
® Squamous mosaic
files like flat and ® Areolar tissue ® Skeletal muscle
single layer, polygo- Connects different Elongated and unbranched
nal cells body parts muscles. Joined with bones.
® Cuboidal Small, ® Adipose tissue
cube, shapecells, Villi Eye ball and around
® Smooth muscle
at free end of cells, kidney Elongated and spindle shape fibers.
Brush like Villi Involuntary muscles. Visceral muscles.
for absorption
® Columnar Elongated ® Tendor ® Cardiac muscle
cells like pillar Joins muscle to bone
Elongated and cylindrical fibers.
® Ciliated Diverse in ® Ligament Never get fatigue. Antonomous.
shape with nucleus Joins bone to bone
with cilia at free end

Cartilage tissue
®
Semi-solid matrix,
® Supportive Hyaline, Fibrous, Caclified
skeletal tissue and Elastic
Compound
® Epithelium Bones
® Keratinised, ® Hardest tissue, Solid matrix,
non keratinised, Bony and spongy bones
Transitional tissue is
with 4 - 6 layers ® Blood
® Transitional epithelial ® Liquid Red liquid, RBCs,
tissue : tissue WBCs platelets
- 4 to 6 layers
- maintains thickness
It shows
Lymph
re-organisation ® Pale yellow, Blood plasma and
Glandular Epithelium WBCs
®
Secretory in nature. In glands
·
· Connective tissue Ñ
Definition : A tissue which connects together the other tissues of the body.
Features :
· It is the group of cells and matrix containing of intercellular substances secreted by cells themselves.
· Cells are consequently widely spaced.
· They are divisible.
· It forms from mesoderm.
Functions :
· To connect up structures.
· To form packing around organs.
· To replace tissue which have been destroyed by injury.
· To combat foreign toxins.
· To form a supporting framework.
Connective tissue

Connective tissue proper Skeletal tissue Fluid tissue (Blood)

Areolar White Ligament Blood Lymph

tissue fibrous
Bone Cartilage
tissue
Adipose Tendon
tissue

Spongy Compact Hyaline White fibro Yellow elastic

cartilage cartilage

Calcified
cartilage
· Connective tissue Ñ
Definition : A tissue which connects together the other tissues of the body.
Features :
· It is the group of cells and matrix containing of intercellular substances secreted by cells themselves.
· Cells are consequently widely spaced.
· They are divisible.
· It forms from mesoderm.
Functions :
· To connect up structures.
· To form packing around organs.
· To replace tissue which have been destroyed by injury.
· To combat foreign toxins.
· To form a supporting framework.
Connective tissue

Connective tissue proper Skeletal tissue Fluid tissue (Blood)

Areolar White Ligament Blood Lymph

tissue fibrous
Bone Cartilage
tissue
Adipose Tendon
tissue

Spongy Compact Hyaline White fibro Yellow elastic

cartilage cartilage

Calcified
cartilage
 Cell (Structural unit of living organisms)
¯ ¯
Cell wall and cell membrane Primary cytoplasm
(Cell wall present in bacteria, (matrix of cell)
plant and fungus) ¯
¯ ¯
Cytoplasm Nucleus
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Cell-organelles Matabolic inactive materials / DNA RNA Proteins
®
cytoplasmic basal granules / extra
cellular materials and deutoplasm
Mitochondria
® Helpful in ETS and ATP
¯ ¯ ¯
formation
Store materials Secretory materials Excretory materials
Golgi body e.g. Carbohydrates e.g. colourful e.g. Glucosides,
Synthesized materials lipid, Protein substances, Enzymes Tenin, Resines
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Plastids Endoplasmic Reticulum Vacuoles Centrioles
Chloroplast - green pigments Synthesis of protein, Amoeba - contractile vacuoles
In Animal cell forms
Leucoplast - colourless plastids Lipoprotein and Various substance are bipolar spindle during
Chromoplast - coloured plastids Glycogen excreated or stored in them cell-division

Microbodies
® Ribosomes ® - Peroxisomes
Related with protein synthesis - Glyoxisomes
·
 Cell (Structural unit of living organisms)
¯ ¯
Cell wall and cell membrane Primary cytoplasm
(Cell wall present in bacteria, (matrix of cell)
plant and fungus) ¯
¯ ¯
Cytoplasm Nucleus
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Cell-organelles Matabolic inactive materials / DNA RNA Proteins
®
cytoplasmic basal granules / extra
cellular materials and deutoplasm
Mitochondria
® Helpful in ETS and ATP
¯ ¯ ¯
formation
Store materials Secretory materials Excretory materials
Golgi body e.g. Carbohydrates e.g. colourful e.g. Glucosides,
Synthesized materials lipid, Protein substances, Enzymes Tenin, Resines
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Plastids Endoplasmic Reticulum Vacuoles Centrioles
Chloroplast - green pigments Synthesis of protein, Amoeba - contractile vacuoles
In Animal cell forms
Leucoplast - colourless plastids Lipoprotein and Various substance are bipolar spindle during
Chromoplast - coloured plastids Glycogen excreated or stored in them cell-division

Microbodies
® Ribosomes ® - Peroxisomes
Related with protein synthesis - Glyoxisomes
·
 Biomolecules

Carbohydrates ® Proteins
Hydrates of Carbon, Units are linked ® - Most abundant bio macromolecules
by glycosidic bond
- Synthesized from amino acids linked by
peptide bonds
- 20 amino acids

Monosaccharides Primary Structure

® Simple sugars, ® Sequence of amino acids linked by
All reducing sugars peptide bonds

Secondary Structure
Oligosaccharides
Condensation of 2-9 ® Stable arrangement to form structural
® monosaccharides. patterns D - helix and E - pleated
Disaccharides are the sheets
common oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides Tertiary Structure

Made by joining of many ®
® 3D folding of polypeptide
monosaccharides

® e.g., Homopolysaccharides
starch, cellulose, glycogen
Quaternary Structure

® Heteropolysaccharides ® 3D Molecule of protein formed

e.g., chitin, pectin, hemicellulose by two or more polypeptides
®
Nucleic Acids Lipids
- Genetic material of all living organisms ® Water insoluble carboxyl group
- Deoxy ribonucleic acid (DNA)
attached to R-group
- Ribonucleic acid (RAN)
Sugar (Pentose) ® Simple lipids (homolipids)
® Ribose in RNA, Deoxyribose in DNA ® Tryglycerides and waxes

® Compound lipids (heterolipids)

Nitrogenous base Phospho lipids, Glycolipids, lipoproteins
® Purines (Adenine and Guanine)
Pyrimidines (Cytosine and Thymine / Uracil) ® Derived lipids, Steroids, glycezol, fatty acid
Enzymes
- Proteinaceous substances; Holoenzyme is made up
Phosphoric acid
® of apoenzyme (protein part) and cofactor (non-
Forms ester linkage during
condensation with sugar ® protein part)
- Cofactors are of 3 types : Inorganic ions (Zn, Mg),
Prosthetic group (haem, biotin) and coenzyme
(NAD+, NADP+)
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Competitive inhibition Non-competitive inhibition Uncompetitive inhibition Feedback inhibition
- Reversible - Inhibitor forms a complex - Inhibitor binds to ES - End product or
- Due to substrate or with enzyme other than complex intermediates
enzyme analogue the active site - V max and Km functions as
- K m is increased but - Vmax decreases decrease temporary inhibitor
V max remains the which combines with
same Where, Km = the regulatory site of
Michaelis - Menten the enzyme and thus
constant V max = functions as negative
Maximum velocity modulator
 Interphase (I-Phase)
- Non dividing phase / Preparatory phase / Energy phase
® - Also called intermitosis

(G1 Phase)
® - Period of maximum growth At the end of this phase, cell reaches antephase (Bullough,
- Take place at the end of all division 1952) where it will divide under unfavourable conditions
- RNA and Protein synthesis having abundant storage of energy in the form of ATP.
- Duration varies from cell to cell

(S-Phase)
- Also called synthetic phase After duplication, chromosome of a pair is called
® chromatids. Pairs are joined by the centromere.
- DNA Replication
- Duration – 7 hours

(G2 Phase) ® Karyokinesis

Cell Cycle

- DNA synthesis stops (Nuclear division)

® - Macromolecules synthesis occurs in

® Prophase After division
- Nuclear volume increases 4 main ® Metaphase daughter
- Duration : 2 to 5 hours steps ® Anaphase cells enter
® Telophase
Involves two ¯ ¯
(M-Phase) types of ® Cytokinesis Eithter in Or in
® (Cytoplasmic
Actual dividing phase divisions G1 phase G0 phase
division) (stage when
ell cyele is
arrested)
Mammalian cartilage Occurs in ® Plant cell by cleavage
diseased cells ® (M-Phase)
and cell plate formation
Paramlecium, etc. Mitosis
It is an equational Animal cell by cleavage
® Somatic ® division in which parent ® and cell plate formation
¯ cells cell divides into 2
identical daughter cells
Amitosis
¯
Meiosis - Lajtha, 1963 introduced the
- Also called direct cell
It is reduction division in term G0 phase.
division - Cell which attain G0 phase
which diploid parent cell
- Occurs without formation ® Germ cells ® divides into 4 haploid does not divide further due
of spindle and appearance daughter cells to activation of certain
genes.
of chromosomes.
- Now cell grow in size and
- No differentiation become differentiated

·
 Transportation in Plants

® Carrier Proteins

Carry the molecules with them

® Transport proteins

® Channel Proteins
® Methods
of Remain at their place and make entry/exit channel for molecules, may
transport
be of two types : ion channels and porins

® Cotransport
® On the basis of direction of
molecular movement Simultaneous movement of two
molecules; Symport / antiport occur

® Uniport
® Types
Only one molecule either enters / exits

the cell at a time

Transport in Plants

® On the basis of energy ® Diffusion

consumption and carriers
Movement of molecules among the concentration gradient
® Plant Water Relations
® Faciliated Diffusion
® Imbibition
Movement same as diffusion
ÕþäëèíÞð_ CëÞ
Adsorption ÀHëù ¦ëßë
of liquid åùæHë
by solid Éõ ÄëäHë
particles ÚÞëTÝë
without
but requires transport proteins
forming solution
äÃß ×ëÝ Öõ ® Active Transport
® Water Potential
Against concentration gradient and
åð© ÕëHëíÜë_
Difference ÕëHëíÞë
between free ±b±ùÞí Üð@Ömolecules
energy of water ¶½ý äEÇõinÞí required metabolic energy and transport
pure water and that in any other system
ìÛLÞÖë/ÖÎëäÖ ±Þõ ±LÝÖ_hëÜë_ Öõ ç½ýÝ Èõ. proteins
® ±ëV²ìÖ
Osmosis

±Ôý Õþäõåtype
Special åíáof Õ©ìÖ ¦ëßë
diffusion ÖõÜÞë ç_
of solvent ÀõLÄHë ÏëâÞí
molecules a their Apoplast
concentration gradient through semipermeable ® Movement through cell wall
ìØåëÜë_ ÄëäÀùÞð
membrane; can be_ ìÞÝÖ ÕþÀëßõ
two types ÕþçßHë ×ëÝ
– Exosmosis and Èõ. Úõ
Symplast
ÕþEndosmosis
Àëßõ ×ëÝ. ±_ÖѱëV²ìÖ, Úìèó±ëV²ìÖ
® Movement through cell cytoplasm
® Plasmolysis

Shrinkage of protoplast after exosmosis

® Pathways of Water Movement

® Transpiration : Loss of water vapour from stomata

® Ascent of Sap : Sap consists of the mineral nutrients dissolved in water. Upward transport of sap through Xylem
against gravity sap is absorbed by root hairs.

® Phloem transport : Bidirectional transport of food from source to sink actively

•
 Concept Map

® Minerals
Microelements
Nutrients that are absorbed from soil
® Elements that are present in
E.g., Fe, Mg, Ca, etc.
® plant tissues in concentration
® Non-mineral less than 10 mmole/kg-1 of
dry matter. They include Mn,
Plant Nutrients that are absorbed from
Fe, Cu, Mo, Zn, B, CI and Ni.
Nutrients atmosphere. These are C, H and O.

® Essential
Nutrients absolutely necessary for
® normal growth and development. Their
deficiency produces visible symptoms Macroelements
which are nutrient specific.
Elements that are present
in plant tissues in excess of
10 mmole/kg-1 of dry matter.
® Non-essential
® They include C, H, O, N, P,
Required for normal functioning of
K, S, Ca and Mg.
plant but their deficiency can be
supplemented by another elements.

