COCKROACH (Periplaneta americana)

Original home : Tropical Africa (not America). Linnaeus called it Blatta americana
Class : Insecta Order : Orthoptera
Sub-class : Pterygota Genus : Periplaneta
Division : Exopterygota Species : americana
Salient Features
Cockroaches are world-wide in distribution and found in such places where darkness, warmth, dampness
and plenty of organic debris is available. They are nocturnal and omnivorous, cursorial – fast runner.
Three species of cockroaches are commonly found in India. These are :
P. americana : largest and most common. Commonly called as American cockroach, Bombay canary or Ship
cockroach. In both the sexes, there are wings which are larger than the body.
B. orientalis (Oriental cockroach or Black beetle) : black or dark brown medium-sized species. The female
has rudimentary wings which are not helpful in flight. Male has wings which are short and are not upto the
end of the body.
B. germanica (German cockroach or steamfly) : Smallest of the domestic species of the cockroaches, pale
yellow-brown in colour.
P. australasiae — Australian cockroach.
External Features
Body is narrow, elongated, bilaterally symmetrical and flattened, measuring about 3-4½ cm in length and
l½ to 2 cm in breadth.
Co1our is reddish brown with a paler yellow area around the edge of pronotum and two dark patches over
it.

Fig. Male cockroach (dorsal view); Fig. Female cockroach (ventral view)
Left wings raised
Exoskeleton
The entire body of the cockroach is covered with a thick, hard, chitinous cuticle, which is secreted by
epidermis, forming the exoskeleton.
The exoskeleton of each segment consists of four plate-like pieces called sclerites. Dorsal sclerite is called
tergum or tergite, ventral is called sternum or sternite and two lateral are called pleura or pleurites.
The sclerites of each segment are joined with each other and with those of the adjacent segments by
means of soft and flexible articular or arthrodial membranes. This gives the
sclerites, some freedom of movement upon each other at their edges.
The stiff, immovable bristles or spines covering the body and its appendages are in fact the outgrowths of
the cuticle, the movable hair-like setae occurring at some places are however
secreted by special trichogen cells of the hypodermis lying below the cuticle.
Segmentation
Embryologically, the body of cockroach is formed of 20 segments - 6 in head, 3 in thorax and 11 in
abdomen.
Due to complete or incomplete fusion between some segments during development, the number of
distinct segments are reduced in the adult.
All segments of the head are fused. Thorax consists of 3 segments. Only 10 segments are retained in the
abdomen of the adult. Of these, only the first seven are distinct in females and first
nine in males. The remaining hinder abdominal segments become small and modified into external
genitalia that are hidden under the last distinct segment.
Regionation
When wings are removed, the three regions — head, thorax and abdomen become distinctly visible. A
small, soft and mobile neck or cervicum connects the head with thorax.
Head
Small, triangular and its narrow end is bent downwards in hypognathous position i.e. at an angle of 90°
from the long axis of the body.

