Module 2: Computer Hardware Architecture

Unit 1: Von Neumann Computer Architecture

Content
1.0 Introduction
In the last Module, you learned about computer functions and the types of
computers. In this module, we shall study the architectural design, layout,
nature, and structure of a computer system. In 1945, the well-known and
most acceptable standard architecture for all digital computer systems was
designed and published by John Von Neumann, a Hungarian mathematician
who doubled as a physicist. This man was thus, the architecture is tagged
Von Neumann architecture.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the marketecture of computer systems
 Peruse the detailed component of the computer system

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Von Neumann Computer Architecture

Von Neumann's architecture described the digital-based computer hardware as
a system comprising the following major parts
 System Unit
 System board
 Central Processing unit
 Ports
 Input Devices
 Output Devices
 Memory
 Secondary storage
 Communication devices

The functionality of these parts mentioned above is a similitude to the joint

operation of the human body. Our brain is the central processing unit, and our
legs and hands are the input/output devices. Can you guess what the memory
devices may refer to?
Figure 12 shows the pictorial description of the Von Neumann architecture that
serves as the basis for all digital computer systems.

Figure 1 Von Neumann Computer Architecture

In Figure 12, the central processing unit, popularly known as CPU for short,
comprises the control unit, arithmetic/logic unit, and processor registers. The
computer system operations are also controlled by the peripheral devices,
which are known as the input and output devices.
We shall discuss the details of these parts in the following modules

3.2 System Unit

The system unit houses all the internal components of a computer system.
These internal components include the system board or the motherboard, the
power supply unit, fixed hard drives, and communication buses, among others.
Figures 12 and 14 show the illustrations of the computer system unit.
 Label
1. Monitor
2. Motherboard
3. CPU
4. RAM
5. Expansion cards
6. Power supply
7. Optical disc drive
8. Hard disk drive
9. Keyboard
10. Mouse.

Figure 2 Personal computer hardware

Figure 3 System unit of a personal computer

The entire system unit of a personal computer is often located in a plastic or

metallic case or enclosure. Such personal computers are desktops, laptops, and
palmtops. The desktop PC case, which is usually designed to be placed on
desks, can either be in a tower or flat shape. Nowadays, compact, all-in-one
desktop system units have all the peripheral devices integrated. Such all-in-one
systems are manufactured by Dell, HP, and Apple (iMac). Most high-
performance computer servers and workstations are available in bigger, rack
and tower shapes.

(a) Power supply unit

The computer power supply module which is located in the system unit case,
enables the conversion from 100-240V alternating current to low-voltage direct
current voltage to power the internal components according to the requirement
specifications. Some systems like laptops have in-built batteries for power
backup when the utility power supply fails.
 (b) System upgrade
The computer system upgrade often refers to the improvement of the hardware
and software resource specifications to enhance the system capability and
overall performance. For instance, the RAM size, HDD/SSD capacity, visual
display unit, and CPU can be enhanced in terms of hardware. In most cases, the
software and hardware advancements must match. For instance, it is advisable
that the 64-bit software run on the 64-bit processor. Otherwise, there may be a
speed mismatch, error in computation, or operation failure.

An expansion card, which is a printed circuit board, can be inserted and

plugged via its socket into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard
through the data bus according to the required need of the computer system.
Graphics, visual display unit, sound, and networks subsystems all have built-in
connections on the motherboard or expansion cards.

3.3 Computer Communication Buses

The name bus is an analogy derived from vehicle buses to transport human
beings from one place to another, as shown in Figure 15. Computer bus
lines, wires, or cables are electrical data paths through which bits of
information are transmitted between the CPU and other components. They
are communication cables and devices that enable data transfer among the
internal and external components or parts of a computer system. Buses are
also both hardware and software-based. Hardware buses include wires,
optical fibre, etc., while software-based buses include communication
protocols. The CPU word size, also known as the bus size, refers to the
number of bits that can be transmitted at once. In general, this should be the
same as. Figures 16 and 17 show some common communication buses
within computer systems.
Figure 4 A vehicle bus for human transportation

Figure 5 A computer bus for data transfer

Figure 6 Computer bus for data transfer between the motherboard and RAM

Historically, computer buses were initially made up of parallel electrical

wires involving several connections of hardware devices. Today, computer
communication buses also include parallel and serial physical arrangements
that support logical functions. Computer buses are simply wired in a daisy or
multidrop configuration like universal serial bus or switch connections.

