Flow

measureme
nt
Dr. Pham Hoang
Huy Phuoc Loi
1
Overview
• Fluid flow is one of the most intricate
branches of engineering, influenced by
complex physical laws.
• Practical systems, however, use idealized
models for simplification, allowing engineers to
predict and control the flow of liquids and
gases in stable environments.

2
Flow Measurement in
Process Control
• Why is it important? Accurate flow
measurement ensures efficiency, safety, and
quality in industrial processes.
• Instruments vary based on the type of fluid
(liquid, gas), the required accuracy, and the
specific process conditions.
Flow measurement is fundamental for
managing energy and material resources in
process control systems. Understanding the
various methods and devices is critical for
optimizing industrial operations.
3
Key Types of Flow
Measuring Devices
1. Differential Pressure (DP) Flowmeters
• Measure the pressure drop across a constriction.
• Common examples: Orifice plates, Venturi tubes, Flow nozzles.
2. Velocity-Type Flowmeters
• Determine flow by measuring the velocity of the fluid.
• Common examples: Turbine, Vortex shedding, Magnetic
flowmeters.
3. Positive Displacement (PD) Flowmeters
• Directly measure flow by trapping fluid in compartments.
• Common examples: Rotary vane, Oval gear, Nutating disk
flowmeters.
4. Mass Flowmeters
• Measure the mass of fluid passing through a point.
• Example: Coriolis flowmeter.
4
Evolution of Measurement
Technology
• Pre-1960s: Simple mechanical instruments.
• 1980s: Emergence of microprocessors,
enabling smart transmitters and digital
protocols (e.g., HART).
• Present: Fieldbus networks allow multiple
devices to communicate over a single cable,
reducing costs and increasing functionality.

5
Application
Types of Flow Measurement Devices:
• Impulse lines: Earlier methods of connecting instruments to
processes, now being replaced.
• Smart transmitters: Real-time diagnostics and multi-parameter
measurement.
• Digital communication protocols: Modbus, PROFIBUS,
FOUNDATION fieldbus for reliable communication.

Nature of Application:
• Measuring flow in circular pipes is most common.
• Also used in non-circular conduits, channels, or open spaces.

Custody Transfer:
• Critical for billing in industries like oil & gas where small
inaccuracies can lead to major financial losses.
• High accuracy and reproducibility required.

Process Control:
• Accurate flow data required for stable control and data acquisition.
Safety Shutdowns:
• Flow meters assist in equipment monitoring and emergency
shutdown systems to ensure safe operation. 6
Flow Principles
• Fluid flow refers to the
motion of a fluid, often driven
by pressure or energy
differences.
• In process control
systems, we primarily deal
with liquids and gases
moving through pipelines,
and their behavior can be
described by several core
principles.

7
Energy in Fluid Flow
All flow involves some form of energy:
• primarily potential energy
• kinetic energy.

8
Potential Energy
• Definition: The energy stored in a fluid due to
its position or height.
• Formula: U = m ∙ g ∙ h
• U = potential energy (in joules, J)
• m = mass of fluid (in kilograms, kg)
• g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s²)
• h = height (in meters, m)
• Explanation: Fluid at a higher elevation has
potential energy that can be converted into
motion, such as water flowing from a reservoir.
9
Kinetic Energy
• Definition: The energy possessed by a fluid due
to its motion.
𝟏
• Formula: 𝐊 = 𝐦𝐯 𝟐
𝟐
• K = kinetic energy (in joules, J)
• m = mass of fluid (in kilograms, kg)
• v = velocity of the fluid (in meters per second, m/s)
• Explanation: As fluid flows, its kinetic energy
increases with velocity. This principle is crucial for
understanding how flow meters infer flow rate by
measuring velocity changes.