Fig. Head of cockroach (front i.e., dorsal view) Fig. Head of cockroach (hind, i.e., ventral view)
On each lateral side, it bears a large and blackish compound eye.
At the base of each antenna, on inner side, a small rounded and light coloured area called fenestra or
ocellar spot representing simple eye is present. Endoskeleton of head is called tentorium.
All sclerites of the head are fused, forming a strong head capsule, exhibiting only faint lines of fusion.
Thorax
Comprises of three segments — prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax.
The three thoracic segments are covered by relatively thicker and larger tergites called nota.
The notum of prothorax called pronotum is very large and covers the neck also. Each of the mesonotum
and metanotum bears a pair of wings.
Abdomen
Largest and the broadest, relatively more flattened and softer part behind the thorax.
There are ten tergites. In both males and females, the 8th and 9th tergites are mostly covered by the 7th.
The 10th is somewhat bowl-shaped and posteriorly bifurcated into two lobes.
Ventrally the abdomen has 9 sternites in male and 7 in females.
In females, the last sternite (7th) is larger and boat-shaped and together with indistinct 8th and 9th
sternites it forms a chamber-like structure called gynatrium, posterior part of this
chamber is called oothecal chamber. Behind this chamber 7th sternite bifurcates into two prominent oval
plates called apical lobes. Female gonopore is located between them.
In males, the 9th sternite bears a pair of spine-like anal-styles.
In both male and female cockroaches, several small chitinous appendages are located around the
gonopore. These help in reproduction and hence called gynapophyses.
At several places, certain processes of exoskeleton extend into the body and form endoskeletal elements
which provide attachment to muscles and hence called apodemes.
Appendages
Cephalic appendages : The four pair of head appendages include antennae, mandibles, first maxillae and
second maxillae.
Antennae : These are a pair of long, thread-like appendages, extending forward from an antennal socket
located dorsally upon head capsule near the eye. These are very mobile and act as tactile, thermal and
olfactory receptor organs. Each is formed of several small segments called podomeres. The first basal
podomere, called scape, is largest. The second called pedicel, is narrow and elongated. The remaining long,
slender and many-jointed part of each antenna is called flagellum.
Fig. : Mouthparts of cockroach
The remaining three pairs of cephalic appendages are small and located around the mouth. Hence
together with labrum of head capsule and hypopharynx, these appendages comprise the mouth parts of
the cockroach. These help in ‘biting and chewing’ its food.
Labrum : The broad, flattened terminal sclerite of the dorsal side of head capsule, movably articulated to
the clypeus acts as upper lip.
Mandibles : Thick, hard and triangular appendages beneath the labrum, one on each lateral side of the
mouth, bearing pointed, teeth-like processes called denticles.
First maxillae : Located on each side of the mouth next to mandibles. These serve to hold food particles in
between the mandibles for cutting and chewing and also bear olfactory receptors.
Labium: The second maxillae are fused together forming a single large structure which covers the mouth
from ventral side, hence called the ‘lower lip’ or labium. It bears tactile and gustatory sensory setae.
Hypopharynx : A small, cylindrical mouth part, sandwitched between first maxillae and covered by labrum
and labium on dorsal and ventral sides respectively. It bears several sensory setae on its free end, and the
opening of common salivary duct upon its basal part.
Fig. A leg of cockroach and its pretarsus
Thoracic appendages
Each thoracic segment laterally bears a pair of long locomotory legs articulated to its pleurites.
All legs are structurally similar. Each is formed of 5 main podomeres. These podomeres are —
(i) A long and broad coxa movably articulated to the pleurite of its side.
(ii) A small trochanter movably articulated to coxa.
(iii) A long and cylindrical movable femur.
(iv) A tibia which is longer but thinner than femur.
(v) A long and thin tarsus which is itself formed of 5 segments called tarsomeres.
The apical tarsomere bears a terminal structure called pretarsus, which includes a hook-like claw on each
side of a median broad and setae bearing adhesive pad called arolium. A similar but smaller adhesive pad,
called plantula, is located at each joint of tarsus. All pads help the cockroach in climbing up smooth walls,
doors and other surfaces. Minute spine-like setae are scattered upon the surface of each leg.
Wings
Thorax also bears two pairs of wings which dorsally cover the entire abdomen.
The wings of first and second pairs are respectively articulated to the tergites of mesothorax and
metathorax.
Wings of the first pair are narrow, thick, hard and leathery and those of the second pair are broad, thin,
soft and membranous.
During rest, the hind wings remain folded and completely concealed under forewings. Forewings are called
wing covers or elytra, or tegmina
Structurally, the wings are thin folds of skin itself. The skin epidermis later disappears leaving a double
layer of cuticle alone.
A network of slender and branched tubules, called veins or nervures is spreaded between the two layers of
cuticle. These tubules communicate with haemocoel. Hence, haemocoelomic
fluid circulates in these tubules. An air tube or trachea and a fine nerve are also present in each nervure.
Abdominal appendages
Abdominal segments lack locomotory appendages. There are certain small structures associated with
gonopore, which are different in male and female cockroaches.

Fig. Hind part of Abdomen (dorsal view)

