MEPC23 - ENERGY CONVERSION

SYSTEMS
Module 2- Direct Conversion of Thermal to Electrical Energy
• MHD

• Thermoelectric Generator

• Thermoelectric refrigerator

• Thermionic converters

• Ferro electric converter

• Nernst Effect Generator

• Thermo Magnetic Converter.

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 Module 2
Direct Conversion of
Thermal to Electrical Energy
Energy Conversion Processes
• A large array of energy conversion processes occur
in nature
• Man is capable of performing a number of addition
processes using a variety of devices (or processes)
• Usually more than one form of energy will emerge
due to the action of a device
• Many devices perform a number of conversion
processes: e.g. : power plant
Chemical Heat Mechanical Electrical

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Limitations of Conventional Power
Generation Techniques
• Most of the conventional power generation systems are based on
thermodynamic cycles subjected to theoretical and physical limitations as
well as the cost.
• The power supply at the same time is not fully reliable, mainly since it is
plant-centered and connected to demand sites by transmission lines.
• Limitations are
• Carnot Limitation
• Metallurgical Limitation
• Mechanical Links and Plant Reliability
• Ecological Balance
• Plant Costs
• Transmission and Distribution System

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Direct Energy Conversion
• Transformation of one type of energy (such as sunlight, heat,
chemical, etc) to another (such as electricity) without passing
through an intermediate stage (such as steam to spin generator
turbines).
• Advantages
• No conversion of energy into mechanical and to electricity.
• Less losses in conversion process.
• More efficient process
• Cost also reduced

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Types of Direct Energy Conversion
• Types
• Thermo electric power generation
• Thermo ionic power generation
• Magneto hydro dynamic systems
• Photovoltaic power systems
• Fuel cells
• Thermo nuclear fusion power generation

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Magneto hydro Dynamic(MHD)
Generator
• MHD power generation uses the interaction of an
electrically conducting fluid with a magnetic field
to convert part of the energy of the fluid directly
into electricity

• Converts thermal or kinetic energy into electricity

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Lorentz force law
• The Lorentz force law is the basis for the Magnetohydrodynamic generator

• The Lorentz force law states that the charged particle experience a force
when is moving in the electromagnetic field. This force can be explained as

𝑭 = 𝑸 (𝑽 × 𝑩)
Where, F is the force acting on charged particle.
Q is the charge of the particle
V is the velocity of particle
B is the magnetic induction

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Faraday's law
• When a charged particle moving in a magnetic field, it
experience the retarding force as well as produce
voltage. This is the basis of Faraday’s law.

S
Hot gaseous
conductor V Output current

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The meaning of Magneto Hydro Dynamics

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Principle
• The principle of Magnetohydrodynamic generator is
based on Lorenz law and faraday's law.
• In this system, the hot ionized gaseous conductor
(working fluid) is passed into the high magnetic field
and thereby the current is produced.
• By placing suitable electrodes (Anode and cathode)
inside the chamber, the output load is taken through
the external circuit.

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Contd.,

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Construction
• MHD generator consist of a Combustion chamber and generator chamber.
• The fluid conductor is passed into the combustion chamber where they are
ionized at very high temperature.
• There is a nozzle through which the ionized gas pass into the generator
chamber.
• The generator chamber consist of powerful magnet and a number of
oppositely located electrode pair is inserted in the channel to conduct the
electrical current generated to an external load.
• Both combustion chamber and generator chamber are surrounded by a heat
resistance material and water cooler

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Contd.,
Thermal resistance sealing
Water cooler
Magnet

S
combustion
Working Electrode
fluid Load
Chamber
Ionized Gas V output
Inlet
N
Stream
out

Nozzle
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Working
•The gaseous (fluid) conductor is passed into the combustion
chamber through inlet.
•By using a fuel like oil (or) natural gas (or) coal, the fluid conductor
is heated to a plasma state and hence it is ionized.
•The temperature in the combustion chamber is around 2000°C to
2400°C.
•The heat generated in the combustion chamber removes the
outermost electrons in the fluid conductor.
•Therefore, the gas particle acquires the charge.
•The charged gas particles with high velocity enters into the
generator chamber via nozzle.

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Contd.,
• The expansion nozzle reduces the gas pressure and
consequently increases the plasma speed (Bernoulli's Law)
through the generator duct to increase the power output .
• Unfortunately, at the same time, the pressure drop causes the
plasma temperature to fall (Gay-Lussac's Law) which also
increases the plasma resistance, so a compromise between
Bernoulli and Gay-Lussac must be found.
• The exhaust heat from the working fluid is used to drive a
compressor to increase the fuel combustion rate but much of the
heat will be wasted unless it can be used in another process.

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Contd.,

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•The positive and negative charge moves to corresponding electrodes
(anode and Cathode) and constitute the current.

•In generator chamber, based principles of Faraday’s law, the high

velocity ionized conducting gas particles experience the magnetic
filed at right angles to their motion of direction and hence the
potential (current) is produced.

•The direction of current (Potential) is perpendicular to both the

direction of moving gas particle and to the magnetic field.