10
Work
Definition of Work
• Work is defined as the force applied over a
distance to move an object.
• Formula: 𝐖=𝐅∙𝐝
• W = Work (in joules)
• F = Force (in newtons)
• d = Distance (in meters)
• Explanation: In fluid dynamics, work is done
when a force moves fluid through a pipe. Work
is a scalar quantity, meaning it has magnitude
but no direction.
11
Work-Kinetic Energy
Theorem
• Theorem: The work done on a body by a net force is
equal to the change in its kinetic energy.
𝟏
• Formula: 𝐖 = 𝚫𝐊 = 𝟐 𝐦 𝐯𝟏𝟐 − 𝐯𝟐𝟐
• W = Work done (in joules, J)
• mm = Mass of the fluid (in kilograms, kg)
• v1v1​ = Initial velocity (in meters per second, m/s)
• v2v2​ = Final velocity (in meters per second, m/s)
• Explanation: When a force is applied to accelerate
fluid, the work done on the fluid changes its velocity,
and thus its kinetic energy. This relationship is used in
flow systems to analyze the effects of pressure and
velocity changes.

12
 Bernoulli’s Principle
Key Idea:
• The total energy in a steady flow remains constant along a streamline.
Components:
• Bernoulli’s equation accounts for three forms of energy in a
fluid: pressure energy, potential energy, and kinetic energy.
𝟏 𝟐
Formula: 𝐏+ 𝛒𝐯 + 𝛒𝐠𝐡 = 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
𝟐
P = Fluid pressure (in pascals, Pa or newtons per square meter, N/m2 )
ρ = Fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3)
v = Fluid velocity (in meters per second, m/s)
g = Gravitational acceleration (in meters per second squared, m/s2) ≈ 9.81 m/s2
h = Height (in meters, m)
Explanation: As velocity increases, pressure decreases and vice versa.
This concept is fundamental for many flow measurement devices, such
as Venturi tubes and orifice plates.
13
Volumetric Flow Rate (Q)
• Definition: The volume of fluid that passes
through a given point per unit of time.
• Formula: 𝐐=𝐀∙𝐯
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per
second, m3/s)
• A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe (in square
meters, m2)
• v = Velocity of the fluid (in meters per
second, m/s)
• Explanation: The flow rate depends on both
the area of the pipe and the velocity of the
fluid. 14
Mass Flow Rate (W)
• Definition: The mass of fluid passing through a
given point per unit of time.
• Formula: 𝐖 = 𝛒𝐐 = 𝛒 ∙ 𝐯 ∙ 𝐀
• W = Mass flow rate (in kilograms per second, kg/s)
• ρ = Fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3)
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per
second, m3/S)
• A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe (in square
meters, m2)
• v = Velocity of the fluid (in meters per second, m/s)
• Explanation: The mass flow rate takes into
account the fluid’s density, providing a more
accurate measurement for systems where mass
flow is critical, like in gas pipelines or chemical
processes.
15
Flow in a Process Pipe
Key Concept:
• In a process pipe, fluid flows from a higher-
pressure region to a lower pressure region, driven
by a pressure differential. Understanding the
relationship between pressure and velocity is
crucial for determining flow rate.
∆𝐏
• Flow Velocity Formula: 𝐯= 𝟐𝛒
• v = Flow velocity (in meters per second, m/s)
• ΔP = Pressure difference between the inlet and outlet
(in pascals, Pa)
• ρ = Fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3)

16
Reynolds Number
• Definition: The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless
quantity used to predict flow patterns in fluid dynamics.
𝐯∙𝐃∙𝛒
• Formula: 𝐑𝐞 = 𝛍
• v = Velocity of the fluid (in meters per second, m/s)
• D = Diameter of the pipe (in meters, m)
• ρ = Fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3)
• μ = Dynamic viscosity of the fluid (in pascal-seconds, Pa⋅s or newton-
seconds per square meter, N⋅s/m2)
• Explanation: The Reynolds number helps determine if the flow
is laminar (smooth), turbulent (chaotic), or transitional.
• Laminar flow: Re < 2000 (smooth, steady flow)
• Turbulent flow: Re > 4000 (chaotic, mixing)
• Transitional flow: 2000 < Re <4000

17
Flow profile types

18
Pipeline Design
Considerations
• Key Design Factors:
• Ensure sufficient straight pipe lengths upstream and
downstream for accurate readings.
• Avoid flow obstructions like valves, bends, or
thermowells near the meter.
• Optimal Flow Velocities:
• Boiler feed water: 2.4–4.6 m/s .
• Steam (low pressure): 20–30 m/s.
• Gases and vapors: 15–30 m/s.
• Pressure Drops:
• Consider acceptable pressure drop across meters
based on fluid type.

