III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU

4.1. Aves Characteristics

Some general characteristics of Aves are the following-
 They are bipedal feathered animals. The fore-limbs of birds have developed into wings that
help them to fly.
 Their back-limbs have become legs that help them for swimming, walking, etc. Mostly,
birds have four toes on their legs. However, two or three toes are also rarely visible.
 Aves are homeothermic or warm-blooded creatures. Because of this, birds can keep a stable
body temperature even when flying at high altitudes.
 Only the uropygial gland or oil gland is situated near the tail.
 Their jaws are transformed into beaks and they don't have any teeth. With the help of a
beak, birds can feed in different ways like tearing flesh, crushing seeds, sipping nectar, etc.
 Additional chambers called gizzard and crop are found in their alimentary canal. The crop
chamber helps to soften the stored food, whereas the gizzard crushes the food. Few seed-
eating birds like pigeons lack gall bladder in their system.
 Lungs act as the primary respiratory organ in birds. Their lungs are inelastic and spongy.
Lungs have air sacs to supplement respiration.
 In birds, an organ called syrinx helps to produce voice.
 Birds have a four-chambered heart and a reduced renal portal system. Also, their cardio-
vascular system lacks sinus venosus.
 The kidneys in birds are metanephric that help to filter the nitrogenous fluid waste via the
ureters, into the cloaca. Their renal system lacks a urinary bladder.
 Brain consists of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and large optic lobes. Furthermore, 12 pairs of
cranial nerves are present.
 Birds have highly developed sight, but their smelling sense is poor. They have eyes and
visible ear openings. Their ears are divided into three parts – internal, middle, and external.
 Their endoskeleton is bony, and the bones are hollow. For this reason, the bones in birds
are lighter than most animals. The bones lack bone marrow. The skull consists of a single
occipital condyle.
 Some other class Aves facts – they are spindle-shaped, and their shape helps to reduce the
wind resistance while flying. Also, their feather passes the air to minimize air friction.
 The fight muscles of Aves are highly developed.
 The female birds have one ovary on the left side of the body and one oviduct. However,
non-functional right ovaries and oviducts can be found in some cases.
 Sexual dimorphism can be found in Aves, and they are oviparous. Bird eggs consist of four
embryonic membranes – yolk, allantois, amnion, chorion.

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU

4.2.1. External features of Pigeon (Columba livia)

The compact, boat shaped streamlined body of pigeon is well adapted for their aerial mode of life.
The body of pigeon is divisible into head, neck, trunk and tail.
Head is comparatively small, spherical and situated at the anterior most part of the
body. Beaks present anteriorly are formed by the elongation of upper and lower jaw and they are
devoid of teeth. At the base of the beak are the external nostrils overhung by a swollen, sensitive
soft skin called cere. Eyes are prominent, round and laterally present. Eyes are protected by an
upper eyelid, lower eyelid, and a transparent nictitating membrane. Posterior to the eyes are
the ear openings which lead to the tympanic membrane by short tube, external auditory
meatus.
Neck is flexible, cylindrical and long which connects the head with the trunk.
Trunk: The spindle shaped trunk bears a pair of wings and a pair of legs. The cloacal
aperture opens ventrally at the hind end of the trunk. Dorsally the base of the tail has a knob like
papilla, which bears the opening of the preen gland or uropygial gland. It is the only cutaneous
gland present and its oily secretion is used for lubricating or preening the feathers. The tail is used
as a rudder in flight.
Fore limbs are modified into wings. The wings have three typical regions, the upper arm
(brachium), lower arm (antebrachium) and the hand (manus). Three clawless and imperfectly
marked digits are present on each hand. While at rest, each forelimb is folded in the form of ‘Z’;
during flight they are extended.
Hind limbs: With the modification of the forelimbs for flight, the whole weight of the body is
supported by the hind limbs, while the bird is at rest or walking; the hind limbs are therefore
attached anteriorly from the trunk to balance the body and support the weight of the body at rest.
They are warm blooded or homeothermic.
Exoskeleton
The exoskeleton of pigeon is derived from the epidermis and occurs in the form of horny claws,
scales and feathers. Beaks are used for ingestion, fighting and preening of feathers. Claws are
used for walking and perching. Epidermal scales are present on the foot and the entire body is
covered by feathers. Arrangement of feathers on the body of bird is called pterylosis. Feathers are
of three kinds: large quill feathers on wings and tail which are used for flight; contour feathers,
form a covering for the body and filoplumes, lie between the contour feathers. The nestlings are
covered with down feathers which resemble the filoplumes.