The 10th tergite posteriorly bears a pair of many jointed anal cerci. They bear minute sensory hair sensitive
to sound and other vibrations.
The 9th sternite of males bear, in addition, a pair of small and spine-like, unjointed anal styles.
Body Cavity
Cockroach has a wide fluid-filled body cavity in which viscera are contained. This cavity is not true coelom
because it is not surrounded by a peritoneal lining. It is a cavity secondarily
formed by merging of large sinuses of tissue fluid. It contains blood and hence called haemocoel cavity.
True coelom is represented only in the cavities of gonads.
Locomotion
In cockroaches, the muscles associated with legs are much more developed than those associated with the
wings. Therefore, they are good runners but poor fliers.
Digestive System
Alimentary canal of cockroach consists of three regions:
(1) Stomodaeum or fore-gut
(2) Mesenteron or mid-gut
(3) Proctodaeum or hind-gut
The fore-gut and hind-gut are long and lined by a thin, chitinous cuticle, which is continued with the outer
surface of the body. The mid-gut is endodermal in origin and it is short and narrow.
Fore-gut or Stomodaeum
It consists of :
Buccal Cavity : Mouth is an elongated opening below the head which opens into a buccal cavity or pre-oral
chamber, which is bounded by various mouth parts.
Oesophagus/gullet : Small, thin which enters in thorax and opens in crop.
Crop: Broadest part of alimentary canal, it occupies all thorax and some part of abdomen. It serves the
purpose of storing food material.

Fig. Alimentary Canal of Cockroach

Gizzard : Crop is followed by a small, thick-walled, muscular and conical gizzard or ventriculus, whose
continuous inner wall is raised into six hard, chitinous teeth. These teeth serve as an efficient grinding
apparatus. Narrow part of gizzard with cuticular teeth is called armarium. Behind the teeth are six
elevations or pads covered with bristles or setae, which serve as strainers and allow particles of food to
pass into the mid-gut. Gizzard projects backwards into the cavity of mid-gut or mesenteron in the form of a
funnel.
Mid-gut/Mesenteron :
A short narrow tube lined by glandular epithelium and is the only region of alimentary canal, which can
absorb the digested food material.
In the anterior end of the mid-gut open seven or eight short, finger like, hollow, blind tubes called the
hepatic caecae, which secrete a digestive fluid.
Hind-gut/Proctodaeum : It is long, coiled part of the
alimentary canal and consists of
 Ileum : Short and relatively narrower. Its wall is thin and internally folded. Its cuticle bears minute
spines which serve to break the peritrophic membrane.
 Colon : It is the longest, relatively thicker and coiled part of hind-gut. Its wall is also folded but the
cuticular lining has no spines.
 Rectum : It is small and oval chamber that opens out by anus. Its wall is internally raised into six
longitudinal folds called rectal papillae.
Digestive Glands
Salivary glands : One pair of bilobed, whitish and translucent salivary glands are present around
oesophagus and crop. Each gland consists of a glandular part and reservoir. Salivary glands secrete saliva
containing mucin, amylase, cellulose and chitinase.
Hepatic Caecae : At the junction of gizzard and mid-gut eight, tubular, finger-like hepatic caecae are
present which project freely into haemocoel. They secrete many digestive enzymes — lipase, protease,
peptidase, amylase, maltase, lactase, invertase, chitinase.
Circulatory System
Blood-vascular system is open and lacunar type. Body cavity contains blood, which bathes viscera in it
therefore known as haemocoel. Blood-vascular system consists of a tubular heart, a blood vessel called
anterior aorta and a system of ill- defined blood spaces or sinuses.

Fig. Blood vascular system of Cockroach (diagrammatic)