Metabolism of Nitrogen
® Abiological fixation
Gaseous form of nitrogen is ® Nitrogen fixation ® By lightning and industries, etc.
unusable by plants it must be
‘fixed’ into its salts. ® Biological fixation
By free living or symbiotic bacteria.
¯ Symbiotic bacteria directly provide
Nitrogen assimilation nitrates to plant. Free living bacteria
release fixed nitrogen after their death.
Incorporation of N into amino acids is
They fix N 2 by ammonification and
called nitrogen assimilation. It is required
nitrification.
for protein synthesis. Nitrogen assimilated
by plants reaches animals via food chain

Denitrification
Denitrifying bacteria work upon dead organisms and release nitrogen trapped in their tissue. Thus
released nitrogen re-enters cycling pool. i.e., nitrogen cycle

•
 Essential plant nutrients : their source, relative amounts, functions and classificaiton :

Relative
Chemical Absorbed
Element Source Major functions % in
Symbol Form
plant
Macronutrients
Non mineral elements
Carbon (C) Atmosphere CO 2 In all organic molecules –
Oxygen (O) Atmosphere O2 In most of organic molecules –
Hydrogen (H) Soil H 2O In most of organic molecules –
Nitrogen (N) Soil NH+4,NO–2 and NO–3 In protens, nucleic acids etc. 100
Mineral Nutrients
Phosphorus (P) Soil H2 PO–4 In nucleic acids, ATP, Phospholipids etc. 6

Potassium (K) Soil K+ Enzyme, activation, water balance, ion balance 25

Sulphur (S) Soil SO 4 2– In structure of coenzymes ionic balances 3

Calcium (Ca) Soil Ca 2+ Affects the cytoskeleton, membranes and many 12.5
enzymes, second messenger

Magnesium (Mg) Soil Mg 2+ In structure of chlorophyll and many enzymes, 8

stabilizes ribosomes

Micronutrients
Iron (Fe) Soil Fe 3+ In active site of many redox enzymes and 0.2
electron carriers, In chlorophyll synthesis

Chlorine (CI) Soil CI – In photosynthesis, ionbalance 0.3

Manganese (Mn) Soil Mn 2+ Activation of many enzymes 0.1

Boron (B) Soil H2BO –3, H 2BO 3–2 Carbohydrate transport, Cell wall component 0.2

Zinc (Zn) Soil Zn 2+ Enzyme activation, auxin synthesis 0.03

Copper (Cu) Soil Cu 2+ In active site of many redox enzyme and electron carriers 0.01

Molybdenum (Mo) Soil MoO 3– 4 Various process of nitrogen fixation 0.0001

Nickel (Ni) Soil Ni 2+ Required for iron absorption

Sodium (Na) Soil Na + Involved in osmotic (water movement) and ionic balance in plants

Cobalt (Co) Soil CO 2+ Required for nitrogen fixation in xeguminous plants

Silicon (Si) Soil Si 4+ As a component of cell walls

Vanadium (V) Soil V3+,4+,5+ Necessary for the activation of nitrogenase in

the nitrogen fixing bacteria
 Photosynthesis
® External Factors
Light, Co2 conc, temperature,
Formation of glucose from Co2 and Factors affecting
water in the presence of sunlight and ® ® Water, O2 etc.
Photosynthetisis
chlorophyll ® Internal Factors
® Site of photosynthesis Chlorophyll conc, leaf age,
Chloroplasts that consists of Stroma, Grana stacks, Thylakoids phytohormones, etc.,
and stroma lamellae.
Thylakoids contain Photosynthetic pigments. Includes P700 as
photocentre and light
® Photosynthetic Pigments ® PS-I harvesting complex
Photosynthetic pigments include Chlorophylls, Carotenes and (LHC) with electron
carriers
phycobilins. These pigments are packed in two major
pigment system.
Includes P as
® PS-II photocentre and 680
LHC
® Photosynthetic Mechanism
® Photolysis
An enzymatic anabolic reaction
Water molecule is broken ® Cyclic photophosphorylation
involving many intermediates down into H+ and OH– Only PS-I involves in
ions by absorbing light electron transport and
energy. It produces e– producs only ATP
® Photochemical Phase ® Non-cyclic photophos
Light dependent phase phorylation
occuring in Thylakoids
® Photophosphorylation
Both PS-I and PS-II
Electons released in involve and produce both
photolysis of water are ATP and NADPH
® Biosynthetic Phase used for production of
ATP CAM Cycle
Light independent reaction that ®
occurs in Stroma In xerophytes, CO2 is
fixed at night. It helps in
reducing transpiration.
C3 Cycle C4 Cycle

Also called Calvin cycle. Glucose is formed by Co2 fixation but

Co2 combines with RuBP initial acceptor is PEP in mesophyll calls
and produces glucose. 3C and first stable product is 4C Oxaloacetic
phosphorlyceric acid is acid. C4 plants have Kranz Anatomy and
first stable product are more efficient than C3 plants.

¯
Photorespiration
Light dependent oxygenation of RuBP and releases CO2 in photosynthetic cells of C3 plants.

•
 Gaseous Exchange
Respiration It occurs between enviroment and organism according to organism’s
® needs through body surface or special respiratory organs. It does not
Liberation of energy
involve any chemical reaction
from food by ®
chemical breakdown Cellulor Respiration
Chemical breadown of food substrate mediated by several enzymes to
Respiratory Quotient release energy stored in chemical bonds
®
Ratio of value of CO2
evolved to the volume
of O2 consumed in
Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic Respiration
respiration per unit time
per unit weight at Respiration that occurs in ab- It is more efficient in terms of ATP
standard temperature sence of oxygen It is common in production than anaerobic respiration.
and pressure microorganism It occurs in mitochondria

Glycolysis Glycolysis
® Series of biochemical reactions in which ® It is same as that in anaerobic respiration
glucose is broken down to pyruvate with the and occurs in cytoplasm
release of usable energy in the form of ATP
Pyruvate Oxidation
Fermentation It involves conversion of rlycolysis
product pyruvate into acetyle coA that
® Conversion of pyruvate to alcohol and organic ® enters next step krebs’ cycle. It is also a
acids in the absence of oxygen link reaction as it links glycolysis with
krebs’ cycle.
Depending upon its products
¯ ¯ ¯ Kreb’s Cycle
Lactic acid Mixed
Alcoholic Fermention Acetyle CoA is converted to oxaloaccetate
Fermentation
Fermentation ® by enzymes and can be regained by inter-
Only lactic acid Produces lactic mediates. Thus, this the stage of cyclic
Eathanol and
is produced acid ethanol, processes
CO2 are
produced formic acid and
succinic acid
Terminal oxidation
®
Culminating step in which the energy of
oxidation drives the synthesis of ATP
¯ ¯
Electron Transport chain Oxidative Phosphorylation
Sequential arrangement of electron Synthesis of energy rich ATP molecules with the
carriers in inner mitochondrial help of energy liberated during oxidation of
membrane that carry electrons to final reduced coenzymes (NADH, FADH) produced in
electron acceptor i.e., oxygen respiration.
 Plant growth and development
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Growth Development Photoperiodism Vernalisation
l Irreversible permanent l Includes all changes that an It is the flowering Low temperature
increase in size of an organism goes through during response of plants to treatment of plants
organ or its parts or even its life cycle from seed periods of day/night to decrease the
of an individual call. germination to senescence. It phytochrome is the time period of
l Growth includes 3 phases involves differentitation, receptor pigment. vegetative phase
division, elongation and dedifferentitation and and to promote
maturation. redifferentitation of cells. early flowering.

¯ ¯
Growth Rate Growth Regulators
Increased growth per unit time is termed Chemical substances also called as phytohormones,
as growth rate. It is of two types. produced naturally in plants which regulate one or more
Arithemetic Growth physiological conditions.
®
After mitotic cell division only one Growth Promoters
daughter cell continues to divide ® Chemicals that increase growth of cells tissues or organs
while other differentates and
matures. ® Auxins : Weakly acidic hormone which induces
apical dominance, photoropism and geotropism
etc., Sequence of amino acids linked by peptide
Geometric Growth
® Both of the daughter cells of
bonds.
mitotic cell division keep on ® Cytokinins : Basic hormone which promotes cell
dividing regularly division and differentitation along with many
other physiological effects.
Growth Curve ® Gibberellins : Weakly acidic hormones with
® Graphical representation of growth rate of gibbane ring structure. They mainly enhance
an organism or population. seed germination, overcome seed dormancy and
induce, bolting in rosette plants.
® Arithmetic growth curve linear
graph obtained by plotting ® Growth inhibitors
arithmetic growth. Phytohormones which perform growth inhibiting
activities like inducing dormancy and abscission.
® Exponential growth curve curved
graph showing initial slow growth
and later rapid increase in growth
® Abscisic acid - Mildly acidic stress hormone
which is obtained by plotting a that induces abscision and dormancy.
geometrical growh
® Ethylene - Gaseous hormone which enhances
® Sigmoid growth curve abscision and senesence induces fruit ripening.
S-shaped curve obtained in natural
condition where exponential
growth is limited or even ceased at
later stages. It occurs so because
in nature nutrient supply is limited.

l
 Digestion and Absorption
Mouth

Salivary Glands Oral/Buccal cavity

(secrete saliva with pH. 6-7) ¬ • Ingestion occurs; food is tasted by the taste
buds, moistened with mucus and saliva,
® Parotid Gland ® masticated by grinding teeth to smaller smaller
 Largest salivary gland particles and swallowed.
 Lie on the sides of the face • Saliva contains salivary amylase which digests
® Sub lingual Gland starch into maltose.
 Lie under front part of the tongue
® Sub maxillary Gland
 Lie at the angles of the lower jaw ® Pharynx
Gastric glands ¬ Oesophagus
• Oral cavity leads through pharynx into tube-
® Fundic (oxyntic glands) Digestive Glands
 Secrete Hcl (oxyntic /parietal cells) ® like oesophagus.
 Secrete pepsinogen (peptic / chief cells) A • Food is pushed through the oesophagus by
® Pyloric L involuntary muscular movement called
Secrete Mucin I peristalsis.
®
Cardiac glands M • No digestion occurs here.
Secrete mucin and very little pepsinogen
E Stomach
Liver N • Widest organ of the alimentary canal; acts as
• It secretes bile which contain bile salts, bile T food reservoir.
pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin, cholesterol A ® • The gastric glands of the stomach secrete
and phospholipids.) ¬ R gastric juice which is thoroughly mixed with
• Bile salts and phospholipids help in the diges- Y
tion of fats in the smal intestine by emulsifica- food.
C • Mostly protein digestion occurs in stomach,
tion.
A carbohydrate digestion gets inhibited due to
Pancreas N highly acidic medium.
• Pancreatic juice contains NaHCO 3 , ¬ A
trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, procarboxy L Small intestine
peptidase, Amylase, DNAase, RNAase, lipase • Largest, narrow, tubular part of the alimentary
and helps in digestion of protein, carbohydrate, canal.
nucleic acids and fats. ® • It is divisible into 3 parts - Duodenum, Jejanum
and ileum.
¬ • Secretion from intestinal glands called succus
entericus acts on all types of food.
Intestinal glands
• They lie in the wall of the small intestine and
are of two types : Crypts of Lieber Kuhn and Large intestine
Branner’s glands. • It is divisible into 3 parts - caecum, colon and
• Crypts of Lieberkuhn secrete enzymes and rectum.
mucus and Brunner’s glands secrete alkaline
watery fluid, a little enzymes and mucus.
¬ ® • Peristalsis pushes the indigestible materials
(faccees) of the small intestine into the large
• Intestinal juice contains aminopeptidases,
intestine or colon.
dipeptidases, amylase, maltase, dextrinase, su-
• As facces enter the rectum, distension of it
crase, lactase, lipase, nucleotidases,
nucleosidases. induces defaection reflex. It is initiated by
peristalsis and forces the facces out towards
anus.
•
 Digestion by intestinal juice :

Erepsin Maltase
Dipeptides Amino acid Maltose Glucose + Glucose

Lactase Sucrase
Lactose Glucose + Galactose Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

Lipase
Di and mono glyceride fatty acid + glycerol

Nucleotidase Nucleosidase
Nucleotides Nucleoside Sugar + Nitrogenous base

• In small intestine complete digestion can occurs. It is alkaline fluid, which is called chyle.

• Huge Mass of water absorption takes place in large intestine.

Role of Hormones in digestion :

No. Hormone Secretory part Function

1. Gastrin Wall of stomach Stimulates gastric gland to release gastric juice.

2. Pancreozymin Wall of duodenum Stimulates pancreas to release pancreatic juice

(Pz) and helps in secretion of intestinal juice.

3. Secretin Wall of duodenum Secretion along with pancreozymin stimulates

secretion of pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.

4. Cholecytokinin Wall of Duodenum Stimulates gall bladder to release bile juice.

(cck)

5. Enterogastrone Wall of duodenum Inhibits gastric juice secretion and stops stomach

Or gastric inhibitory churning.

Peptide (GUP)
 Respiratory Tract
• It is a passage way for the respiratory gases.
Breathing ® • Gaseous exchange does not occur here.
and ® Human Respiratory ® • It consists of nostrils, nasal cavity, pharynx,
System
Respiration larynx, trachea, bronchi and alveoli.

Breathing
• It is withdrawing in air and releasing
® CO2 rich air into atmosphere. Respiratory Organs
• It involves inspiration (inhalation) and ex-
• A pair of lungs which comprise of bronchi,
piration (exhalation).
bronchioles and alveoli.
• It is brought out with the help of dia- ® • Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of
phragm and intercostal muscles on rib
gases.
cage.

Exchange of Gases
• Alveoli are the primary sites of exchange of gases.
• At alveolar surface, the blood has lower PO2 and higher PCO2 than the alveolar air. This results
® in diffusion of CO2 out of the blood into the alveolus.
• At tissues surface, blood has more PO2 than that in the tissues. As a result O2 from blood
diffuses in the tissues and CO2 from tissues diffuses into the blood.

Transport of Gases

® • Blood is the medium of transport for O2 and CO2. About 97 percent of O2 is transported by
RBC in the blood. The remaining 3 percent of O2 is carried in a dissolved state through the
plasma.
• Nearly 20-25% of CO2 is transported by RBCs where as 70% of it is carried as bicarbonate.
• About 7% of CO2 is carried in a dissolved state through plasma.