4.0 Conclusion
The Von Neumann computer architecture is the most acceptable standard
of computer systems parts and connections upon which digital computer
systems are based. The CPU, peripherals and storage devices are the main
parts well revealed by this standard architecture. The computer
communication buses are essential for data transfer among the computer
hardware resources.

5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about computer hardware architecture.
Lessons learned include the Von Neumann architecture concerning the
interconnectivity of the significant parts of computers via different kinds of
data buses.

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

i. According to the Von Neumann computer architecture, list the
main components of a computer hardware
ii. What is the use of computer hardware buses?
Answers
i. Von Neumann's architecture described the digital-based computer
hardware as a system comprising the following major main
components, namely; system unit, motherboard, CPU, ports,
input/output devices, primary memory, secondary storage devices,
communication devices
ii. The computer communication buses are essential for data transfer
among the computer hardware resources

7.0 References and Further Reading

Marilyn Wolf, in Computers as Components (Fourth Edition), 2017

[Link]
[Link]
basics_of_computer_science_types.htm
Linda Null; Julia Lobur (2006). The essentials of computer organization and
architecture (2nd ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. pp. 33, 179–181. ISBN 978-
0-7637-3769-6

Unit 2: Central Processing Unit

Content

1.0 Introduction
In this Unit, we shall explain the roles and functions of the main
internal component of the computer system, which is the Central Processing
Unit (CPU). Metaphorically, the CPU is referred to as the heartbeat brain of
the computers. It executes instructions, programs and data manipulation in
the computer. The CPU also controls the functions of other parts of the
computer to enable the smooth running of the entire computer system. The
CPU is also known as the processor, microprocessor, or central processor of
the computer.
 2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

 Comprehend the central processing unit of the computer
systems
 Understand the roles and functions of system CPU
 Identify some types of CPUs

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit (CPU), also known as the processor, is an
electronic chip of an integrated circuit that controls the computer and also
performs logical arithmetic operations. The primary function of the CPU
in a computer system is to receive, implement and execute all the
instruction codes received from the computer hardware and software. The
CPU on the onboard satellite computer is popularly known as the central
terminal unit. The CPU on the graphic adapter of an image processing
computer system is known as the graphical processing unit. All these
variants have the same functions and architecture. Figure 18 shows the
computer CPU.

Figure 7 The computer CPU

The CPU comprises the control unit (CU), arithmetic and logical unit
(ALU), processor registers, and the program counter. Figure 19 shows the
block diagram of the CPU and its internal components.
Figure 8 Block diagram of the CPU and its internal components.

How the CPU works

The figure shows that the CPU receives data through input devices and
stores it in the memory. The control unit thereafter extracts the data from
memory according to the instructions. Consequently, the ALU executes
the data manipulations' necessary arithmetic and logical operations. These
operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The
result of the computations is stored in memory and finally sent out as
output via the output devices. The control unit deciphers and carries out
the pre-defined instructions or programs.
The word size refers to the number of data bits a CPU can process at
once. Today, due to advancements in hardware technology, 64 bits is the
standard word size for CPUs used in personal computers. The older CPU
used 32 bits. The overall speed of a CPU in executing programs is
proportional to its word size.
Different CPUs have different instructions, so software made for a kind
of CPU will not run on other kinds.

The Intel Pentium and PowerPC are typical examples of processors for
IBM-PCs and Macintoshes, respectively.
Generally, the CPU is usually located at the center of the computer
motherboard, as shown in Figure 20. The CPU is generally cooled by a
heat sink, and a fan is often mounted on top of it. Most newer CPUs
include an on-die Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) and a co-processor for
graphic and mathematical processing.
Figure 9 The CPU inside the computer motherboard

3.2 ALU
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) component uses a combinational digital
circuit to perform bitwise operations and arithmetic calculations on integer
binary numbers. The ALU does not operate on other fixed- or floating-point
numbers. It is an essential component structure of several computing
circuits, including the CPU and GPUs. The ALU operates on the operands
and codes, which are the inputs as the data for the system. Subsequently, this
generates the output of the executed operations through the status
input/output, which provides information about the operations. The in-build
external status registers achieve this.