19
Differential Pressure
Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Differential Pressure (dP) Flowmeters measure flow
rate by calculating the pressure drop (ΔP) across a
constriction in the pipe. This pressure difference is
used to infer the flow rate.
• Volumetric Flow Rate Formula:
𝑸 = 𝑲 ∆𝑷
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per second, m3/s
• K = Flow coefficient (dimensionless, depends on the pipe and
fluid properties)
• ΔP = Differential pressure (in pascals, Pa)
• Common Devices: Orifice Plate, Venturi Tube, Flow
Nozzle
20
Orifice Plate
Key Concept:
• The orifice plate is a simple and widely used
device to measure flow rate by creating
a pressure drop across a restriction in the pipe.
Formula: 𝑸 = 𝑪 𝟐𝒈𝒉
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per
second, m3/s)
• C = Orifice flow coefficient (dimensionless)
• g = Gravitational acceleration (in meters per second
squared, m/s )
• h = Pressure difference across the orifice (in meters of
fluid head, m)

21
Orifice
Plate
How It Works:
• The orifice
plate constricts flow,
increasing velocity and
creating a pressure
drop that is
proportional to the flow
rate.
• By measuring this
pressure difference,
the flow rate can be
calculated.
22
Orifice
Plate

Applications:
• Water distribution systems: Used to monitor water flow rates in
pipelines.
• Oil and gas industry: Measuring flow rates in pipelines
transporting natural gas, crude oil, and refined products.
• HVAC systems: Common in measuring air flow rates in heating
and cooling systems.

23
Orifice
Plate
Advantages:
• Low cost and easy to install.
• Wide applicability for liquids and gases.
Disadvantages:
• Energy losses due to turbulence.
• Reduced accuracy in measuring slurries or dirty
fluids.

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Venturi Tube
Key Concept:
• The Venturi tube is a differential pressure
flowmeter that efficiently measures flow
with minimal energy loss.
𝟐∆𝐏
Formula: 𝐯= 𝛒
• v = Flow velocity (in meters per second, m/s)
• ΔP = Pressure difference (in pascals, Pa)
• ρ = Fluid density (in kilograms per cubic
meter, kg/m3)

25
Venturi
Tube
How It Works:
• The fluid accelerates as it moves
through the narrowed section of
the Venturi tube, causing
a pressure drop that is recovered
as the tube widens again.
26
 Venturi Tube
Applications:
• Wastewater treatment: Used to
monitor water flow rates in open
channels.
• Chemical processing: Applied to
measure high-accuracy flows of
liquids, gases, or steam in
pipelines.
• Natural gas industry: Measuring
high-pressure gas flows in pipelines
with minimal energy loss.

27
 Advantages:
• High accuracy with minimal energy
loss.
Venturi • Ideal for clean fluids like gases and
liquids.
Tube
Disadvantages:
• Higher cost and bulkier than orifice
plates.
28
• Not suited for pipes with limited space.
Flow Nozzles
Key Concept:
• Flow nozzles are used to measure flow rates
in high-velocity and high-
temperature applications.
Formula: 𝐐 = 𝐂 ∆𝐏
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per
second, m3/s)
• C = Flow coefficient (dimensionless)
• ΔP = Pressure drop across the nozzle
(in pascals, Pa)

29
Flow
Nozzles
How It Works:
• The fluid
accelerates
through
the nozzle's
smooth, curved
throat, which
minimizes the loss
of pressure and
maximizes
accuracy in high-
velocity flows.
30
 Applications:
• Steam flow measurement:
Flow Commonly used in power plants to
measure high-pressure steam.
Nozzles • Aerospace: Used in testing gas
flows through turbines and
engines.
• Industrial boilers: Measuring
superheated steam to monitor
energy efficiency.

31
Flow
Nozzles
Advantages:
• Durable and accurate under high-
pressure and high-temperature conditions.
• Long-lasting and resistant to erosion from
abrasive fluids.
Disadvantages:
• More expensive than orifice plates.
• Less suitable for fluids containing particles or
slurries.