Regulation of Respiration
• Respiration is controlled by nervous regulation, mechanical regulation and chemical regulation.
• Nervous regulation involves respiratory centre located in the medulla oblongata and pons Varolii.
Respiratory centre is very sensitive to CO2 in the arteries and to the pH level of blood.
• Mechanical control involves stretch receptors located in the walls of bronchi and bronchioles
® which get stimulated by overstocking of the lungs and inhibit inspiratory centre.
• Chemical regulation is performed by chemo sensitive area near respiratory centre and
chemoreceptors present in the carotid and aortic bodies. They get stimulated by rise in CO2 of
H+ consentration of blood.

•
 Biology through Diagrams on
Anatomy of Respiratory System
Nasal Cavities
External nostrils open into 2 nasal cavities which are separated
from each other by a thin, cartilaginous medium vertical Pharynx
partition called nasal septum. It provides the passage to both air and food.
External Nose It comprises nasopharynx,
These are the paired openings oropharynx and laryngopharynx.
Epiglottis that open into nasal cavities.
Hyoid bone The portion inside nose is called Upper
vestibule which contains mucus Respiratory
Thyrohyoid lining and hair epithelium Trachea
membrane System
Air conducting tube with non-collapsible
Thyrohyoid walls due to the presence of cartilaginous C-shaped,
ligament incomplete rings. Their number is 16-17 in humans.
Larynx It enters into the lungs after their first branching. It helps in
Thyroid
It is the uppermost portion the conduction of air as it is lined by pseudostratified
cartilage
of trachea made up of ciliated columnar epithelium bearing mucous glands.
Cricothyroid cartilages in humans. Its
ligament opening is glottis, which
is covered by cartilaginous
Cricoid epiglottis. It is called as
cartilage voice box and is more
prominent in man
Trachea
(Adam’s apple). Parietal Pleura
Outer membrane Pleurae
Pleural Cavity Two membranes that covers
Superior Lobe Contain pleural fluid the lungs. The two membranes
Divided by Visceral Pleura encloses a pleural cavity
Right Lung containing pleural fluid.
It has 3 lobes and horizontal fissure Inner membrane
Lower
2 fissures. It is broader, Middle Lobe Respiratory
larger and heavier than Superior Lobe
Divided by System
the left lung. oblique fissure Divided by Left Lung
horizontal fissure Smaller, lighter and
Inferior Lobe
Inferior Lobe narrower than right lung.
Pleural Cardiac Notch Possess two lobes and
Oesophagus Aorta a cardiac notch.
membranes (accommodates
Both oesophagus
and aorta heart)
pass through Mediastinum
thorax Partition between the Capillary Elastic fibres
between two lungs, includes
pleural sacs Right lung Left lung the pleura of both sides.
Contains heart,
Diaphragm oesophagus, etc.
It is a muscular partition Type I alveolar cell
that separates the (for gas exchange)
abdominal and
Left pleural thoracic cavities. Endothelial cell
Right pleural Pericardial cavity of capillary
cavity Facies
cavity Cartialogo articularis Type II alveolar
View of TS of anatomy of lungs cricoidea arytenoidea cell(surfactant
Lamina cell) synthesises
surfactant
Cartilago corniculata Facies
articularis
Larynx

thyroidea Alveolar
Apex Colliculus macrophage
(ingests foreign
Fovea triangularis Arcus material)
Crista arcuata
Cartilago Structure of alveoli
Facies arytenoidea Cricoid cartilage (ventral view)
anterolateralis
Processus
Basis vocalia Branch of
Fovea oblongata Bronchiole pulmonary
Processus artery
muscularis Arytenoid cartilage Trachea Bronchial artery
(the trachea bronchus nerve and vein
into two primary bronchi) Smooth muscle

Cartilage Left primary bronchus

ring (the primary bronchus
Incisura thyroidea superior divides 22 more times
terminating in a cluster Elastic fibres
of alveoli.)
Branch of Capillary Lymphatic
Cartilago thyroidea pulmonary beds vessel
Secondary bronchus vein
Trachea enter into lungs Alveoli
Lig. vocale after their branching into
Rima glottidis (pars
intermembranacea) bronchus. They are further
Conus divided into bronchioles
elasticus (lobular, terminal and Alveolar
Processus vocalis respiratory) which further sac
ends into alveolus.
Cartilago Rima glottidis (pars
corniculata intercartilaginea) Alveoli
Cornu superius Bronchiole Basic functional unit of
cartilaginis lung, approx 300 million
Lig. cricoarytenoideum in number in humans,
thyroideae
posterius specialised air filled
Cri covocal membrance (conus elasticas) sacs which are richly
and vocal ligaments (ligamenta vocalia) supplied with blood Structure of lung lobules
capillaries.
Branching of airways
 Arteries
Blood Vascular System
® • They are elastic vessels that transport blood away from the heart
• It is a circulatory system
Veins
containing body fluid and
pumping organ ® • They are elastic vessels that transport blood to the heart
Capillaries
Blood Vessels
• They are extremely small vessels that transport blood from the
• They are intricate
arteries to the veins. Respiratory gases, nutrients and wastes
network of hollow
® are exchanged through the capillaries within the tissues
® tubes that transport ®
blood throughout the
entire body. Agranulocytes

Blood • Grarnules are not found in cytoplasm and

® are of two types - Lymphocytes and
• It is mobile fluid connective tissue ® Monocytes
• They are motile and phagocytic in nature
Plasma
• It is slightly alkaline, non-cellular, pale
yellow fluid that constitutes about 60% of
® the blood Granulocytes
• Gradules are present in cytoplasm and are of
Erythrocytes three types - eosinophils, basophils and
®
• Most abundent cells filled neutrophils
® with haemoglobin
Formed
® elements ®

Blood Coagulation
Leucocytes • They response to repture of blood vessel or
• Colourless cells that show amoeboid tissue damage, a complex, cascade of
movement ® chemical reaction occur which results in the
formation of blood clot
Platelets
• They release platelet factors that
help in the clotting of blood (or
®
thromosplastin) on injury Heart beat
• Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the
Heart cardiac muscles is known as heart beat
• It is a mesodermally derived
organ that comprises four
complete chamers (two auricles Cardiac Cycle
and two ventricles)
® • It is the sequence of events that occurs in the heart during one
• Right auricle receives ® full heart beat
deoxygenated blood from the
body and left auricle receives
oxygenated blood from lungs
•
 Blood cells
¯
¯ ¯ ¯
Red cell or White cell or Thrombocytes
Erythrocytes Leucocytes or or platelets
or RBCS WBCS

50 lac to 60 lac/mm3 4,000 to - 2.5 to 5 lacs/mm3

– O2; CO2 , transport 11,000/mm3 - Essential for reactun of blood clotting
of respiratory gases ¯
¯ ¯
Granular Agranular
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Neutrophil amount Eosinophils Basophils Lymphocytes Monocytes
3000 to 7000 100 to 400 20 to 50 1500 to 3000 100 to 700
40 to 70 % 1 to 4% 0 to 1% 20 to 45% 4 to 8%
of total WBCs – Detoxification
Function : – Inflammatory
Active chemicals are - Play signi- In immune Active
phagocytes inactivated ficant role system phagocytic
– Kill parasitic in allergic Synthesize and
microbes reaction transport antibodies
 Nitrogenous Excretion Regulation of Kidney
• Depending upon the excretory • Juxta Glomaruler Appartus (JGA) is special region formed
product, animals show the following by cellular modifications in the DCT and afferent arteriole
types of nitrogenous excretion. supplying Bowman’s capsule.
• JG cells contain granules of the proteolytic enzyme renin
which activates renin - angiotensin- aldosterone pathway
Ammonotelism
(RAAS) that loads to activation of angiotensin-II.
• Excretion of ammonia. It is readily
• Angiotensin-II increases the synthesis and release of
® soluble, excreted by diffusion. aldesterone.
• Bony fishes, aquatic amphibians,
• Aldosterone causes sodium and water reabsorption by the
aquatic insects.
distal part of the tubules.
• Anti Diuretic Hormone (ADH) or vasopressin from posterior
Ureotelism
pituitary facilities water reabsorption from DCT and CT.
• Excretion of Urea. It is less
® toxic.
• Mammals, Terrestrial ® Nephron
amphibians and Marine fishes. • It is the structural and functional unit of kidney. Each
nepharon is made up of Bowman’s capsules and tubules.
Kidney
• Paired, bean-shaped, dark red in Bowman’s Capsule
colour • Bowman’s capsule enclose a tuff of a glomerular
® • Two distinct Zones- (i) renal ® capillaries
cortex, outer and darker. (ii) renal • Epithalial cells called podocytes from filtration slits
medulla, inner and lighter, it is through which ultrafiltration is carried out
made up of 8 to 10 conical renal • Glemerular filtration occurs due to the pressure
Human Excretory System

pyramids. gradient between glomerular capillaries and Bowman’s

capsule.
Ureters
• Ureters are paired smooth muscle ® Tubules
® tubes.
• They open into urinary bladder and ® Proximal Convoluted Tubules (PCT)
carry urine from the kidney. • PCT is lined bycuboidal epithalial cells.
• About 70-80% of electrolytes and water are
Urinary Bladder
reabsorbed in PCT.
® • Urinary bladder is a chamber of
smooth muscles. • It helps in maintaining pH and ionic balance
• It stores Urine. • Filtrate is isotonic.

Urethra
• It is the duct that conveys Urine Henle’s loop
® from the bladder to be discharged • Descending limb is permeable to water and
to the outside of the body. ® impermeable to electrolytes. Filtrate becomes
• Muscular urethral sphincters keep hypertonic.
the Urethra closed • Ascending limb is impermeable to water but
permeable to K+, C1– and Na+ Filtrate becomes
hypotonic.
Uricotelism
• Excretion of uric acid, Its crystals are ® Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
non-toxic and almost insoluble in water, • DCT absorbs sodium chloride and other inorganic
® excreted as pellets.
salts while retaining water.
• Reptiles, birds, land snails and insects.
® Collecting Tubule
• Entire duct is permeable to water. Water is
reabsorbed.
•
 Skelatal Muscle Sarcomere
• Attached to bones, voluntary, exhibit • Functional unit of contraction. They are delivered by a very
® ® thin and comparitively dense Z-line.
transverse strips hence called striated.

¯
¯ ¯
Locomotion and movement

Primary Myofilament Secondary Myofilament

• It is formed of myosin protein • It is composed of actin and regulatory proteins
• Myosin (thick) filament is a polymerized protein of many tropomyosin and tronin.
monomers. • In resting state, subunit of troponin masks the
• Myosin monomer has head and short arm which project active binding sites for myosin on the actin
outwords at regular distance and angle from myosin (thin) filament.
filament.
• Head has ATPase and binding site for actin.

¯
Sliding filament theory of muscle contraction
Neural Ach Action Ca+2 Binds to Change in shape
Signal ® released ® potentinal ® released ® troponin ® exposes active sites
generated
¯
Thin myofilament Energized myosin Myosin ATPase in
presence of Ca2+ Myosin - actin
slide along the thick cross bridges bind
¬ to actin and move ¬ and Mg2+ breaks ¬ cross bridges are
myofilament formed
ATP to ADP

Skeletal System ® Axial Skeleton - 80 bones

Skull
Each limb contains 30 bones • Skull consists of cranium and facial bones
• Fore limb : 1 humerus ® • 22 total bones ; out of these 8 are bones of
1 radius, 1 ulna, 8 carpals cranium and 14 are facial bones
5 metacarpals, 14 Phalanges
® • Hind limb : 1 femur, Foramen Magnum
1 tibia, 1 fibula, 1 patella, ® • foramen
Skull possesses a posterior aperture called
magnum.
7 tarsals, 5 metatarsals
and 14 Phalanges • Through which the brain communication with
spinal cord.
Girdles
Ribs
• Pectoral girdles (4 bones)
® • Pelvic girdle (2 bones)
• Ribs joins with strenum and form a rib-cage 12
articulation between axial and appendicular skel- ® pairs of ribs 1 to 7 pairs are true ribs; 8, 9, 10 pairs
are false ribs 11, 12 pairs are floating ribs.
etal components
Sternum
Joints ®• Single flat bone located at mid- ventral region
• Fibrous / immovable joint of theracic cavity
Eq : Joints of skill bones
¬
• Cartilagenous / partially movable joints Vertabral column
Eq : Joints between vertabrae • formed by union of 26 small bones called
• Synovial / freely movable joints vertabrae
Eq : Ball and socket joints hinge joints 7 - Cervical vertabrae
Skeletal System 12 - Thoracic vertabrae
Out of total 206 bones of human, 6 bones are
® 5 - Lumbar vertabrae
® present in ears 3 bones in each ear as ear ossicles 1 - Sacral vertabrae ( 5 bones join to from 1 bones)
and remaining are distributed into axial and 1 - Coccygeal bone (4 bones join to from 1 bone)
appendicular skeleton
•
 Human Neural System Fore brain
• Fore brain consists of olfactory lobes, cere-
• Neural system performs three basic functions :
brum and diencephalon.
receiving, processing and responding
® • The largest and complex cerebrum is
® divided into two cerebral hemisphere,
Each one contain frontal, parietal, temporal
and occipital lobes.
• Diencephalon contains epithalamus, thala-
mus and hypothalamus.

Mid brain
Central Nervous System ®
• Dorsal portion contains four lobes of corpora
quadrigemina which is equivalent to optic
Brain lobes of lower animals.