3.3 Micro-controller or system-on-chip

The microcontroller is a complete computer on one chip, simply known
as system-on-a-chip (SoC). It is a small chip with all the required
electronic components, CPU, RAM, storage, and other circuitry in a
specific device. Examples of the applications include a smartphone or
portable computer, on a single slab of an integrated circuit, car,
microwave, or thermostat, among others. For instance, Arduino computer
on a board has a microcontroller chip.

4.0 Conclusion
The CPU is an integral part of the computer hardware. It is
conspicuously located at the centre of the motherboard. The computer
CPU enables the control of the hardware resources and carries out the
system's arithmetic and logical operations. The micro-controller is
 simply the complete computer on a single small slab of an electronic
chip.

5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learnt about the CPU and micro-controller.

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

i. Explain the function of the CPU
ii. What is a microcontroller?

Answers
i. The CPU carries out the execution of computer instructions or
programs and data manipulation. It also controls the functions
of other parts of the computer to enable the smooth running of
the entire computer system.
ii. The microcontroller is a complete computer on one chip,
simply known as system-on-a-chip (SoC). It is a small chip
with all the required electronic components, CPU, RAM,
storage, and other circuitry in a specific device

7.0 References and Further Reading

[Link]; [Link] (2009). "3". Digital Logic Design. Technical

Publications. pp. 9–3. ISBN 978-81-8431-738-1.

Hwang, Enoch (2006). Digital Logic and Microprocessor Design

with VHDL. Thomson. ISBN 0-534-46593-5

Thomas Willhalm; Roman Dementiev; Patrick Fay (December 18,

2014). "Intel Performance Counter Monitor – A better way to
measure CPU utilization". [Link]. Retrieved February 17,
2015.

Liebowitz, Kusek, Spies, Matt, Christopher, Rynardt (2014).

VMware vSphere Performance: Designing CPU, Memory, Storage,
and Networking for Performance-Intensive Workloads. Wiley. p. 68.
ISBN 978-1-118-00819-5.

Regan, Gerard (2008). A Brief History of Computing. p. 66. ISBN

978-1848000834. Retrieved 26 November 2014.
Unit 3: Computer Data Storage and Memory Devices

Content

1.0 Introduction

In this Unit, we shall deal with computer data memory or storage devices.
These are significant media components of the computer system used for
recording or retaining all forms of digital data. Every computer system
requires several different levels of memory for storing system data, users’
data, programs, and instruction sets, either temporarily or permanently. The
two keywords here are memory and storage, which slightly refer to different
things. While the memory devices store data in the short-term for immediate
access, the storage devices store data long-term for permanent access. Long-
term storage is also known as persistent storage duration. The data, in this
case, refers to documents, applications, programs, codes, and operating
systems.
Computer memory can be classified into either primary and secondary or
fixed and removable devices.

2.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the computer memory organization and
architecture
 Know some types of memory storage devices

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Primary Main Memory

The main memory chips, which are directly accessible by the CPU are the
main primary memory of the computer. The access speed of the primary
memory is faster than any other kind of storage device. Examples of primary
memory are Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read-Only Memory
(ROM). The RAM and ROM are manufactured with solid-state materials.
Figure 21 shows different memory and storage devices available in
computer systems. Let us discuss some of these storage devices in detail.