32
Velocity-Type Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Velocity-type flowmeters measure the velocity of
the fluid and calculate the volumetric flow rate by
multiplying the velocity by the cross-sectional area of
the pipe. These meters rely on the direct
measurement of flow speed to determine the flow rate.
Formula: 𝐐 = 𝐀. 𝐯
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per second, m3/s)
• A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe (in square meters, m2)
• v = Velocity of the fluid (in meters per second, m/s)
Common devices: Turbine flowmeters, Vortex shedding
flowmeter, Magnetic flowmeters, Ultrasonic flowmeters

33
Turbine Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Turbine flowmeters measure flow using a rotor
that spins as fluid passes through. The rotational
speed of the turbine is proportional to the fluid
velocity.
Formula: 𝐐=𝐊×𝐟
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per
second, m 3 /s)
• K = Meter factor (depends on the specific flow
sensor)
• f = Frequency of turbine rotation (in pulses per
second) 34
 How It Works:
• The fluid passes through the meter and
Turbine rotates the turbine blades. The rotational
Flowmeter speed of the turbine is detected by a sensor,
which generates a frequency signal
s proportional to the flow rate.
Applications: Water distribution, oil and gas
industry, chemical processing.

35
 Turbine Flowmeters
Advantages:
[Link] accuracy for clean fluids.
[Link] for both liquids and gases.
[Link] inexpensive compared to
other flowmeters.
Disadvantages:
[Link] parts are prone
to wear and tear, especially in dirty or
abrasive fluids.
[Link] frequent calibration to
maintain accuracy.
[Link] be affected by viscosity changes
in the fluid.
36
Vortex Shedding Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Vortex shedding flowmeters create vortices
behind a bluff body placed in the fluid stream. The
frequency of these vortices is proportional to the
fluid velocity.
𝐒𝐭×𝐯
Formula: 𝐟= 𝐃
• f = Vortex frequency (in hertz, Hz)
• St = Strouhal number (dimensionless constant)
• v = Flow velocity (in meters per second, m/s)
• D = Diameter of the pipe (in meters, m)

37
 How It Works:
• A bluff body is placed in the flow path, and as the
Vortex fluid flows past the body, vortices form. The
frequency of these vortices is detected and used
Shedding to calculate flow velocity.
Flowmeters Applications:
• Steam measurement, petroleum
industry, HVAC systems.

38
 Vortex
Shedding
Flowmeters
Advantages:
1. No moving parts, leading to long-term
durability and low maintenance.
2. Accurate for measuring both gases and
liquids.
3. Suitable for high-pressure and high-
temperature applications.
Disadvantages:
1. Pipe vibrations or external noise can
interfere with the vortex signal, leading to
inaccurate readings.
2. Not suitable for fluids with high particulate
content or slurries.
3. Requires a stable flow profile for optimal
performance, often needing long straight
pipe runs upstream. 39
Magnetic Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Magnetic flowmeters operate based
on Faraday’s Law of Induction: a voltage is
induced when a conductive fluid flows through a
magnetic field, and this voltage is proportional to
the fluid's velocity.
𝐄
• Formula: 𝐐= 𝐂 𝐁𝐃
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per
second, m3/s)
• C = Meter constant (dimensionless)
• E = Induced voltage (in volts, V)
• B = Magnetic field strength (in teslas, T)
• D = Pipe diameter (in meters, m)
40
Magnetic Flowmeters
How It Works:
• As a conductive fluid flows
through the magnetic field, it
generates a voltage across
electrodes, which is
proportional to flow velocity.
Applications: Water treatment
plants, chemical
industries, food and beverage
processing.

41
 Magnetic Flowmeters
Advantages:
1. No moving parts, meaning low maintenance.
2. Suitable for conductive fluids, even those
containing slurries or suspended solids.
3. Highly accurate for a wide range of conductive
fluids.
Disadvantages:
1. Only works with conductive fluids. Non-
conductive fluids (e.g., oils) cannot be
measured.
2. Electrodes can be affected
by coating or deposits, which require regular
cleaning.
3. More expensive than mechanical flowmeters. 42
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Ultrasonic flowmeters use sound waves to
measure flow velocity by calculating the time it
takes for sound waves to travel with and against
the fluid flow. The difference in travel time is
proportional to the velocity of the fluid.
𝐝 𝐭 𝐮𝐩 −𝐭 𝐝𝐨𝐰𝐧
Formula: 𝐯 =
𝟐 𝐭 𝐮𝐩 ×𝐭 𝐝𝐨𝐰𝐧
• v = Fluid velocity (in meters per second, m3/s)
• d = Distance between the ultrasonic transducers
(in meters, m)
• tup = Time for sound to travel upstream (in seconds, s)
• tdown = Time for sound to travel downstream
(in seconds, s)