• Central information processing organ

Central Nervous ®
system (CNS) Brain
¯ Central information
Spinal Cord processing organ

• It conducts impulses
to the brain and con-
Hind brain
trols most of the re- ¯
flex activities. • Cerebellum maintains posture and equilibrium and controls
muscular activities.
• Medulla oblongata is cardiac centre, respiratory centre,
Preripheral Nervous vasomotor centre and reflex centre
System • Pons varolii has respiratory centre pneumotaxic and
¯ apneustic centre.
• Nerves outside the brain and
spinal cord

Cranial nerves
¯
• 12 pairs, 10 pairs from brain stem

Carnial Nerves - 12 pairs, 10 pairs from brain stem

® Peripheral Nervous ®
System Spinal nerves
Nerves outside the
¯
• 31 pairs of spinal nevers; (1) cervical nerves-8 pairs, (2) thoracio nerves -
brain and spinal cord
12 pairs, (3) lumbar nerves - 5 pairs, (4) sacral nerves - 5 pairs, (5) coc-
cygeal - 1 pair

l
l Human Nervous System :
Human Nervous System (parts)
¯
¯ ¯
Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)
¯ ¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Brain Spinal cord Cranial ® Sensory, ¬ Spinal
Nerves motor nerves
or mixed types
¯ ¯
Systemic Nervous System Auto nomous Nervous system (ANS)
¯ ¯ ¯
Conduction of nerve Sympathatic® Involuntary ¬ parasympathatic
impulsions toward Nervous System organs and Nervous
skeleton muscles (SNS) visceral muscles system(PNS)
toward coduct of
nerve impulse
l Central Nervous system : The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The CNS has
two distinct regions (1) White matter- White in colour and consists of myelienated fibres (2)
Gray matter- cyton bodies along with their dendrites and axon.
- Meaninges of Central Nervous System (CNS):
¯ ¯ ¯
(1) The inner membrane is (2) Middle membrane (3) The outer membrane is dura
pia matter which is thin arachnoid matter which matter. The thickest membrane
highly vascular membrane is a thin transparent mem- which covers the brain. It is
brane but non vascular also adherent to the inner
surface of cranial bones by
fibrous and vascular processes.
l Human brain :
- Weight about 1200 to 1400 gm.
- Number of neurons is about 100 billions.
- The brain can be divided into three major parts.
(1) Fore brain (2) Mid brain (3) Hind brain
(1) Fore brain :
A. Olfactory Lobes : Small, club shaped solid appear- only found in ventral view, covered by cerebral,
hemisphere.
B. Cerebrum : The largest parts of brain. - They are separated from each other by a longitudinal cerebral
fissure. Two hemispheres are connected by a large bundle of myelinated fibres known as corpus
callosum. Surface of the ecrebral cortex is highly folded to increase the area for accommodating more
nerve cells. The folds are called gyri and the depression between them are Known as Sulci Three wide
and deep sulci are termed as fissures. Which divide each hemisphere into four lobes.
(B1) Anterior frontal lobe: The premotor area fronted lobe controls involuntary movements and
autonomic nervous system. The associated area of the frontal lobe is concerned with memory,
reasoning,learning and creative ability- control voluntery movements.
 (B2) Middle parietal lobe : Associated touch, cold, temperature and pain.
(B3) Posterior occipital lobe : Visual and auditory areas which are centres for hearing and sight.
Each cerebral hemisphere encloses a cavity called lateral ventricle, whcih is closed in front but
open behind into third ventricle of diencephalon by a aperture known as formen of manro.
(B4) Lateral temporal lobe : Concerned with sound, smell, emotion and memory.
C. Diencephalon : Enclosed a cavity of the third ventricle, the roof of the cavity is known as the epithala-
mus, the right and left sides are known as thalamus and floor as the hypothalamus. Epithalamus is not
formed of nervous tissues, but it is made up of blood vessels possessing folds. Which form anterior choroid
plexus. Just behind this the epithalamus forms a short stalk; the pineal stalk and at its tip is a rounded body
known as pineal body is present. Pineal body recreates hormone melatonin. The hypothalamus is visible in
the ventral view of the brain. The optic nerve originating from the eyes forms acrossing, the optic chiarma
in front of the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is small, possessing 4gm weight. The pituitary is attached
to the hypothalamus by a stalk called the infundibulum. The diencephalon encloses a cavity termed as third
ventricle which communicates arterially with the lateral ventricle of cerebrum by the foramen of monro
and posteriosly with the forth ventricles of medulla oblongata by a narrow passage called the iter which is
present in mid brain.
(2) Mid brain- Very small and it consists of four small lobes; the coropora quadrigemia.
Quadrigemia
¯
¯ ¯
Upper a pair of lobes Lower a pair of lobes
¯ ¯
- Superior colliculi - Inferior Colliculi
Which receives impulses from the eyes and muscles Which receives impulses from the ears and muscles
of head and controls visual reflexes. of the head and controls the auditory reflexes.
(3) Hind brain : It is made up by three structures.
Hind brain
¯ ¯ ¯
Cerebellum Pons Varolli Medulla Oblongeta
¯ ¯ ¯
- very large and well developed. - An oval mass which consists of - It is pyramid shaped.
- Two large lateral parts,the mainly nerve fibres. - The posterior most of the
cerebral hemispheres and small - Bridges the cerebellar hemisphe- part of the brain that connects
vormis. res and medulla oblongata. the spinal cords.
- Branching tree like structure of - It relays impulses between - It encloses a cavity, the
white matter surrounded by a medulla oblongata, cerebellar fourth ventricle.
sheath of greatly folded grey matter. hemispheres and between the - This ventricle has a very thin
- Control muscular activities like brain and cerebellum. non nervous epithelial,
running, talking and typing. folded roof is called
postorior choroid plexus.
- Centres for cardiac activities,
respiration, vasoconstrictor
that control heart beat,
breathing, blood pressure
salivation, swallowing
vomiting, sneezing, coughing
and other involuntary fuctions.
 Human Endocrine System

Hypothalamus Thyroid
• Supreme commander of endocrine system. • It is the largest endocrine gland. ¬
• Hypothalamic releasing hormones reach the pituitary • It secretes two iodine - containing
gland through a portal circulatory system and regulate thyroid hormones that control the
® rate of all metabolic processes.
its secretion.
• It also contains Cells which se-
crete calcitonin that lowers the
blood calcium level.
Pituitary
• Orchestra of endocrine system. Para thyroid
® • Regulate the growth and activity of several other endo-
• Two pairs of endocrine glands lo- ¬
® crine glands. cated behind the thyroid gland.
• It has two main lobes : anterior labe (or) adenohypophy-
• They secrete parathormone which
sis (or) parsdistalis and posterior lobe (or) neurohy-
acts opposite to calcitonin.
pophysis (or) pars nervosa and an intermediate lobe (or)
pars intermedia.

Anterior Pituitary
• Master endocrine gland regulates the activity of
several other glands. Adrenal
• Located above kidneys.
• It has two parts-externel adrenal cortex
Posterior pituitary and internal adrenal medulla.
¬
• Stores and releases oxytocin and vasopression • Adrenal cortex secretes mineralo
which are actually synthesized by the hypothala- corticoids, gluco-rticoids and ganado
mus. corticoids.
• Adrenal Medulla is an extension of the
sympathetic system. It secretes
Pineal gland norcepinephrine and epinephrine.

• Secretes melatonin which helps in regulating sleep

¬
wake rhythmic cycle.

Pancreas ¬
• Islets of langerhans is the endocrine region.
• a-cells secrete glucagon, b-cells produce insulin, d cells secretes somatostatin.

¬
Goanads
• Ovaries secrete estrogen, progesterone, relaxin and inhibin.
• Testes secrete androgens by leydig's cells.
• Pars qntermedia Secretes melanocyte stimulating hormone which imparts skin
colouration.
¬
l
Reproduction in Organisms
® Binary fission
Asexual reproduction ® Budding
• It is the production of offspring by and single ® Strobilisation
parent wihtout the formation and fusion of Types
® gametes ®® Fragmentation
® Gemmae
® Regeneration
Natural vegetative reproduction ® Spore formation
• Examples are root tubers, suckers, Vegetative reproduction
¬
rhizomes, corm, bulbs, runners,
stolons, offsets, etc. • Formation of new plants from
vegetative units such as buds, tubers,
¬ rhizomes, etc.

Artificial vegetatitive reproduction

• Examples are cutting, layering, grafting,
micropropagation, etc.
Pre-fertilization
Sexual reproduction
• it is the process of development of new • This includes gametogenesis
® individual through formation and fusion male (process of formation of
and female gametes.
® gametes) and gamete transfer.
• It is grouped into three distinct stages
Fertilization
Internal
• It is complete and fertilizations
permanent fusion of two
gametes to form a diploid Enternal
zygote. fertilizations

Post-fertilization
• It is described under 2
headings :
¯
¯ ¯
Zygote Embryorgenesis
• It is formed after fertilization in all • It is the process of development
sexually reproducing organisms. of embryo from zygote.

l
 ® Stigma
Sexual Repreduction Flower Gynoecium (pollen receiving structure)
in floweing plants (carpels)
® Style
1 Gametogenesis (tube connecting ovary and stigma)
• Male gametes and female gametes Ovary
formed inside the male and female
gametophyte respectively • ovule present inside the ovary serves as
® integumented megasporangium.
Female gametophyte • It develops into seed after fertilization
• The megaspore mother cell divide
meiotically to form 4 haploid
megaspores. Out of which one Androecium Anther
® (stamens) ®
remains functional and others • It is called as microsporangium.
degenarate • It contains sporogenous tissue
• Functional megaspore grows in size • Cells of sporogenous tissue
and divides by mitosis of form transform into microspore mother
2-nucleated cell forms embryosac, cells or pollen mother cells (PMC)
the female gametophyte. • PMC produce poller grains by
meiosis
• Each nucleus moves to other poles
and divides there twice to form 8
nucleate embryo sac. ® Filament

® Male gemetophyte
• inside the microspore (pollengrain) mitosis
occur and 2-celled male gametophyte
is formed, large one is tube cell and the small
one is generative cell

2 Pollination
Self Pollination
• Transfer of 2-celled male gametophyte
from anther to stigma of a flower • Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of the
®
¯

same flower or different flower of the same plant

Cross pollination
• Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma of
different flower belonging to different plant of
¯

same species

3 Fertilization
• Pollen tube along with generative cell and tube cell enters the embryo sac through micropyle (porogamy)
chalaza (chalazogamy) or sides (mesogamy),
• Generative cell divides into two by mitosis. Tube cell degenerates, Double fertilization occurs, ie - one male
gamete fuses with egg to form 2n-zygote and another male gamete fuses with secondary nucleus to form
3n-endosperm.

l
 Primary Sex Organs

® • Produce gametes called gonads male gonad testes

Human Reproduction and female gonad ovaries.

Secondary Sex organs

® Male reproductive system • Do not produce gametes

• Essential for transport of gemetes fertilizaion etc.
• In males, prostate, seminal vesicles, vasa deferentia,
® penis.
• In females, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and
mammary glands.

¯
¯ Accessory glands
Testes
• Include paired seminal vesicles, a
• Paired structures lying in scrotum. prostate and paired bulbourethral
® • Helps in spermatogenesis. glands.

Pregnancy
Female Reproductive System
• Zygote undergoes repoated
• Consists of a pair of ovaries along with a pair of oviducts, ® mitotic division to form a
uterus, cervix, vagina and external genitalia. blastocyst, which is implanted in
• Ovaries help in Oogenesis. the uteras resulting in
• A cyclic change in the reproductive tract of female occur, pregnancy.
which is called menstrual cycle. Embryo Development

Fertilization • Embryo after implantation

differentiates into 3 germinal
• It is the process of fussion of sparn and egg to produce layered embryo.
zygote. • Three germinal layers of the
® • Amphimixis occurs. ® embryo undergo organogenesis.
® • By the end of 9th month of the
• The presence of X and Y chromosomes daternime the sex
embryo the foetus is fully
of the embryo.
developed.