Heart
 A long elongated tube situated in the mid-dorsal line of thorax and the abdomen immediatly
beneath the terga.
 Heart consists of thirteen chambers. The last two posterior chambers are very small. The chambers
are separated from one another by deep constrictions.
 The opening of each chamber into another is guarded with valves which allow blood from behind
forward.
The Blood Sinuses
 The large body cavity or haemocoel is divided by two membranous horizontal partitions, into three
wide and flattened sinuses. The dorsal pericardial sinus containing the heart.
 The middle perivisceral sinus containing the gut, ventral perineural sinus or sternal sinus containing
the nerve cord.
 The partition between pericardial and perivisceral sinuses is called dorsal diaphragm and between
perivisceral and perineural sinuses is called ventral diaphragm.
 The sinuses intercommunicate by pores in the respective diaphragms.
Fig. Alary muscles in Cockroach
 A pair of fan-like, triangular alary muscles in the floor of the pericardial sinus in each segment
reinforce the dorsal diaphragm by their broad bases and also connect it, by their pointed tips with
the tergite of the segment.
Circulation of Haemolymph
The pumping force that propels the haemolymph is provided by the pulsations of the ‘heart’. The
respiratory movements of abdomen and contraction of alary muscles increase this force.
(a) From the pericardial sinus, the haemolymph enters into heart through ostia. When the heart is filled it
contracts from behind forwards. This is its systole phase. Soon the heart becomes
normal in its diastole phase. Then the next systole follows after a short interval called diastasis. Thus, heart
pulsates about 50 times/minute.
(b) During systole, the valve-like ostia close, prevent back-flow of haemolymph into the pericardial sinus.
Therefore, some of its haemolymph is pumped into segmental vessels, while
most of it is poured into the head sinus through the terminally opening anterior aorta.
(c) From the head sinus, the haemolymph flows backwards into the thorax and abdomen. While flowing
backwards from head sinus, the haemolymph remains in the ventral part due to
presence of oesophagus in dorsal part and so it fills into the perineural sinus.
(d) From the perineural sinus, the haemolymph, now flows into the perivisceral sinus through the pores of
ventral diaphragm in abdominal region.
(e) Then from perivisceral sinus, it flows into pericardial sinus through the pores of dorsal diaphragm. Then,
during heart’s diastole, it fills in the heart through the ostia.
Blood or Haemolymph
Blood or haemolymph has a clear plasma and numerous corpuscles called haemocytes. Being devoid of any
respiratory pigment, it does not serve for gaseous exchange. Its plasma contains about 70% water, rest of
it is composed of amino acids, uric acid, proteins, sugars, fats and salts of Na, K, Ca and Mg. Transportation
of these materials between different parts of the body is the main function of haemolymph.
Fat Body
A large and white, diffused fat body, divided into numerous flattened and solid lobules, fills most of the
perivisceral sinuses around the gut. It is bounded by a fine membranous covering of connective tissue.
Each lobule contains several types of cells — trophocytes, mycetocytes, oenocytes and urate cells
performing various functions. The fat body of cockroach is functionally analogous to the liver of
vertebrates.
Respiratory System
 Blood does not take part in respiration as it does not contain any respiratory pigment, so every
tissue of body is in direct communication with air for gaseous exchange.
 A complicated system of numerous, shiny, transparent and branched air tubes or tracheae are
found for gaseous exchange in the haemocoel cavity. There are 6 longitudinal tracheal tubes - 2
dorsal, 2 ventral and 2 lateral which are interconnected by transverse commissures. Chitinous rings
prevent collapse of trachea.
 Atmospheric air enters into and escapes out from this system through ten pairs of slit-like apertures
called stigmata or spiracles located on lateral sides of the body. Two pairs of these are thoracic and
eight pairs are abdominal.