43
Ultrasonic
Flowmeters
How It Works:
• Ultrasonic
transducers send sound
waves through the fluid. The
flow velocity is determined by
comparing the difference in
the time it takes for sound to
travel with and against the
flow.
Applications:
• Oil and gas industry, water
distribution, power plants.

44
 Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Advantages:
1. Non-invasive (clamp-on versions), meaning no
pipe cutting or process interruption.
2. No moving parts, so low maintenance and
long-lasting.
3. Works for both clean and dirty fluids, including
those containing particulates.
Disadvantages:
1. Accuracy can be affected
by bubbles, suspended solids, or temperature
variations in the fluid.
2. Clamp-on types require precise alignment of
transducers for correct measurements.
3. Typically more expensive than traditional
mechanical flowmeters. 45
Positive Displacement
Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Positive Displacement (PD) Flowmeters measure
flow by trapping fixed volumes of fluid and
mechanically moving them through the meter. The
number of times the chamber fills and empties
determines the total flow.
Formula: 𝐐=𝐧×𝐕
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per second, m3/s)
• n = Number of rotations or cycles (in rotations per
second, r/s)
• V = Volume of fluid displaced per cycle (in cubic meters, m3)
Common devices: Rotary Vane PD Flowmeters, Oval
Gear PD Flowmeter, Nutating Disk PD Flowmeters
46
 Rotary Vane PD
Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Rotary Vane Positive Displacement
(PD) Flowmeters use a rotating
mechanism with vanes that trap fluid in
chambers as they turn. The volume of
fluid passing through is calculated by
counting the number of vane rotations.
How It Works:
• A series of rotating vanes move within
a circular casing, trapping fluid
between the vanes and the casing. As
the vanes rotate, they carry a fixed
volume of fluid from the inlet to the
outlet, and the total flow is measured
by counting the vane rotations.
47
Rotary Vane PD
Flowmeters
Applications:
• Oil and fuel measurement:
Used for measuring oils,
fuels, and lubricants in
industrial settings.
• Hydraulic systems:
Monitoring the flow of
hydraulic fluids in machinery.
• Chemical industries: Used
for viscous liquids and clean
fluids.

48
Rotary Vane PD Flowmeters
Advantages:
1. High accuracy for measuring viscous fluids
like oils.
2. Compact design suitable for small
installation spaces.
3. Low sensitivity to viscosity changes,
making it ideal for a wide range of fluid types.
Disadvantages:
1. Moving parts wear out over time, requiring
regular maintenance.
2. Not suitable for slurries or fluids with
particles, which can cause clogging.
3. Can cause a significant pressure drop in the
system.
49
 Oval Gear PD Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Oval Gear Positive Displacement
Flowmeters measure flow by using
two rotating, interlocking oval
gears that trap and transfer fluid. The
volume of fluid passing through is
determined by the number of gear
rotations.
How It Works:
• Fluid enters the flowmeter and causes
the oval gears to rotate. Each
rotation traps a fixed volume of fluid
between the gears and the casing.
The rotation count is directly
proportional to the total volume of 50

fluid passing through.

51
 Oval Gear PD Flowmete
Advantages:
1. High accuracy for viscous liquids.
2. Suitable for a wide range of
viscosities, providing consistent
performance across different fluids.
3. Durable and reliable over time with
minimal maintenance.
Disadvantages:
1. Sensitive to particles in the fluid,
which can jam the gears.
2. Requires regular cleaning when used
with contaminated fluids.
3. Can cause a pressure drop due to the
resistance created by the gear
movement.
52
 Nutating Disk PD
Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Nutating Disk Positive Displacement
Flowmeters use a wobbling disk to measure
the flow. The disk "nutates" (wobbles) in a
chamber, with each wobble displacing a fixed
volume of fluid. Flow rate is determined by the
number of disk oscillations.
How It Works:
• The nutating disk moves in a wobbling
motion inside a chamber, with each wobble
displacing a specific volume of fluid. The
number of wobbles is proportional to the flow
rate, and total flow is measured by counting
these oscillations.