® Significance
Parturition and Lactation
• Restores diploid number of chromosomes
• Parturition is the process of child
• Initiates cleavage
birth.
• Results in determination of sex
• Parturition is induced by neuro-
• Introduces variation
endocrine mechanism.
• Mammary glands differentiates
® and secrete after child birth.
• New born baby is fed with
mother's milk is called lactation.
• Milk produced during initial few
days of lactation is called
colostrum which is rich with
antibodies.
 Hypothalamus • Growth phase : Each spermatogonium actively grows to
secretes GnRH a larger primary spermatocyte by obtaining nourishment
from the nursing cells. The phenomenon of formation
of primary spermatocytes from spermatogonia, is called
Anterior pituitary spermatocytogenesis.
(Only FSH) secretes FSH and LH (Only LH) • Maturation phase : Each primary spermatocyte increases

Inhibits GnRH and LH production

markedly in size and undergoes the first meiotic or reductional
FSH LH division to form two secondary spermatocytes. Each of
which contains haploid set of (23 in humans) chromosomes.
Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes the second
Testes meiotic or equational division to form spermatids. Thus,
(Local)
Sertoli Leydig's each primary spermatocyte, containing 46 chromosomes,
cells cells produces four spermatids, each having 23 chromosomes.
Testosterone Formation of spermatozoa
Stimulate • The transformation of spermatids into spermatozoa is called
spermatogenesis spermiogenesis or spermateleosis or differentiation
phase.
• The different changes occurring during spermiogenesis are:
Testosterone (i) Formation of acrosome by Golgi apparatus. The latter
Inhibin
then degenerates.
(ii) Elongation and condensation of nucleus.
Reproductive tract (iii) Separation of centrioles.
and other organs (iv) Formation of axial filament from distal centriole.
respond to testosterone (v) Development of mitochondrial spiral around upper parts
Fig.: Summary of hormonal control of male reproductive system of axial filament.
(vi) Formation of flagellum.
Gametogenesis in males • The entire process of spermatogenesis, from primary
spermatocytes to mature spermatozoa (sperms) takes
• The process of formation of male gametes i.e., sperms is
approximately 64 days in man. The normal human male
called spermatogenesis.
manufactures nearly 30 million sperms per day. a very
• It occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The high rate of sperm production appears to be necessary to
seminiferous tubules are lined by germinal epithelium and overcome the odds against internal fertilisation.
Sertoli cells. Primordial germ cells in embryo
• The germinal epithelium consists largely of cuboidal primary Mitotic divisions
or primordial germ cells.
Cytoplasmic
Spermatogonial stem cell 2n
bridges
Mitotic divisions
Early
Late spermatids spermatids
Spermatogonium 2n
Spermiogenesis Sertoli Secondary spermatocytes
Meiosis cell Mitotic divisions
Sertoli
cell Primary spermatocyte
Primary spermatocyte 2n
Basal lamina Spermatogonium
Meiosis I
Fibroblast
Capi y
llary illar Secondary spermatocyte n n
Cap
Meiosis II
Interstitial cells Early spermatid n n n n
Fig.: T.S. of Seminiferous tubule
Differentiation
Formation of spermatids
Sperm n n n n
• Multiplication phase: The undifferentiated germ cells,
divide mitotically again and again for a specified number of
division cycles to form large number of spermatogonia. Fig.: Stages in spermatogenesis
• after their maturation, spermatozoa detach from Sertoli cells.
The process is called spermiation. The released sperms are Acrosome
stored in epididymis and first portion of vasa deferentia
for upto one month. here they gain motility. Nutrition is Plasma membrane
provided by epithelium of epididymis. Head Nucleus

sperm or spermatozoon Post acrosomal sheath

• Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck,
a middle piece and a tail. a plasma membrane envelops the Proximal
centriole
whole body of sperm. Neck Distal centriole
End piece
• The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, Mitochon-
the anterior portion of which is covered by a cap-like Middle piece drial spiral
structure, acrosome. It is derived from Golgi complex of Axial
filament
the spermatid. acrosome contains proteolytic and lysosomal Annulus (9 + 2
enzymes popularly called sperm lysins, e.g., hyaluronidase, fibrils)
proteases, acid phosphatase. The surface of head contains
adhesions (decapacitation factors) which have to be removed Tail
before it becomes capable of fertilising an ovum.
Fibrous sheath
• The middle piece possesses numerous mitochondria, which
produce energy for the movement of tail that facilitate sperm
motility essential for fertilisation.
Fig.: A mammalian spermatozoon

Prostatitis Prostate carcinoma

It is inflammation of prostate generally caused by infection. It is cancer of prostate. Some symptoms are dysuria, difficulty in
Prostatitis results in perineal or testicular discomfort, mild voiding, increased frequency of urination or urinary retention.
dysuria and symptoms of urinary obstruction.
Impotence
Benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH) It is the inability of the adult male to achieve penile
erection. It can be due to physiological, psychological
This is the enlargement of the prostate gland. It
or neuromuscular defects.
compresses the urethra, causing frequent night
urination (nocturia) or difficult or painful micturition. Disorders of male
reproductive system Sterility
Hydrocoele Sperms are unable to fertilise the ovum due to
low count or less motility.
It is enlargement of testicle due to accumulation of fluid
usually in tunica vaginalis. Cryptorchidism
It is a failure of one or both of the testicles to descend into the
Inguinal hernia scrotum. Cryptorchidism is caused by deficient secretion of
testosterone by foetal testes. If spontaneous descent does
Tearing of inguinal tissue may result in protrusion of a part of
not occur by the age of one year, hormonal injection is given.
intestine into scrotum. Retention of testes in the abdomen results in sterility.
• ca2+ rise initiated by fertilising sperm results in degradation Why is the timing of gametogenesis different in
of regulatory unit of mPF through Anaphase Promoting males and females?
Complex (APC) thus promoting completion of cell cycle.
after primordial germ cells enter genital ridge (the area
• The first polar body may divide to form two-second polar
in vertebrate embryo that develops into gonads), they
bodies. Thus from one oogonium, one ovum and three
stop migration, undergo 2-3 further rounds of mitosis and
polar bodies are formed.
enter a pre-meiotic stage. In the male genital ridge, sperms
• The ovum, is the actual female gamete. The polar bodies take reverse this process and arrest. But in the female genital
no part in reproduction and soon degenerate due to lack of ridge, they enter meiotic prophase as primary oocyte and
cytoplasm and food. The formation of non-functional polar progress through meiosis until diplotene stage, at this time,
bodies enables the egg to get rid of excess chromosomes. they arrest. It is suggested that all germ cells, regardless of
their chromosomal constitution, are programmed to develop
This is derived from the endodermal as oocytes and the timing of meiosis seems to be a cell-
Oogonium (2n) lining of the embryonic yolk sac which autonomous property. however, in males, the genital ridge
comes to lie in the ovary of the female prevents prenatal entry into meiosis. This can be because of
(while it is still an embryo).
a male meiosis inhibitor produced by Sertoli cells.
Meiotic I division starts and is arrested at the
diplotene stage. menstrual cycle
• The first menstruation begins at puberty and is called
At birth

Primary oocyte Dormant stage, nucleus intact, a female is

(2n) born with these in her ovary. menarche. In human females, menstruation is repeated at
an average interval of about 28/29 days, and the cycle of
Every month some primary oocytes (about 20)
Onset of
puberty

events starting from one menstruation till the next one is

resume oogenesis and start developing.
Growth and development. called menstrual cycle.
• The menstrual cycle can be functionally divided into four
Fully grown
phases.
primary oocyte
Just prior to ovulation, meiotic I division is completed and the menstrual phase
meiotic II division is again arrested at metaphase stage. • It lasts for roughly five days. The first day of menstruation
marks day one of new cycle.
• Following the peak of activity on about Day 21, the corpus
Polar body I Secondary oocyte (n) luteum regresses so that by Day 1 its hormonal production
is greatly reduced.
Ovulation
• This rapid estradiol and progesterone (secreted by corpus
Secondary oocyte released in the peritoneal
cavity.
luteum) withdrawl induces changes in endometrium.
Polar body I divides into two

• Blood vessels rupture, causing bleeding. The cast off uterine

tissues, blood that oozes from the ruptured endometrial
Secondary oocyte picked up by the fimbriae
surrounding the ostium of the oviduct. blood vessels, and tissue fluid from the endometrial surface
pass out through the vaginal opening. This process is called
menstruation, or menstrual flow which continues for 3-5
Secondary oocyte in the oviduct. days.
Meiosis II is • Lowered levels of progesterone and estradiol also cause
completed Sperm release of FSh from the anterior pituitary. This initiates a
II Polar body new cycle.

Ovum (n) + Sperm (n)  Zygote (2n) follicular phase or proliferative phase
I + III, II Ovum here is a very transitional stage which is • reduced concentration of ovarian and gonadotropin
Polar bodies formed as the sperm fuses with the secondary hormones, stimulate the hypothalamus to produce Gnrh.
degenerate oocyte.
• It activates anterior pituitary to produce gonadotropins. In
Fig.: Flow chart depicting gametogenesis in females. the presence of FSh 6–12 ovarian follicles begin enlargement
 to respond or may be resistant to FSh. In this case FSh • Other common symptoms are fatigue, vaginal dryness and
levels are very high and the estrogen level very low. It softening of bones due to loss of minerals particularly
occurs between 45 to 55 years (In some individuals it is calcium.
between 40 to 50 years).
Follicle
Table : Phases of menstrual cycle number Optimal
fertility Decreased
Phases Days Events 1,000,000 fertility
End of
Birth fertility
menstrual 1st-5th Endometrium breaks down, 100,000
phase menstruation begins. The cells of 10,000
Irregular
cycles
endometrium, secretions, blood and
the unfertilised ovum constitute 1,000
0 18 31 37 41 45 51
the menstrual flow. Progesterone Age (yrs)
production is reduced. Menopause
Fig.: Female’s fertility
Follicular 6th-13th Endometrium rebuilds, FSh
phase secretion and estrogen’s secretion • menstrual cycle is controlled by FSH, LH, estrogen and
(Proliferative increase. progesterone.
phase) • Dysmenorrhoea is painful menses.
Ovulatory 14th Both Lh and FSh attain a peak • Menorrhagia is excessive menstruation.
phase level. concentration of estrogen in • Oligomenorrhoea is sparse or infrequent menstruation.
the blood is also high and reaches • Amenorrhoea is non-occurrence of menses.
its peak. Ovulation occurs.
• Oestrus cycle is a series of cyclic changes that are found
Luteal phase 15th-28th corpus luteum secretes in the ovaries, reproductive tract and hormones of female
(Secretory progesterone. Endometrium nonprimate mammals, e.g., cows, dogs, cats, horse,
phase) thickens and uterine glands buffalo. During this period the female receives the male.
become secretory. at the end of oestrus, the lining of reproductive tract
• Since there are no developing follicles, the supply of is sloughed off. however, there is no menstruation. The
estrogen and progesterone is reduced. This may lead to sloughed off tissues are absorbed. Oestrus is followed by
temporary depression, hot flushes and other physiological a passive period called anoestrus.
and psychological problems in menopause.
Breast cancer Cervical cancer
Breast cancer is rarely seen before the age of thirty. Its It is relatively slow-growing cancer. Its main risk is that it is
incidence increases after menopause. unnoticed until it has invaded other tissues.

Infertility Oophorocystosis (Ovarian cysts)

Infertility in women is the inability to become pregnant. Ovarian cysts are fluid filled tumours of the ovary. Such
It may be due to failure to ovulate or to some cysts sometimes rupture and regress (get smaller)
anatomical factor that prevents the union of egg and Disorders of female during pregnancy.
sperm. reproductive system
Ectopic pregnancy
Endometriosis It is implantation of embryo at a place other
It is the growth of endometrial tissue outside the than uterus, generally in the oviduct.
uterus. Symptoms include premenstrual pain or
unusual menstrual pain. Oophoritis
It is inflammation of ovary, usually caused by an infection.
 Fertilized ovun undergoes Equal
• Cleavage furrows
extend completely
through the entire
length of the egg
Determinate (Mosaic)
and bisect it into
• Blastomeres have a Fate of Amount of almost equal sized
predetermine future. Cleavage Holoblastic blastomeres. E.g.,
blastomeres yolk and its
E.g. annelids and Amphioxus,
distribution marsupials and
molluses.
Indeterminate placental mammals.

• The fate of blastomeres Patterns Unequal

is not so rigidly sealed, Meroblastic • Unequal sized
but the blastomeres blastomeres E.g.,
exhibit plasticity. E.g. amphibians.
echinoderms, chordates.
Discoidal
• Cleavage furrows
are restricted to
Radial Biradial Spiral Bilateral the germinal discs
or yolk free region
• Two of the four
• The successive • When the first • The blastomere and yolk remains
of each tier blastomeres are undivided E.g.,
c l e a v a g e three divisions
alternate with smaller than the reptiles and birds
furrows cut do not cut
those of the tier other two and
s t r a i g h t straight the axis
thus establish Superficial
through the of egg. E.g., above and
below it. E.g., bilateral symmetry. • Cleavage furrows
egg, at right ctenophorans
nematodes, E.g., tunicates, divide zygote nucles
angles to one
rotifers, annelids Amphioxus. repeatedly without
another. E.g.,
the division of egg
synapta
cythoplasm. E.g.,
insects.
l
 CONCEPT MAP
Reproductive Health
¯ ¯ ¯
Strategies of Polulation explosion and
Infertility
reproductive health birth control
• It is counselling and creating awareness • It is inability to con-
• All around develoment,
among people about : ceive or produce chil-
increased health facilities,
dren inspite of
® Reproductive organs better living conditions,
these all has resulted in umprotected sexual co-
® Adolescence and associated population explosion. habitation.
changes • It can be caused by
• This can be overcome by
physical, congenital, im-
® Safe and hygienic sexual practices motivating smaller
munological or even
families by using
® Sexually transmitted diseases contraceptive methods- psychological disorders.
measures. • Specialized infertility
• AIDS, syphilis, genital herpes, clinics can help in the
genital warts, gonorrhoea, diagnosis and proper
hepatities B etc are some of the
Temporary treatment of some of
diseases transmitted through
methods these disorders.
sexual intercourses with infected
person. • Coitus interruptus • However, where such
• Lactational amenor- diagnosis and treatment
• It can be prevented by : are not possible, the
rhea
- Avoiding sex with unknown/ • Condoms, cervical couples can be assisted
Types of contraceptive measures

multiple partners. caps etc. to have children

• Foam tablets, jellies, through certain special
- Using condoms during coitus. techniques called
creams etc.
- Early detection and complete • IUCD Assisted Reproductive
treatment if diagnosed with • Pills, norplant etc. Technologies (ART).
disease. • Assisted Reproductive
• Programmes undertaken regarding Technologies (ART)
this are : assist infertile couple to
have children.
® Child immunisation ® Permanent • Some important tech-
methods
niques of ART are :
® Ban on amniocentesis to legally
• Vasectomy - Test tube baby
check female foeticides
• Tubectomy programme
® Maternity and child health and - Artificial Insemination
family planning.
® Medical Techniques (AIT)
termination of - Gamete Intra Fallopian
pregnancy Transfer (GIFT)
- Intra Cytoplasmic
Sperm Injection (ICSI)
 Reproductive Health
POPULATION EXPLOSION AND
BIRTH CONTROL METHODS
According to WHO, reproductive health refers to Population Explosion and Birth Control
the state of physical, emotional, behavioural and l
The increase in size and growth of human population is called
social fitness for leading a reproductive life. population explosion.
l
The reasons for high population growth are:
Strategies to Improve Reproductive (i) Rapid decline in death rate.
Health (ii) Decline in Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR).
l
Number of programmes have been launched by (iii) Decline in Infant Mortality Rate (IMR).
Govt. of India under the name ‘Reproductive and
Child Health Care’ (RCH).
(iv) Lack of reproductive health knowledge.
l
Awareness programmes are conducted among (v) Some religious belief against birth control.
people about reproduction related aspects and Some steps to overcome population explosion
STD’s. l
Motivate smaller families by using contraceptive methods.
l
Providing facilities and support to build up a l
Awareness through media, posters/bills–Hum Do Hamare Do.
healthy reproductive society. l
Raising marriageable age of girls to 18 years and of boys to 21 years.
l
Family planning programmes were launched in
1951 so as to stabilise the population. Birth Control and Contraception
l
Statutory ban on amniocentesis so as to prevent Birth control refers to the regulation of conception by preventive
female foeticide and introduction of child methods or devices to limit the number of offsprings, while
immunisation programmes. contraception refers to devices or medications followed so as to prevent
the likelihood of pregnancy.