Figure 10 Computer memory and storage devices

Random Access Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is the main memory or primary storage
that has the capability of holding the loaded data, instructions, operating
system, and all running applications, processes, and other programs only
during execution, that is, when the computer system is running and powered
by electricity. RAM behaves like a scratchpad memory or whiteboard. It is a
working temporary storage area of bytes under the supervision of the CPU.
RAM stores entire data temporarily. For instance, if you type your CV on
MS Word without saving it with a file name, it remains inside the RAM
while your computer keeps working. If the power is turned off, your data
and program will be erased automatically. Then you will lose your
documents or data. This means RAM is not persistent. Its contents are
dependent on the power supply. Therefore, always save up your documents
while working and making updates.
A good feature of RAM is about the faster speed of access because the CPU
is actively manipulating its contents. It can access and retrieve the value of
any particular byte in a few nanoseconds (1 nanosecond is 1 billionth of a
second). RAM is more than 1000x faster than the fastest secondary storage.
Usually, RAM is designed and manufactured with a few chips packaged
together onto an integrated circuit. A famous example of this is the dual
inline memory module (DIMM) that can be inserted into the motherboard
socket, as shown in Figure 22.

The two common types of RAM are static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic
RAM (DRAM).
a) SRAM

This kind of RAM uses flip-flops transistor or Mosfet (MOS) as

switching devices. Its access speed is fast but more expensive. An
example of SRAM is cache memory.

b) DRAM
Dynamic RAM uses capacitors as switching devices to store. The capacitors
charges when data is 1 and do not charge when the data is 0. Unlike SRAM,
DRAM requires refreshing circuits for the data refreshment to avoid current
leakage. Usually, it is slower but cheaper than SRAM. Most computers main
memory is made up of DRAM due to higher access time.
Figure 11 Random Access Memory in a motherboard

Read-Only Memory
The Read-Only Memory (ROM) chip is a type of primary memory that
stores the basic input/output system (BIOS) information that runs when the
computer is booting or starting. They are non-volatile memory that generally
contains instructions for booting the computer or loading the operating
system. This information is in boot and power management firmware.
Modern motherboards apply Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI)
instead of BIOS.
Flash chips are non-volatile devices that do not require electricity. They are
used in computers, cell phones, digital cameras, etc.
The cache memory is special high-speed memory that temporarily stores
instructions and data that the CPU is using frequently, Thus speeding up the
processing. The Level 2 or external caches generally range from 64
Kilobytes to 2 Megabytes.

3.2 Secondary Storage Devices

A secondary storage device can be described as a persistent or non-volatile
medium that can save up data for a long time until it is overwritten, deleted,
or corrupted. These storage devices can either be fixed or removable.
Examples of secondary storage devices are Hard Disk Drive (HDD) and
Solid State Drive (SSD). The removable USB flash drive and optical
compact disks can be used to copy or transfer data between computers. The
fixed drives are usually permanently connected to the computer's system
unit. HDD and SSD are often connected to the motherboard through
communication cables. HDD can use its read/write heads to store digital
data on a magnetic surface of a rigid plate. HDD physical size is usually 3½
and 2½ inches for desktops and laptops, respectively.
These types of storage devices shall be discussed as follows;
Compact Disc, DVD, and Blu-ray are examples of optical external storage
devices, while USB Flash Drives are made up of solid-state materials. Flash
drives as also known as thumb drives or USB-key.

Difference between Hard drives and Solid State Drives

A solid-state drive (SSD) is a secondary storage device that implements
an array of integrated circuits to store data persistently. Hard disk drives
are found in virtually all older computers due to their high capacity and
low cost, but solid-state drives are faster and more power-efficient but
more expensive. Flash drives are removable and external SSD. They
consume less power, and they are usually faster and cheaper than hard
disk drives. Technologically, hard drives store bytes of data as a
magnetic pattern on a spinning metal disk in high pitch spinning sound.
The solid-state drives that store bytes on flash chips do not have spinning
parts but use silicon chips and electrons.
Today, high-performance computer clusters use disk array controllers for
more excellent reliability, security, and massive storage. Figure 23 shows
Hard Disk Drive for persistent storage.
Figure 12 Hard Disk Drive for persistent storage

Figure 24 and 25 show a USB flash drive or Optical disc, which can be used to
transfer data between computers via the USB port. They are compatible with
most hardware and software specifications.