53
Nutating Disk PD
Flowmeters
Applications:
• Residential water meters:
Commonly used in homes to
measure water consumption.
• Low-cost industrial
applications: Used for low-
accuracy liquid
measurements.
• Utility systems: Monitoring
flow in low-pressure
systems.

54
 Nutating Disk PD
Flowmeters
Advantages:
1. Low cost and simple design, making it
economical for basic applications.
2. Suitable for clean fluids with low viscosity.
3. Compact size makes it ideal for residential
and small-scale systems.
Disadvantages:
1. Lower accuracy compared to other PD
meters.
2. Not suitable for high-pressure or high-
viscosity fluids.
3. Moving parts are prone to wear,
especially in demanding industrial
environments. 55
Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
Key Concept:
• Coriolis mass flowmeters directly measure
the mass flow of a fluid by detecting
the Coriolis force exerted on vibrating tubes
when fluid flows through them. This force is
proportional to the mass flow rate.
Formula: 𝐖 = 𝐊 × 𝚫𝛉
• W = Mass flow rate (in kilograms per
second, kg/s)
• K = Calibration constant (dimensionless)
• Δθ = Phase shift or angular displacement caused
by the Coriolis force (in radians, rad)
56
 How It Works:
• The fluid flows through U-shaped vibrating
Coriolis tubes. As the fluid moves, it causes a twisting
motion due to the Coriolis force. The degree
Mass of twisting is proportional to the mass flow rate,
and the oscillation changes are measured to
Flowmeters determine the mass flow.

57
Coriolis Mass
Flowmeters
Applications:
• Chemical processing:
Accurate measurement of
chemical reactions and batch
processes.
• Oil and gas industry: Used
for measuring the mass flow
of hydrocarbons.
• Food and beverage
industry: Used for high-
precision fluid and liquid
ingredient measurement.

58
Coriolis Mass Flowmeters
Advantages:
1. Direct measurement of mass flow, making
it ideal for processes where mass rather than
volume is critical.
2. Highly accurate for a wide range of fluids,
including gases and liquids.
3. No need for fluid property compensation
(e.g., temperature or pressure).
Disadvantages:
1. High cost compared to other flowmeters.
2. Can be affected
by vibrations or mechanical stress in the
installation environment.
3. Bulkier than other flowmeters, requiring more
space for installation. 59
Rotameter
Key Concept:
• A rotameter is a variable area flowmeter that
measures flow rate by using a float that rises or
falls within a tapered tube depending on the flow
rate. The height of the float is proportional to the
flow rate.
∆𝐏
• Formula: 𝐐 = 𝐂 × 𝐀𝐚 × 𝛒
• Q = Volumetric flow rate (in cubic meters per
second, m3/s)
• C = Meter constant (dimensionless)
• Aa​ = Annular area between the float and tube (in square
meters, m2)
• ΔP = Pressure difference (in pascals, Pa)
• ρ = Fluid density (in kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3)
60
Rotameter
How It Works:
• The fluid flows through a tapered tube,
lifting a float inside. The float stabilizes
when the upward force from the fluid
equals the downward force from gravity.
The height of the float corresponds to the
flow rate, and this height is calibrated to
indicate flow on a scale.

61
Rotameter
Applications:
• Laboratory experiments: Common in
measuring gas or liquid flow in research
settings.
• Water treatment: Used for measuring
water flow in simple filtration systems.
• Pharmaceutical industry: Monitoring
flow rates in drug manufacturing.