Methods of Contraception and Birth Control

Methods Basis of Action Note on Uses Relative Disadvantages
Barrier Methods
Condom A thin, strong rubber sheath, prevents the sperm Placed over erect penis just Not as reliable as the pill.
from entering the vagina. before sexual intercourse. Relies on the male. May tear or slip off.
Femidom Female condom, a thin rubber or polyurethane tube Inserted before intercourse and Difficult to insert.
with a closed end, which fits inside vagina and open removed any time later. Can break or leak.
end has two fixable rings, one on each end, to keep Expensive than male condom.
it in place.
Diaphragm/ Cap A flexible rubber dome which fits over the cervix and Inserted before intercourse. Suggestion of doctor is must for proper size
prevents entry of sperm to uterus. Used with a Must be left in place at least 6 selection. It requires training to fit. Occasionally
spermicidal cream or jelly (a spermicide is a hours after the intercourse. causes abdominal pain. It should not be left for
chemical which kills sperms). more than 30 hours as it may cause toxic shock
syndrome. Examination required after every 6
months that cap is of right size.
Spermicide Chemical which kills sperm. Placed in vagina to cover the High failure rate.
lining of vagina and cervix.
Effective for about 1 hour.
Sponge Polyurethane sponge impregnated with spermicide, Fits up to 24 hours before High failure rate.
fits over cervix, disposable. intercourse. Leave in place for at
least 6 hours after intercourse.
Hormonal Methods
Pill Contains the female sex homones i.e. oestrogen and One taken orally each day, Short-term side effects, may include nausea,
progesterone. Prevents development of eggs and during first 3 weeks of cycle. fluid retention and weight gain. Long-term side
ovulation by inhibiting the secretion of FSH. Act on After week 4, menstruation effects not fully understood, but increased risk
cervical mucus to prevent the penetration of sperm. starts and the pill is started of blood clotting may occur in some women.
Prevent the blastocyst implantation. again. Not recommended for older women.
 Genetics
Branch of biology that deals with study of heredity and variations.

Heredity

Study of inheritance of characters from parents to offsprings

¯ ¯
Variations Traits
Features (similarities or
Difference in traits shown by individual
differences) of an individual
of a species

Caused due to Types

Aquired traits Inherited traits
® Crossing over Somatic varition
® Non-genetic
and non- Genetic and
® Reshuffling of Variations that occur in
heritable heritable
genes somatic cell due to
environmental factors
® Chance combination or use and disuse of
of chromosomes
organ or conscious
during maiosis and
efforts Genetic
fertilization Sex deter-
® Germinal variation mination disorders
Mechanism by
variations that occur which sex of new
mostly in germinal ® Mendelian
born is determined disorders
cells are inheritable sex of an
individual affects ® Chromosomal
¯ inheritance of disorders
Causes some traits

Recomobination Mutations
(crossing over) Deciding Effect on
Sudden inheritable change. Factors inheritance of
Shuffling of genes that They can be spontaneous or traits
occurs as a result of induced. Basically mutations
interchange of are three types. ® Environmental
corresponding parts ® Genetic/ ® Sex-linked
traits
between the chromatids of Chromosomal
homologous chromosomes
® Sex-limited
—XX-XY method traits
—XX-XO method
—ZW-ZZ method ® Sex
—Haploid Diploid influenced
¯ ¯ ¯ method traits
Chromosomal Genomic Gene
mutations mutations mutations Inheritance of traits
 Inheritance of Traits

Pedigree Analysis Mendelism Linkage

Chromosomal theory
Analysis of a family Phenomenon of certain
Factors = genes are the of inheritance
pedigree to find the genes staying together
carriers of traits. Their
movement and Sutton and Boveri (1902) and their enblock
inheritance follow 3
distribution of proposed this theory inheritance from one
laws.
certain genetic traits. which states that generation to another.
It helps to find out mendelion factors or This affects in
dominance or genes are located at heritance of traits and
recessive etc., specific loci on interferes with
nature of certain chromosomes and it is i n d e p e n d e n t
genes ® Low of Dominance the chromosome that assortment
The allele of a gene segregates and assort
shows dominance over indepenently during ® Complete linkage
other meiosis
® Incomplete linkage
Law of segregation (or) purity of gametes
® Alleles present in a generation retain their purity
(do not mix up) and segregate in next generation

Law of Independent Assortment

® Alleles of genes for two different
characters can assort independent of each
other
 Chromosomes
'Carries of heredity'. They are thread like structures composed of chromatin that carry
the genes in linear sequence. They determine the individual characteristics of an organism.

Gene
Unit of heredity that is composed of DNA. Gene is
visulalised as s discrete particle that determines
particular characteristics.

Expression Regulation
Gene expression is the mechanism at the The mechanism of switching off and
molecular level by which a gene is able to ¬ ® switching on of the genes depending
express itself in the phenotype of an upon the requirement of the cells and
organism. In the process the information the state of development. In
in DNA is transformed into proteins via prokaryotes, operon system is
following sequential process. responsible for gene regulation.

¯
DNA Replication ¯ ¯
DNA is a long polymer of deoxyribonucle- Formation of new exact copy of
Types Exerted at five levels
otides that consists of deoxyribose sugar, the DNA is a semiconservative
phosphoric acid and nitrogenous bases ¬ and semidiscontinuous process. ® Transcriptional
(A,T,C,G). DNA contains hereditary informa- DNA replication is essential for ®Positive regulation
Positive regulation is
level when
tion in the form of sequence of nitrogenous maintaining quantity and quality primary
bases. Three bases together constitute a codon the one in which the
of genetic material in every new transcript is
and the whole may of these codons is teremed genes remain
cell generation. formed.
genetic code. unexpressed unless
they are induced to do ® Processing level
¯ it. It is therefore of primary
Transcription inducible regulation. transcript
Genetic information of DNA is transferred to RNA (mRNA) via
®Negative ® Translational
transcription. RNA polymerase enzyme in presence of several other level
regulation
factors prepares single stranded RNA that is complementary to DNA
with the substitution of thymine by uracil.
Negative regulation is
the one in which the
® Post
translational
genes continue to
¯ express till their
level

RNA activity is repressed. ® During

Single stranded, unbranched nucleic acid molecule consisting of ribose sugar, It is also called transport of
repressible regulation. mRNA
phosphoric acid and nitrogenous bases (A,U,C,G). They perform various
functions in cells.
¯
¯ ¯ ¯
hnRNA tRNA rRNA
The orimary transcript that consists of both tRNA or transfer RNA works as the adapter rRNA (ribosomal RNA) are
introns (interrupting sequence) and exons molecule during protein synthesis (gene the component of ribosomes.
(expressing sequences) is called heteronuclear expression). It brings amino acids present in Ribosomes are essential for
RNA . It undergoes procesing to produce cytoplasm to the mRNA strand protein synthesis.
mRNA. corresponding to the sequence of codons on
the mRNA and facilities protein synthesis.
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Processing mRNA Translation Proteins Phenotypic
hnRNA splicing occurs to mRNA or messanger RNA Translation is the Proteins are expression
remove introns. Besides, carries the genetic process during which polymers of amino If proteins that catalyze
poly A tail and a methyl information present in the genetic information acids that are a particular process are
guanosine triphosphate DNA inside nucleus to the stored in the sequence essential for body produced more, than that
cap is added in order to cytoplasm where proteins of nucleotide in an organization. They process will occur more
increase its stability and are synthesized in mRNA molecule are also act as enzymes efficiently causing
to facilitate accordance to the genetic translated into for various changes in phenotype.
transportation of code. proteins. biochemical
resulting mRNA. processes.

l
 Evolution
(Latin evolvere-to unroll) Multicellular organisms
evolved from tiny eukayryotic unicellular ones.

¯ ¯ ¯
Evidence of evolution Theories of evolutions Mechanism of evolution
®
Morphological and Evolution starts with gen-
® Lamark's Theory
anatomical eration of variations,
It says that "The changes in
Comparaive studies of morphol- Variations in a population
structure or function of any may occur by mutations,
ogy and anatomy, homology of
organ are acquired during the genetic drift, gene migra-
organisms provide evolutionary
proofs, e.g. vestigial organs, ata- lifetime of an individual by tion, hybridization, etc.
vism etc. use of disuse of that organ Out of these variations in-
and are inherited" causing heritable variations un-
® Embryological evolution. dergo natural selection
and the individual with
Comparative study of embry- ® Darwain's Theory highest survival value in
onic development of various
the present environmental
organisms shows various simi- It says that variation occur in
conditions evolve.
larities and resemblance to organisms and useful amoung
embryos of lower organisms them are selected by nature
indicating evolution (Biogenetic (i.e., natural selection) and get
law of Haeckel) accumulated in the organism.
This leads to evolution.
® Pateontological ® Human evolution
Paleontology is the study of All human beings present
fossils (preserved remains of ® today belong to a simple
dead organisms). It provides Mutation Theory
species Homo sapines
most direst and reliable evi- which has evolved bipedal
This theory put forward by
dence of evolution. locomotion high cranial
Hugo de Vries says that
evolution is a discontinuous, capacity, opposable
® Connecting Back saltatory process that oc- thumbs and etc.
curs due to sudden inherit- dominates in today's life
Connecting links are living or- able variations. forms.
ganisms with characteristics
intermediate between two
groups, e.g., Euglena (link
between plants and animals)
® Modern Synthetic Theory
Molecular and phystological
According to it five factor :
® genetic variations, heredity,
various physiological pro-
cesses, cellular structure, bio- natural selection, reproductive
chemistry, genetic composi- isolation and speciation lead
tion, etc. also provide to evolution
evolutioonary evidence e.g.,
blood plasma proteins.
 Origin of Life
¯
¯ ¯
Theories of origin of unitvers Chemical Theory of orogin of lice
¯
® Nebular Hypotbesis
• Oparin- Haldane's of chemical origin theory is most
It was propsed by Kant-Leplace widely accepted theory of origin of life. It involves some
according to which earth basic stpes that are :
originated about 4.5-5 billion • Formation of inorganic molecules
years ago from a gaseous cloud • From the gases present in early earth's atmosphere.
solar nebula. • Formation of simple organic compounds
• From the inorganic compounds formed in previous step.
• Spontaneous formation of complex organic molecules
• Simple organic molecules combined to from large organic
Big bang Theory
® complex biomolecules like starch, proteins, fatty acids.
• Spontaenous formation of molecular aggregates,
According to this theory of concervates, eobionts and first living cell
Abbe Lemaitre univers formed • Complex organic compounds synthesized on primise
by a big bang (thermonuclear earth grouned togeths spontaneously and due to intermo-
expansion) of a dense entilty. lecular attraction formed large colloidal aggregates called
coacervates or Micropheres which tuned into eobionts
(controlled by nucleic acids). These developed cel mem-
brane and formed first living cells or prokayotes.