Fig. The main part of Tracheal System in Cockroach

 Thoracic spiracles are somewhat larger. One pair of these in between prothorax and mesothorax
and the other between mesothorax and metathorax upon respective pleurities.
  The first pair of abdominal spiracles are dorso-lateral upon tergite of first abdominal segment, but
the remaining seven pairs are upon the pleurities of second to eighth segments.
 Each spiracle is surrounded by a ring-like sclerite called peritreme.
Mechanism of respiration
Several tergo-sternal muscles extend vertically between the tergites and sternites of all abdominal
segments. Harmonious contractions and relaxations of these at regular intervals cause rhythmic expansion
and compression of entire abdomen leading to inspiration and expiration of air.
Excretory System
Cockroach is uricotelic. In cockroach following structures help in excretion:
(i) Malpighian tubules : Malpighian tubules are attached at the junction of mid-gut and hind-gut. Excretory
products, dissolved in haemolymph and absorbed by malpighian tubules and
discharged into hindgut.
(ii) Fat bodies: Some fat bodies are also present in haemocoel, which have mycetocytes, urate cells,
oenocytes and trophocytes.
(iii) Nephrocytes : Nephrocytes present in lateral wall of heart help in excretion and store nitrogenous
waste.
(iv) Uricose glands: In some species, in males uricose glands are present on periphery of mushroom glands.
These glands synthesize uric acid. Malpighian tubules are analogous to
mammalian kidney. Fat bodies are analogous to vertebrate liver.
Nervous System
It consists of:
(i) Central Nervous System : Consists of brain or supra-oesophageal ganglion. Brain gives off a pair of short,
stout cords, the circumoesophageal connectives, that encircle the oesophagus and pass downwards and
backwards over the sub-oesophageal ganglion situated below oesophagus.
From the sub-oesophageal ganglion, a double ventral nerve cord passes backwards into the thorax which
bears three ganglia in the thorax and six in the abdomen.
Fig. Nervous System of Cockroach
(ii) Peripheral Nervous System : Consists of nerves, which are given off from the ganglia so as to innervate
all parts of the body.
(iii) Sympathetic or Stomato-gastric Visceral Nervous System: Consists of a frontal ganglion, which is
situated on the dorsal side of the oesophagus in the head. From this ganglion, a median unpaired recurrent
nerve reaches the visceral ganglion situated on the crop. Various nerve branches are given off from the
visceral ganglion. The frontal ganglion is joined with the central nervous system by nerves, which connect
the circumoesophageal commissures.
Sense Organs
Receptor cells present on general body surface are:
Proprioreceptors : They are for hearing or receiving sound vibrations. Auditory receptors are present on
antenna and anal cerci.
Thigmoreceptors : They are receptors for touch. Thigmoreceptors are present on body, antenna, maxillary
palps and legs.
Olfactory receptors : They receive various smells. Olfactory receptors are present on antenna and palps.
Gustatory receptors : They are for sense of taste. Gustatory receptors are present on maxilla and labial
palps. In cockroach vision is mosaic and apposition image is formed (although cockroach is nocturnal), if
pigmented iris sheath is removed from the compound eye of insects, only superposition image will be
formed.
Compound eyes
Each eye consists of about 2000 hexagonal facets or ommatidia, which are covered externally with
transparent cuticle called the cornea. A single ommatidium consists of
(i) Corneal lines or facets formed by the transparent cuticle.
(ii) A pair of corneagen cells which form the corneal lens.
(iii) A refractive crystalline cone enclosed by four elongated conical cells, called cone cells or vitrellae.
(iv) Distal pigment cells around the cone.
(v) Retinula consisting of eight cells, forming a rhabdome.
(vi) Basal pigment cells around the retinula.
(vii) The basement membrane.

Fig. V.S. of a Compound Eye of Cockroach Fig. A: V.S. of anommatidium; B: T.S. of its region of cone cells;
T.S. of its region of retinular cells
Endocrine System
Some glands and ganglia secrete hormones. Endocrine system consists of:
1. Corpora cardiaca : A pair of glands situated near brain. Corpora cardiaca secretes a hormone that
regulates heart pulsation.
2. Prothoracic gland : Single gland located in prothorax. Prothoracic glands secrete moulting hormone or
ecdysone.
3. Carpora allata : A pair of glands, situated close to brain. Corpora allata secrete juvenile hormone which
controls metabolism and tissue growth.
4. A gland closely associated with brain secretes brain hormone or prothoracicotropic hormone (PITCH).
This hormone performs two functions. They are:
(i) Stimulation of metabolism of prothoracic gland.
(ii) Secretion of ecdysone from prothoracic gland.
Reproductive System
Sexes are separate and cockroach shows sexual dimorphism.
Male Reproductive System
Male reproductive organs are testes, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, mushroom gland, phallic gland and
gonapophyses.