62
Rotameter
Advantages:
[Link] and low-cost design, making it easy to
install and operate.
[Link] external power required, as the meter
operates purely on the fluid's movement.
[Link] well for low flow rates and clear fluids.
Disadvantages:
[Link] suitable for opaque or dirty fluids, as the
float must be visible to read the flow rate.
[Link] accuracy compared to advanced
flowmeters like Coriolis or ultrasonic meters.
[Link] to changes in fluid
viscosity and density, requiring recalibration for 63
different fluids.
FLOW SENSOR APPLICATION CHART

64
Costings
• From least expensive to most:
• Turbine Flow Meter: Low cost, simple, but high maintenance.
• Magnetic Flow Meter: Moderate cost with no moving parts.
• Vortex Shedding Meter: Slightly higher cost, but low
maintenance.
• Thermal Dispersion Meter: Suitable for gases, more costly.
• Ultrasonic Flow Meter: Non-invasive, higher upfront cost.
• Positive Displacement Meter: High accuracy but higher cost.
• Coriolis Flow Meter: High cost, but best for mass flow and
multi-variable measurements.
• Considerations:
• Initial capital cost vs. long-term maintenance.
• Fluid type and application (clean vs. dirty fluids).
• Accuracy requirements and turndown ratio.
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An example: Closed-Loop Water
Flow Control System
• Definition: A system where the
process variable (e.g., flow rate)
is measured and compared to a
setpoint, and corrections are
made automatically based on the
error.
• Key Components:
• Sensors: Turbine flow meter
measures the actual flow
rate.
• Controller: Microcontroller
processes the error and
sends commands to the
actuator.
• Actuators: Pump adjusts the
flow rate.
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An example: Closed-Loop
Water Flow Control System
Mathematical Model for Flow Rate
Measurement
• Formula for Flow Rate: 𝐐​= 𝐊 × 𝐟
• Where:
• Q​ = Flow rate (ml/min)
• K = Volume of water passed (3 ml/pulse)
• f = Frequency of pulses or number of pulses
(pulses per second)
This model helps in continuous measurement
and adjustment of water flow.

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An example: Closed-Loop
Water Flow Control System
Measurement Uncertainty
Measurement uncertainty refers to the doubt that
exists about the result of any measurement. In a
process control system, particularly for water
flow, uncertainties can arise from various
sources, such as sensor limitations,
environmental conditions, and the system’s
dynamic response.

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 An example: Closed-Loop
Water Flow Control System
Key Variables Contributing to Uncertainty
• Number of pulses from the flow meter:
• The used flow meter generates digital pulses corresponding to the
water flow.
• The number of pulses can introduce variability because the meter
may not capture flow perfectly due to its resolution limitations. This
factor contribute 39.1%
• Repeatability of the flow rate:
• Repeatability refers to the ability to achieve consistent results in
repeated measurements.
• This factor is the largest contributor to uncertainty, responsible
for 50.4% of the overall measurement uncertainty.

69
 An example: Closed-
Loop Water Flow Control
System
Components Used:
• Turbine Flow Meter:
Measures the flow and
provides digital pulses
proportional to flow rate.
• Diaphragm Pump: Adjusts
the flow based on controller
signals.
• Microcontroller: Processes
the error and provides the
Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM) signal to the actuator.
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An example: Closed-Loop
Water Flow Control System
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) plays a critical
role in controlling the actuator (diaphragm pump)
by adjusting the flow rate based on the system's
feedback.

71
An example: Closed-Loop
Water Flow Control System
• Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a technique
used to control the amount of power delivered to
an electrical device by varying the width (duration)
of pulses in a constant-frequency signal.
• Pulse: Instead of sending a continuous signal,
PWM turns the power on and off in rapid bursts
(pulses).
• Width: The duration for which the signal stays "on"
within each cycle. This is called the duty cycle,
which is expressed as a percentage.
• 100% duty cycle: The signal is fully "on" all the time
(continuous flow).
• 50% duty cycle: The signal is "on" half the time and
"off" the other half.
• 0% duty cycle: The signal is fully "off."
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An example: Closed-Loop
Water Flow Control System
Optimal Gain and Uncertainty
• In a closed-loop control system, the actuating
gain influences how quickly and accurately the
system adjusts the flow rate in response to
deviations from the desired setpoint. The
researchers tested different gains and found that:
• A gain of 0.5 produces the smallest measurement
uncertainty, at approximately 2.1%.
• The gain influences how much the controller
adjusts the pump in response to flow deviations.
Too high or too low a gain can cause larger
fluctuations in the flow, increasing uncertainty.
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An example: Closed-Loop
Water Flow Control System

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