Figure 24 Removable Flash Drive for persistent storage

Figure 13 Removable Flash Drive for persistent storage

Flash drive
Figure 25 shows the SD Card, which provides storage in devices like
cameras. This looks similar to the USB flash drive.
Figure 14 SD memory flash

Other types of removable secondary storage devices are as follows

Compact disc (CD) is a circular thin, platted glass and plastic polycarbonate
material of a standard size of 12 cm with a hole in the center of about 1.5 cm
and 1.2 mm in thickness. The CD has a storage capacity of 600 MB to 700 MB
of data. This technological product is much older, and the new ones will be
discussed shortly. CD uses optical laser technology instead of magnetic
technology to store its contents. Figure 26 shows the bottom surface of a 12 cm
compact disc.

Figure 15 Bottom surface of a 12 cm compact disc

Types of Compact discs are:

a) Compact disc Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM): The contents of the CD-
ROM cannot be deleted by any means. Only the publisher is allowed to
access the data imprinted on this CD. It is mainly used to store or copy
small-sized documents or software applications.
 b) CD-Recordable (CD-R): The contents can be stored once and read
several times. Just like CD-ROM, its contents cannot be deleted or
overwritten.
c) CD-RW (CD-Rewritable): The contents of CD-RW can be erased or
rewritten several times.
d) Digital Video/Versatile Disc (DVD): This type has a higher storage
capacity ranging from 4.7GB to 17GB, depending on whether it is a
single or dual-layer format. The storage capacity of a DVD with a one-
sided layer is 4.7 GB, the one-sided double layer is 8.5 GB, the double-
sided layer is 9.4 GB, and the double-sided double-layer is 17 GB.
e) DVD-ROM: The contents of this type of media cannot be written on or
erased by the user. It is mainly used for distributing proprietary software
or other kinds of applications.
f) DVD-R / DVD+R: These two different types of discs, DVD-R (DVD
minus R) and DVD+R (DVD plus R), are recordable once.
g) DVD-RW / DVD+RW: The contents can be re-written several times.
h) DVD-RAM: This is a rewritable disc that can alter its contents several
times. It functions like hard disk.

A Floppy disk is an old, portable, and removable platter storage device that was
made of magnetizable mylar plastic. The data is stored in concentric rings
called tracks on either side of the platter. The last kind of floppy disk was a 3½
inches platter in a hard plastic case that holds 1.44 Megabytes of information.
On the other hand, A Zip disk could hold up to 250 Megabytes.

Magnetic tape, which was developed in Germany in 1928, is a medium for

magnetic wire data recording. It was made of a thin, magnetizable coating on a
long, narrow strip of plastic film. Tape recorders and videotape recorders are
used to record and playback audio and video, respectively. The tape drive
stores computer data on magnetic tape.
4.0 Conclusion
The storage or memory devices are integral parts of a computer
system. The devices can be categorized into primary and secondary,
which can be either fixed or removable. RAM and ROM are primary
memory, while HDD and SSD are types of secondary non-volatile
storage devices. The removable storage devices are USB drives, flash
drives, and compact disc drives. The required types and capacity of
drives needed for a computer system is a function of the well-
configured system specification, cost, and the desired performance.

5.0 Summary
In this Unit, you have learned about different memory and storage
devices. Quite some examples were also stated.

6.0 Self-Assessment Exercises

i. Distinguish between primary and secondary memories?
ii. Differentiate between RAM and ROM

Answers
i. The main memory chips, which are directly accessible by the
CPU are the main primary memory of the computer. The access
speed of the primary memory is faster than any other kind of
storage device.
A secondary storage device can be described as a persistent or
non-volatile medium that can save up data for a long time until it
is overwritten, deleted, or corrupted. These storage devices can
either be fixed or removable.
ii. Random Access Memory (RAM) is the main memory or primary
storage that has the capability of holding the loaded data,
instructions, operating system, and all running applications,
processes, and other programs only during execution, that is,
when the computer system is running and powered by electricity.

The Read-Only Memory (ROM) chip is a type of primary

memory that stores the basic input/output system (BIOS)
information that runs when the computer is booting or starting.
They are non-volatile memory that generally contains instructions
for booting the computer or loading the operating system

7.0 References and Further Reading

Liebowitz, Kusek, Spies, Matt, Christopher, Rynardt (2014). VMware
vSphere Performance: Designing CPU, Memory, Storage, and Networking
for Performance-Intensive Workloads. Wiley. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-118-
00819-5.
[Link]