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•The diagram shows the Potential (E)

direction of charged particle,

magnetic field and the
current produced
•All three field are 90°
Ionized gas (Q)
perpendicular to each other
90°

Magnetic field (B)

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•The electrodes are connected to an external circuit to get a
load output.
•The current produced in the MHD generator are direct
current (DC)
•This DC current can be converted into alternative current
(AC) using an inverter attached with the external circuit.
•In MHD generator, the seeding materials such as potassium
and cesium are used to reduce the ionization temperature.
•These seeds are mixed with fuel material such as natural gas
and coal.

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• The electrode are made generally using high
temperature ceramic materials such as carbides (SiC,
ZrC), bromides (ZrB2, TiB2, LaB2) and silicide's.

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Thermodynamic Performance Analysis

T-S diagram of MHD cycle

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The total current,
𝑰 = 𝝈 (𝑬 + 𝑼 × 𝑩)
where, σ = Gas electrical conductivity [mhos/(m)]
E = Applied electrical field [V]
U = Gas velocity [m/s]
B = Magnetic flux density [W/m2]
The work output = WMHD - WComp
Heat input = Q1

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Contd.,

The following factors can adversely affect the thermal efficiency:

1. Dissipation of energy in the internal resistance of ionized gas.
2. Heat loss through the electrode and insulator walls.
3. Losses associated with fluid friction.
4. Hall-effect losses due to current induction in the direction of flow of gas.

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Various MHD Systems
• The MHD systems are broadly classified into two types.

• OPEN CYCLE SYSTEM

• CLOSED CYCLE SYSTEM
• Seeded inert gas system
• Liquid metal system

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Open Cycle System

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Contd.,

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Closed Cycle System(Seeded Inert Gas System)

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Contd.,
• Combustor and heater: The carrier gas
(argon or helium) is heated by the
combustion of fuel gas to 1900°C and
seeded by cesium injection.
• MHD generator: The seeded hot
working fluid is passed through the
MHD generator at high speed. The D.C.
power from MHD generator is
converted to A.C. power by the
inverter. The working fluid is slowed
down in the diffuser and precooled.
• Compressor: The precooled gas is
compressed for heating.

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Closed Cycle System(Liquid Metal System)
• The carrier gas (argon or
helium) is pressurized and
heated in a heat exchange
within the combustion
chamber. The hot gas is
incorporated into the liquid
metal (hot sodium) to form
the working fluid.

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Contd.,
• MHD generator: The working fluid consisting of gas bubbles
uniformly dispersed in an equal volume of liquid sodium is
passed through an MHD generator with high directed velocity.
• Breeder reactor: The exhaust from an MHD duct is passed
through a condenser where potassium liquid is formed and
pumped to a breeder reactor. The liquid potassium is heated in
vapor form and accelerated through a nozzle.
• Separator: The vapors are separated, condensed, and pumped
to a breeder reactor.

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Hybridization Of MHD Power Generator

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Efficiency
• MHD generator alone: 10-20%
• Steam plant alone: ≈ 40%
• MHD generator coupled with a steam plant: up to
60%

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Advantages
[Link] on and off time is about second.
[Link] are no moving parts, it is very reliable to use.
[Link] MHD generator has high thermal efficiency
[Link] is a direct conversion device.
[Link] have a better fuel utilization
[Link] can produce large amount of power
[Link] size of the plant is small
[Link] has been estimated that the overall operational costs in a plant would be
about 20% less than conventional steam plants

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Disadvantages
[Link] need high pure superconductor.
[Link] temperature is very high as about 2000°C to
2400°C.
[Link] loss of power is very high
[Link] components get high corrosion due to high
working temperature.

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Application
•The MHD generators are used to power submarines and
aircrafts.

•Electrical power production for domestic applications

•They are used in a pulsed detonation rocket engine

(PDRE) for space application

•They can be used as power plants in industry.

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Electrical Analysis
When a current I flows across load
resistance RL with voltage V across the
load, the electrical intensity across the
electrode plates will be,

Electrical circuit of an MHD generator

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Contd.,

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Example Problem
Calculate the open circuit voltage and maximum power output for the following MHD
generator: Plate area = 0.25 m2 ; Distance between plates = 0.50 m ;Magnetic flux density = 2
Wb/m2 ; Average gas velocity = 103 m/s ; Gas electrical conductivity = 10 mhos/m.
Solution

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MHD Generator Efficiency
• The current generated in a Faraday generator at the maximum
power output,

where U = Flow velocity [m/s]

B = Magnetic flux density [Wb/m]
A = Electrode surface area (m2)
ρ = Specific resistance of ionized gas (Ω m)
The voltage at maximum power output of above generator,

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• where d = Distance between the electrodes (m)
• The maximum power output,

Wmax = Vmax . Imax [W]

• The efficiency of energy conversion of MHD generator is defined as the ratio of useful electrical power
output and the power required to transport the plasma through the MHD duct.

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The efficiency of MHD generator can also be expressed as,

where RL = External load (Ω)

Rg = Internal resistance of ionized gas (Ω).
L is the length of the duct and
Maximum efficiency of 0.5 can be achieved with
optimum design.
h is the height of duct
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Example Problem
• For an MHD Faraday generator, the specific resistance is 0.08
Ωm and magnetic field density is 3.8 Wb/m2. The electrode area
is 1.2 m2, plasma velocity is 950 m/s and the distance between
the electrodes is 0.9 m. Determine the net power output and
conversion efficiency.

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Solution

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