¯
Eukaryotes (Unicellular)
 Human Health and Disease
Congenital Cancer
- Health defined as a state of - Cancer is a disease of uncontrolled
diseases
complete physical, mental and
These are proliferation of cells without any
social well being and not merely the
inborn diseases differentiation. It is of two types (i) Benign
absence of disease or infirmity.
present from tumour, (ii) Malignant tumour.
- When the functioning of one or
the birth. - Cancer is neither hereditary not a
more organs or systems of the body
is adversely affected, we say that contagious disease Chemical and physical
we are not healthy, i.e., we have a agents that can cause cancer are called
disease. careinogens e.g. X-rays, UV rays,
¯ caffeine, steroid, arsenic air, soot,
diethylstilbestrol (DES), vinyl chloride
Acquired diseases (VC), cadmium oxide.
- These are diseases contracted after birth. - Several genes in the host called cellular
- It is of two types : oncogenes or proto-oncogenes have been
identified which under certain conditions on
¯ ¯
Communicable diseases Non-Communicable diseases
getting activated could lead to oneogenic
- These can pass from one
® transformation of cells.
- These remain confined to the
infected person to a healthy - Tumor suppressor genes normally keep
persons who develop them and do
one. not spread to others. mitosis in check and prevent cancer from
occurring.
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
Bacterial diseases Viral diseases Protozoan diseases Helminthic disease
® Typhoid - Common cold - African sleeping sickness or - Ascariasis
Caused by Salmonella typhi trypanosomiasis
Caused by Rhino virus
® Pneumonia Caused by Ascaris
- Mumps Caused by Trypanosoma gambiense
lumbricoides
Caused by Streptococcus
Caused by Paramyxo virus - Kala-azar
pneumoniae or - Filariasis or
Diplococcus pneumoniae - Measles Caused by Leishmania donovani
elephantiasis
®Dysentery (Bacillary) Caused by rubella virus - Amoebic dysentery or Amoebiasis
Caused by
Caused by bacteria of the - Dengue fever Caused by Entamoeba histolytica Wuchereria
genus shigella
Caused by arbo virus - Malaria ([Link] &
®Plague [Link])
- Chikungunya - Caused by Plasmodium
Caused by Pasteurella/
Yersinea
Caused by alpha virus - There are 4 species of Plasmodium with

- causes 4 types of malaria. These are :

®Diphtheria Chicken pox
Caused by Corynebacterium Caused by Varicellazoster ¯
diphtheriae - Poliomyelitis - Plasmodium
®Chlera Caued by poliovirus - Plasmodium vivax or P. vivax
Caused by Vibrio cholerae (benign tertian malaria)
(enterovirus)
®Tetanus - P. malariae (quartan malaria)
- Viral hepatitis
Caused by Clostridium
tetani - P. falciparum (cerebral malaria or
®Tuberculosis malignant tertian malaria)
Caused by Mycobacterium - [Link] (mild tertian malaria)
tuberculosis
Table: Other viral diseases
Disease Pathogen Mode of Symptoms Prevention
transmission/
Incubation
period
1. dengue fever Flaviribo virus by bite of Fever, headache, muscles and joint eliminating mosquito breeding
Aedes aegypti pains, rashes, nausea, vomiting, places and applying mosquito
mosquito/3-8 excessive thirst, bleeding from nose, repellents.
days mouth, gums
2. common rhinovirus droplet contact/ Nasal congestion, running nose, Washing hands frequently and
cold 3-7 days sneezing, sore throat, cough, fever, using face masks.
headache
3. Mumps Paramyxovirus droplet contact/ Fever, painful swelling of parotid Avoiding contact with the sick;
7-18 days glands MMr vaccine is available.
4. Measles rubeola virus droplet contact/ Fever, rash, itching, inflammation of Same as that of mumps.
8-15 days respiratory passage
5. chicken pox Varicella direct contact and Fever, rash which changes into Scabs should be collected and
zoster virus droplet contact/ vesicles, pustules and then brown burnt, soiled articles should be
14-21 days scab which falls off washed and boiled. Vaccine is
available.
6. Smallpox Variola virus direct contact High fever, chill, headache, vomiting, Same as that of chickenpox.
(eradicated and droplet rash that turn into scabs that fall
from earth) contact/ 12 days off
7. Poliomyelitis Polio virus contaminated Stiffness of neck, paralysis of skeletal Avoiding contaminated food
food and water/ muscles, fever, headache, pain and water. Salk vaccine and OPV
7-14 days vaccine available.

8. Swine flu Swine droplet contact Fever, cough, bodyaches, headache, Avoiding close contact with the
influenza chills sick. Vaccine is available.
(H1N1) viruses

9. SArS (Severe corona virus droplet contact/ Fever, chills, muscleache, cough, Avoiding contact with the sick.
Acute 2-7 days dizziness, running nose, vomiting,
respiratory diarrhoea
Syndrome)
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae, direct contact / cough, fever, pain in the PcV13 vaccine /
Haemophilus influenzae 1 - 3 days lungs erythromycin, tetracycline
diphtheria Corynebacterium droplet infection/ Fever, sore throat dPT vaccine / erythromycin
diphtheriae 2-5 days
Whooping cough Bordetella pertussis direct contact / cough, breathlessness dPT vaccine/erythromycin
or pertussis 10 - 16 days and vomiting
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis droplet infection and constant cough, pain bcG/streptomycin, PAS
contaminated food and in chest, loss of weight rifampicin
drinks / 3 - 6 weeks and appetite
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Spores enter the wounds Painful muscular dPT / Antitetanus serum
(Lock jaw) / 3 - 25 days spasms, fever, lock jaw (ATS), tetanus toxoid
Plague Pasteurella/Yersinia pestis bite of infected rat flea Painful buboes, fever, Streptomycin, oral
(black death) Xenopsylla cheopis / haemorrhages tetracycline, Antiplague
2 - 6 days vaccine
Leprosy Mycobacterium leprae Prolonged direct Infection of skin, wasting rifampicin, dapsone,
(Hansen’s contact / of body parts, deformities clofazimine
disease) 2 - 5 years of fingers, toes, hypopig-
mentation.

Types of malaria

Benign tertian malaria Quartan malaria Cerebral malaria Mild tertian malaria
• caused by Plasmodium vivax. • caused by P. malariae. • caused by P. falciparum. • caused by P. ovale.
• Fever recurs after every 48 • Fever appears after every 72 • Fever is irregular. • Fever recurs in every 48
hours. hours. • Incubation period is 12 hours.
• Incubation period is about 14 • Incubation period is 28-30 days. days. • Incubation period is 14
days. days.
 When the mosquito bites another human,
sporozoites are injected with bite.

Mature infective stages Liver

(sporozoites) escape from Sporozoites
intestine and migrate to
the mosquito salivary Salivary glands Parasites (sporozoites)
glands. reach the liver through
Fertilisation and blood.
development take
place in the
mosquito's stomach
MOSQUITO
The parasite reproduces asexually in liver
(PRIMARY
cells, bursting the cell and releasing into
HOST)
the blood.
HUMAN
Female mosquito takes (SECONDARY
up gametocytes with Gametocytes
HOST)
blood meal. Female Parasites reproduce asexually in red
blood cells, bursting the red blood cells
and causing cycles of fever and other
Male
Sexual stages (gametocytes) symptoms. Released parasites infect
develop in red blood cells. new red blood cells.
Fig.: Life cycle of Plasmodium

Prevention and Treatment

Spraying ddT, bHc and Fitting doors and windows Using mosquito nets Use of drugs like chloroquine,
other insecticides with wire nets and repellants quinine, primaquine etc.

Table : Other protozoan diseases

Disease Pathogen Mode of transmission/ Symptoms Control measures /Treatment
Incubation period
Amoebiasis Entamoeba Faecal - oral route, sexual Abdominal pain, Sanitary disposal of faecal matter /
histolytica contact, vectors e.g.,flies. diarrhoea, blood in emetine, stremetine, metronidazole
/ 2-4 weeks faeces. and tinidazole.
Giardiasis Giardia contaminated food and epigastric pain, clean food and water/Metronidazole,
intestinalis water / 1-3 weeks. headache, diarrhoea. tinidazole.
African sleeping Trypanosoma sp. biting of tse tse fly Swelling of lymphatic Pentamidine, atoxyl, tryparsamide,
sickness or Glossina sp./ Weeks or glands, recurrent fever, germanin.
Trypanosomiasis months. anaemia, patient falls
asleep.
Kala-azar or Leishmania bite of sandfly High fever, spleen Sodium antimony tartrate, glyconate,
dum-dum fever donovani Phlebotomus argentipes enlargement, anaemia, urea stebamine, neostibosan.
/ 3-6 months. darkening of skin.
 Immunity
It is body's ability to destroy pathogens or other foreign materials
and to prevent further cases of certain infectious diseases.

Types of Immunity

Innate Immunity/Inborn Acquired immunity / Specific defense

mechanism
- Non-specific defence mechanisms. (Third line of defenses)
- Response of immune system to specific
- It is present at the time of pathogens.
birth.
- It is of two types : external
Active immunity
defence and internal defence.
- It is produced due to contact with
External defence first line defense pathogen or its antigen and subsequent
It comprises physical and chemical barriers production of antibodies.
to the entry of pathogens into the body.
Passive immunity
Internal defense second line defense
It occurs when the first line of defenses fail It occurs when readymade antibodies are
to prevent access of pathogens to the
directly given to protect the body against
tissues. The body's internal defenses is
carried out by WBC (neutrophils and foreign agents. Colostrum (Contains abun-
monocytes) macrophages, natural killer dant IgA) and foetus receiving antibodies
(NK) cells, inflammatory reactions, fever, from mother are some examples of passive
interferons and complement system. immunity.

Antigen Presenting Cells

- These are specialized cells which

include macrophages (monocytes as
blood macrophages and histocytes as
tissue macrophages) B-Lymphocytes and
dendrite cells (e.g., Langerhans cells of
epidermis of skin)

Lymphocytes

T-Lymphocytes, T-Cells B-Lymphocytes, B-Cells

- T-Cells are involved in cell mediated - B-cells are involved in antibody mediated or
immune response. humoral immune response.
- They give rise to plasma cells (produce Antibodies)
and memory B-cells on activation by antigen
specific T-cells.
 Antigens / Antibodies
- Antigens are substances which when introduced into the body, stimulate the
production of antibodies.
- The specific reactivity induced in a host by an antigenic stimulus is known as
immune response. It is of two types - (1) Primary and (2) Secondary immune
response.
- Antibodies (Abs) are glycoproteins, called immunoglobulins, made up of four peptide
chains, two small called light chains and two longer called heavy chains.
- Different types of antibodies such as IgA (heaviest and second most abundant), IgM
(Largest and first reach the site of infection) IgG (Most abundant, only Ab that
crosses placenta), IgD and IgG produced in our body.

Immune System
- It consists of Lymphoid organs, tissues, cells and soluble molecules such as antibody.
- Lymphoid organs are of two types - (1) Primary lyumphoid organ and
I (2) Secondary lymphoid organs. Thymus, bone marrow are primary lymphoid
m organs.
m - Lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, payer's patches, appendix and MALT (Mucosal
u
Associated Lymphoid Tissue) are Secondary Lymphoid Organs.
n
i
t
y Vaccination & Immunisation
- Vaccination is the process of development of immunisation against a particular
disease by inoculation of harmless antigenic material like attenuated pathogen or its
toxoid in the form of vaccine into a healthy person.
- Vaccine is of 3 types - First generation vaccines, Second generation vaccines and
Third generation vaccines.

Immunological Disorders
Failure of host defense results into immunological
disorders, which falls into 3 different categories.

Immuno Auto Hyper

Deficiency Immunity Sensitivity

·
 Traditional views Restruction enzymes
• Brotechnology (Erey' 1917) is the technological • Restruction eazymes belong in a larger class of en-
employment of microganisms, plant cells, animal ® zymes called nucleases. These are of three kinds. exo-
® cells, their components or biological process to nucleases. endonucleases and restriction endonu-
generate products and services useful to human cleases. Exaleases remove nucleotides from the ends
beings. of the DNA. whreas endonucleases make cuts at spe-
Modern view cific positions within the DNA.
• Each restriction endonuclease recognises a specific
• Modern biotechnological is the use of genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) or generally engi-
palindromic nucleotide sequences in the DNA.
® neered plant and animal cells in developing pro- • For R1, Bam !!, 1, Hin d III are some of the example of
tection technologies that not only enhance their restriction endonucleases.
productivity but also give rise to new products. Gerl electrophoresis
®• It is a technique to seperate and isolate DNA fragments.
Biotechnology
Cloning vectors
¯ • They are carriers or vehicles of desired DNA fragments
Principles of Chemical ® passenger DNA) which can undergo independent rep-
Biotechnology ® engineering lication to increase copies of desired genes.
¯ • Cleaning vectors are of four type - plasmids, viruses,
cosmids and artificial chromosomes.
Genetic engineering
• Techniques to alter the chemistry of Competent host
genetic material (DNA and RNA), to (For transformation with recombinant DNA)
Tools recombinant
DNA technologies