Fig. Reproductive Organs of Male Cockroach

1. Testes : These are elongated massive structures, extending longitudinally, one on each side of the
abdomen from 3rd or 4th to 8th abdominal segments. Each testis consists of 3-4 interconnected
lobes.
2. Vasa deferentia : From each testis a short delicate duct extends almost up to the hind end of the
body. Here, both vasa deferentia bend forward and medianwards and join together to open into an
ejaculatory duct in the mid-line of 8th segment itself.
3. Ejaculatory duct : This is an elongated, pear-shaped and contractile duct which extends back from
the junction of vasa deferentia upto hind end of the body and opens out by male gonopore located
ventrally to the anus.
4. Mushroom-shaped or utricular gland : This is a large and whitish accessory gland, located at the
junction of vasa deferentia and ejaculatory duct. It is formed of three small sac-like
Tubules:
(a) Long tubules or Utriculi majores forming the peripheral part of gland.
(b) Small tubules or Utriculi breviores forming the antero-median part of the gland.
(c) Small, bulb-like seminal vesicles forming the postero-median part of the gland. The sperms remain
stored in seminal vesicles.
(v) Phallic or conglobate gland : This is a long, flattened and club-shaped sac-like accessory gland, located
ventrally beneath the utricular gland. Its posterior, narrow tube-like part opens
out by a separate pore located close to the genital pore at hind end of body.
(vi) External genitalia or male gonapophyses : Three asymmetrical, chitinous structures called male
gonapophyses or phallomeres, surround the male gonopore. These are external genitalia of male.
Physiology of male organs
(a) Sperms start forming in the testes of a young cockroach. By the time it is fully grown, sperm formation
in it slows down and testes become comparatively smaller.
(b) Mature sperms are conducted by vasa deferentia into the seminal vesicles for storage. All sperms are
glued together into a large mass called spermatophore.
(c) During its discharge from a seminal vesicle into the ejaculatory duct, the spematophore becomes
invested by a covering formed by milky secretion of long tubules of utricular gland.
This covering gives a pouch- like shape to the spermatophore with a small aperture on one side.
(d) The secretion of small tubules of utricular gland fills into the spermatophore through this aperture and
nourishes the sperms.
(e) As the spermatophore reaches at about middle of the ejaculatory duct, it becomes invested by second
covering.
(f) Finally, as copulation concludes, and a spermatophore is discharged, it becomes invested by a third
covering formed by the secretion of phallic gland poured over it.
Female Reproductive System
It includes a pair of ovaries and oviducts, a vagina, a genital pouch, a pair of collaterial glands, a pair of
spermathecae and the external genitalia.
1. Ovaries : Like testes, these are elongated organs laterally extending, one on each side of abdomen, from
its second to seventh segments. Each ovary is a loose group of eight long, thin and light yellow ovarian
tubles or ovarioles having a flexible wall.
2. Oviducts : The pedicels of all the eight ovarioles of an ovary posteriorly join together, forming a small,
thick and muscular oviduct.
3. Vagina : Two oviducts also join together medially in the seventh segment, forming a thicker and median
common oviduct or vagina. The latter opens behind into a large genital pouch by a slit-like female
gonopore located upon 8th sternite which is telescoped beneath the 7th sternite.
4. Genital pouch or gynatrium : Becoming broad and boat-shaped, the 7th sternite forms the floor of a
large genital pouch. The 8th and 9th sternites become telescoped inwards to form the roof and sides of its
pouch. The pouch itself is divisible into a genital chamber in front and oothecal chamber behind. The
vagina and ducts of accessory reproductive glands open into the genital chamber. Oothecae are formed in
the oothecal chamber. The posterior part of 7th sternite is divided into two large and oval gynovalvular
plates or apical lobes.
Fig. : Reproductive organs of female cockroach
5. Collaterial glands : These are a pair of white and highly branched accessory reproductive glands located
dorsally to the genital pouch. The left gland is larger and more opaque than the right one. The secretions of
the two glands also differ. Their ducts, however, join together distally and open into the genital chamber
by a common pore.
6. Spermathecae : These are a pair of small structures located close to the collaterial glands. Left
spermatheca is a relatively larger pyriform sac, while the right one is like a short, narrow duct. The ducts of
both spermathecae distally join together and open into the genital chamber by a common pore located
upon a spermathecal papilla.
7. External genitalia or gonapophyses : Three pairs of chitinous processes, hanging from the roof of
oothecal chamber into its cavity, are the external genitalia of female cockroach. These are called ovipositor
processes, because these serve to arrange the ova in a newly formed ootheca, and possibly help in giving
proper shape to the ootheca.
Life Cycle
Life cycle of cockroach is simple.
Copulation : Female secretes yellow coloured pheromones for attracting males. During copulation
spermatophore of male is attached with spermatheca of female.
Fertilization : Fertilization takes place in female genital chamber. From 16 ovarioles, 16 ova are released,
which are arranged in ootheca after fertilization.
Formation of ootheca : Secretion of collaterial glands form ootheca. Wall of ootheca is formed of
scleroproteins.
Developement : Eggs are polylecithal, centrolecithal and cleidoic. Cleavage begins in ootheca. Cleavage is
meroblastic and superficial. Within ootheca, 16 nymphs develop in 5 to 12weeks. Ootheca ruptures and
nymphs are liberated.
Metamorphosis: In cockroach metamorphosis is paurometabolous or gradual metamorphosis.
Metamorphosis is completed in about 2 years.
Ecdysone stimulates moulting or ecdysis. Juvenile hormone secreted from corpora allata regulates rate of
growth and tissue differentiation. Moulting in nymph occurs 8 to 10 times.