introduce these into host organisms and • It involves vector transfer and direct or vectorless
thus change the phenotype of the host transfer.
organism. ® ® Vector transfer involves transformation with cloning
•
• The techniques of genetic engineering vectors.
include creation of recombinant DNA • Vectories transfer involves.
(rRNA). (i) Microinjection (ii) Particle gene gun or biolistic
(iii) Electroporation (iv) Direct DNA injections
¯
Processes of rDNA technologies
Cutting of DNA at specific locations
Isolation of genetic material • Restruction enzyme digestions are performed by in-
• To isolate the DNA from the bacterial cells plant or cubating purified DNA molecules with the restriction
animal tissue it is treated with enzymes such as enzyme.
lysozyme (bacteria), cellulase and pectinase (plant • The process is repeated with the vector DNA also.
cells), chitinase (fungus). ® • After having cut the source DNA as well as the
• The treated cells are homogenised and centrifuged. vector DNA with a specific restriction enzyme. The cut
• Hormogenised product is then treated with proteases
our gene of interest from the source DNA and the cut
(for digesting histones and other proteins). ribonu-
cleases (digestion of RNAs). amylases and lipases. vector with space are mixed and ligase is added.
• DNA remains intact. It is precipitated by the addition of ¬ • This results in the preparation of recombinant DNA.
challed ethylalcohol.
Insertion of recombinant DNA into the host
Amplification of gene of interest using PCR cell / organism
• PCR or polymicrase chain reaction is the in vitro
• The rDNA is inserted into host bacterium by trans-
synthesis of multiple copies of a gene or DNA segment.
• Amplified DNA segment can be used to ligate with the ® formation using cold CaCl solution.
vector for formation of rDNA and its cloning. • The bacterial cell containing the desired rDNA is
selected uing selective antibiotics in the culture me-
Otbatining the desirable gene product dium.
• When rDNA is transferred into a bacterial, plant or animal
cell, the foreign DNA gets multiplited. Downstream processing
• The foreign gene gets espressed under appropriate ® • Down stream processing is the recovery of
conditions.
• If any protein encolding gene is expressed in a product from the fully grown genetically modified
heterologous host, it is called a recombinant protein. The cells, its purification and preservation.
cells harbouring cloned genes of interest may be grown on • The procedure and vigour or downstream pro-
a small scale in the laboratory. The cultures may be used
cessing and quality control varies from product to
for extracting the desired protein and then purifying it by
using different separation techniques. product.
• Small scheme culture can not yield appreciate quantities
of products. To produce in large quantities, the
development of bioreactors where large volumes of (100-
1000 litres) of culture can be processed is used.
Applications of Biotechnology Ethical issues
¯ ¯
Biopiracy Biopatent
— It is exploitation of bioresources of a country by — It is an official licence to use a particular
organisations and multinationals for commercial biological material for commercial exploitation
exploitation with or without patent but without any like (i) A strain of microorganism (ii) GM plant
Access and Benefit Sharing Agreement (ABA). animal (iii) DNA sequence (iv)
— Some nations are developing laws to prevent such Biotechnological procedure (v) Production
unauthorised exploitation of their bioresources and process. (vi) Product and (vii) Product
traditional knowledge. application.
— Biopatents are going to give not only
increased economic benefits to holders, but
will also provide a spurt in research.
Biotechnlogical application in agriculture
— Genetically modified crops (GM crops) or Transgenic plants : GM crops contain and express one or
more useful foreign genes or transgenes (e.g. Bt cotton, golden rice, Flaver Savr tomato)
— GM plants have been useful in many ways :
- Growing GM crops can help to reduce the use of chemical pesticides.
- GM crops are more tolerant to abiotic stresses (cold, drought, salt, heat etc.).
® - They have helped to reduce post-harvestlosses.
- Increased efficiency of mineral usage by plants prevents early exhaustion of fertility of soil.
- GM plants enhance nutritional value of food. e.g., vitamin A enriched rice.
- Herbicides (weed killers) do not harm the GM crops.
- Plant biologists are working to create genetically engineered plants having resistance to these deseases.
- GM plants have been used to create alternative resources to industries in the form of starches, fuels
and pharmaceuticals (molecular farming.)

Biotechnological application in medicine

— Recombinant DNA technology is engaged in production of newer and safer therapeutic drugs, called
recombinant drugs. These drugs do not induce immunological reactions as some other drugs obtained
from nonhuman sources (e.g., insulin from animals).
— A large number of human genes encoding pharmaceutically valuable proteins have been cloned and
expressed in microorganisms.
® — Gene theraphy is a collection of methods that allows correction of a gene defect that has been diagnosed
in a child/embryo. Here genes are inserted into a person's cells and tissues to treat a disease.

Production of transgenic animals

— These are animals which have been genetically modified by incorporating foreign and other specific
genes through recombinant DNA technology. A number of animals have been genetically modified,e.g.,
rats, rabbits, pigs, sheep, cows, fish. 95% of them are transgenic mice.
— Some of the important uses of transgenic animals are as follows :
- Transgenic animals enable scientists to study the working of genes, their regulation, effect on
normal body functions and development.
® - Transgenic animals are used to study how genes take part in development of diseases.
- The important bilogical products being harvested by this method are protein a-1 antitrypsin for
treating emphysema, tissue, plasminogen activator (goat), blood clotting factors VIII and IX
(sheep) and loctoferrin (cow).
- Transgenic animals are the best for checking the safety of vaccines before their use in humans.
- Trasgenic animals are used in studying the effect of toxic chemicals.
Biotechnological application in industry
® Mostly microorganisms are used in many industries to produce alcohol, enzymes, vaccines, vitamins,
antibiotics, organic acids etc.
 Climatic
Ecology
- Study of reciprocal relationship between ® - Light
- Temperature
organisms and their environment.
® Abiotic Factors ® - Wind
Organisms - Rain (Precipitation)
- Atmospheric
® - Basic unit of ecological hierarchy.
humidity
- Interaction with physical environment comprised
of atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. Edaphic
- Mineral matter
- Adaptations enable them to survive and
Biotic factors
® - Organic matter
reproduce in their habitats. Bacteria, Algae, Fungi,
® - Soil
- Environmental factors (abiotic and biotic) Parasites,Saprophytes,
influence the form and functioning Symbionts, Animals Topographic
of organisms.
- Altitude
® Density
® - Steepness of slope
Population
® Natality - Direction of slope
Characteristics
of Population

® Organisms of the same kind form population. ®® Mortality

They are capable of interbreeding among ® Emigration
® Dispersal
themselves. ® Age distribution
Community ® Biotic potential ® Immigration
Population of different species occur- ® Growth form
® ring in a habitat. ® J Shaped(Exponential)

Ecosystem ® S-Shaped(Logistic)
® It includes biological community, Species composition
integrated with its physical environment. ® Different kinds of plants and other organisms
present in a community.

Biosphere Dominance
®
Features

® Includes all ecosystems on the earth. - Only one or few species in a community
dominate and influence other species in terms
Mutualism
¬ of numbers and biomass production.
Protocooperation ¬
Positive ¬
Species
Commensalism ¬ ¬ Stratification
interaction ®
Competition ¬ Negative ¬ - Vertical layering of vegetation in which different
-
Predation ¬ layers are occupied by different species.
Parasitism ¬

•
 Concept Map
Abiotic ® Forest ecosystem
• Inorganic materials, soil, Components Ecosystem Types ® Grassland ecosystem
water, air, temperature, light ¬ ®
etc. ® Desert ecosystem

Biotic ® Aquatic (freshwater and marine

• Producers, consumers and ecosystem)
decomposers
¯
¯
Structure
¯ ® Gross primary productivity Function
® Species compositisn ® Net primary productivity
® Stratification Productivity
Primary productivity ¬ • Food production
® Trophic structure ¬
Secondary productivity ¬
Functional Based on
aspects Net Productivity ¬
¯ Decomposition
¯ ¯
• Breakdown of organic matter
Ecological pyramids
Trophic levels (T)
• Occurs by fragmentation of detritus, ¬
• Producers (T1) leaching and catabolism.
• Graphical represen-
tation of the trophic • Herbivores (T2)
structuire • Carnivores (T3)
Nutrient cycling
Sedimentary • Storage and transfer of nutrients
Pyramid of biomass through various components of
• Exists in the earth
®• Upright in terrestrial habitats, crust ¬ ecosystem so that nutrients are ¬
but inverted in aquatic • Examples : Phospho- repeatedly used.
habitats. rous and Sulphur
cycle.

Pyramid of numbers
Gaseous
¬ Energy flow
® • Mostly upright but • It is unidirectional. ¬
inverted in parasitic • Exists in atmosphere
or hydrosphere. • Involves conversion of light energy into
food-chain and
food energy and transfer of enenrgy from
spindle shaped in • Examples :Water
one organism to another.
forest ecosystem. cycle, Nitrogen cycle,
Carbon cycle etc. • Trophic levesl are connected by the trans-
fer of food or energy along the food chain
and food web (network of food chains).
• There is transfer of 10% energy from one
trophic level to another (Raymond
® Pyramid of energy Lindemann).
• Always upright.

•
 Biodiversity and Conservation
Alpha diversity ¬
Diversity in the given
• Biodiversity is defined as the vast array of species of community of habitat.
microorganisms, algae, fungi, plants and animals occuring Beta diversity ¬
on the earth and the ecological complexes of which they Diversity between
are a part. This includes diversity within species, between community
species and of the ecosystem Gamma diversity ¬
It is regional diversity

® Levels of biodiversity
¯
¯ ¯ ¯
Genetic diversity Species diversity Community Ecosystem diversity
It is the diversity in the numbers and It is the diversity in It is related to the differnt type of
types of genes as well as chromosomes the number and ecosystems/habitats eg., terrestrial
present in different species and the richness of species and aquatic ecosystems
variations in the genes and their alleles in of a region
the same species.

® Patterns of Biodiversity ¯
¯ ¯
- Species Latitudinal and altiludinal gradient diversity on earth is not Species area relationships
uniformly distributed but shows interesting patterns. It is a relationship between the
It is generally highest in the tropics and decreases towards the poles. area of habitat or part of a habi-
- Important explanations for the species richness in tropics: Tropics tat and the number of specis
had more evolutionary time; they provide a relatively constant en- within that area
vironment and they receive more solar energy which contributes to
greater productivity.

® Importance of Biodiversity
¯
¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯ ¯
stability sources of sources provide variety provide drugs scientific ecosystem
of food and of fibres of useful products and medicines value services
ecosystem improved such as gums, resins,
varieties dyes, perfumes,
lubricants, rubber,
latex, tea, dryfruits
Loss of Biodiversity
Most serious aspect of ¯
® the loss of biodiversity ¯ ¯
is the extinction species Types of extinction Factors contributing to extinction
® Natural extinction
® Mass extinction ® Habitat loss and fragmentation
® Antropogenic extinction ® Over exploitation
® Alien species invasions
® Disturbance and Degradation
® Pollution
® Coextinctions
® Forestry
® Intensive Agriculture
 ® Red Data Book

® Biodiversity Conservation

B Red Data Book and IUCN

I - IUCN is international union of conservation of nature and natural resources which
O is now called World Conservation Union (WCU).
D - It maintains a Red Data Book or Red List which is a catalogue of taxa facing risk of
I extinction.
V - Red List has eight categories of spieces.
E - These are extinct, extinct in wild, critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable,
R lower risk, data deficient and not evaluated species.
S
I ® Process
T
Y

Ex-Situ In-Situ
Conservation of ® Sacred plants
® ® Hot
Biodiversity Home Gardens Spot
® Seed Banks
®
®

Field gene banks Protected

Reasons Process Areas
• The reasons for conserving ® Cryopreservation
biodiversity are narrow utilitarian,
broadly utilitarian and ethical ® Botanical Gardens
Arboreta

® Zoological Parks

® A quaria
®
®

Sacred forest / Groves, Biosphere National Parks

Sacred Lakes reserves Wild Life
Sanctuaries

•
 Pollution
Environmental Issues ® - It is ‘undersirable change in physical, chemical and biological properties of
air, water and soil, which directly or indirectly affect human beings.’

Air pollution
• Primarily results from burning of fossil in Water pollution
industries and automobiles. • It is deterioration of water quality that makes it unfit
• Effects include reduction in growth and for consumption.
yield of crops and their premature death. • Causes are domestic sewage, industrial discharge,
Affects respiratory system of humans surface run off containing pesticides, detergents,
and of animals. fertilizers, silt etc., oil spills.
• Devices such as setting chamber,
® • Consequences of water pollution are :
cyclonic separators, bag filters, - decreased DO
electrostatic precipitators etc. are used to ¬ - increased BOD
control air pollution. - eutrophication
• Noise is also considered air pollutant. - biomagnification
- thermal pollution
- health hazards
Solid waste management • Water pollution can be controlled sewage treatment.
• Solid waste refers to everything that goes
out in trash. Agrochemicals and their effects (Soil pollution)
• Sources of solid wastes are municipal • Pesticides, fertilizers, chemicals and radioactive
wastes, industrial wastes, mining wastes, ® wastes are the main source.
hazardous wastes, defunct ships and • Control measures include :
electronic wastes.
• Disposal of wastes consists of recovery ® Organic farming
and recycling, source reduction, burning ¬
and dumping (landfills). ® Solid waste disposal
Radioactive pollution
• Pollution of air, water and soil with radio- ® Soil conservation by terrace farming, growing
active materials. grazing fields, afforestation, reforestation
• It is caused by atomic weapons and atomic
explosions, atomic reactors and nuclear
fuel, mining of radioactive materials. Greenhouse effect and global warming
• These waste should be changed into harm- ¬ • Greenhouse effect is a naturally occurring
less form and stored in safe place where phenomenon that is responsible for heating of
they may gradually decay in a harmless Earth’s surfce and atmosphere.
manner. • Increased level of greenhouse gases (N2O, CFCs,
® methane, CO2) has led to considerable heating of
Ozone layer depletion earth leading to global warming. This is resulting in
• Ozone layer (layer which protects life odd climatic changes, melting of ice caps etc.
on earth from harmful effects of UV • Control measures include cutting down use of fossil
radiations) is being depleted by ozone fuels, improving efficiency of energy usage, reducing
depleting substances (ODS), such as deforestation, planting trees and slowing down the
chlorofluorocarbons, nitrogen oxides, growth of human population.
hydrocarbons etc.
• Ozone depletion of thinned ozone layer
(ozone hole) is particularly marked Deforestation
over Antarctic region. ¬ • It is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested
• It causes aging of skin, damage to skin ones.
cells and various types of cancer, snow • It results in enhanced CO2 concentration, loss of
blindness, cataract etc. ® biodiversity, disturbed hydrological cycle, soil erosion,
and desertification.

•
4

Increased respiration