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU

Structure of a Quill feather

The quill feather has a stem or scapus and is divided

into a lower hollow part called calamus or quill and
an upper solid portion called rachis.

Lower end of the stem has an opening called inferior

umbilicus which receives a dermal papilla, supplying
nutrients and pigments for the growing feathers.

A second opening the superior umbilicus occurs at

the junction of the quill and the rachis, on the inner face
of the feather; close to this opening is a small tuft of
soft feathers called after shaft. Attached to the rachis
are small filament or barbs ; the rachis with the barbs
constitute the vane or the vexillum. Each barb is
fringed with an oblique set of processes called
barbules, which have minute hooklets or barbicels by
which adjacent barbs are hooked together to form a
continuous blade for striking the air during flight.

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU

4.2.2. Digestive System of Columba livia

The long coiled alimentary canal consist of buccal cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, crop, stomach,
small intestine and Large intestine.
Mouth: Mouth is covered by a toothless, horny, upper and lower beaks. Behind the mouth, there
is a wide buccal cavity.
Buccal Cavity: In the floor of the buccal cavity, a large, narrow, horny tongue is present with
scanty sensory papillae and numerous mucus glands.
Pharynx/ Oesophagus: Buccal cavity leads into the pharynx followed by the oesophagus, which
enlarges to form a thin walled, bilobed elastic sac, the crop. The crop serves as a food reservoir.
Stomach: Beyond the crop the oesophagus enters the stomach which is differentiated into
anterior glandular proventriculus and a posterior muscular ventriculus or gizzard. The
proventriculus has a mucus lining which secretes the gastric juice.
Gizzard: The walls of the gizzard is thick, muscular and has many tubular glands. The cavity of
the gizzard contains grit or small pebbles called gastroliths that are swallowed by the bird. These
stones helps the bird in grinding the food.
Small Intestine: The gizzard leads to a small intestine which consists of a ‘U’
shaped duodenum and ileum. The pancreas lies between the two limbs of the duodenum and
receives three ducts from the pancreas and two bile ducts from the liver. The inner lining of the
ileum contains numerous villi which helps in absorption.
Large Intestine: The ileum continues into the large intestine, which is short and is differentiated
into rectum and cloaca. A pair of small blind pouches called rectal caeca is present at the junction
of the ileum and rectum.
Cloaca: The rectum leads into the cloaca which is divided into the anterior coprodaeum into
which the rectum opens, the middle urodaeum into which the urinigenital ducts open, and the
posterior vestibule or proctodaeum, which opens to the outside by the cloacal aperture.
Digestive glands: Buccal glands, salivary glands, gastric glands, liver, pancreas and intestinal
glands are the digestive glands which enhance the process of digestion in pigeon. There is no gall
bladder in the pigeon though present in many other birds. Pigeons produce ‘milk’, a cheesy and
nourishing secretion, from both the sexes. It is formed by the degeneration of the epithelial cells
lining the crop. It is regurgitated and fed to the young birds.
Mechanism of Digestion: The pigeon feeds on grains. As birds have no teeth, the food swallowed
by it passes through the gullet or oesophagus into the crop where it is stored. There are mucous
glands in the crop; food is softened by being mixed with the mucus and the secretion of the buccal
glands, aided by the warmth of the body. The food then enters the stomach, where it is digested
by gastric juices secreted in the proventriculus; the food is also crushed in the gizzard with aid
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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU
of gastroliths. The food is thus reduced to smaller particles and the partly digested food passes into
the intestine where it is mixed with the bile and pancreatic juice, and further digestion is
affected.

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU

4.2.3. Respiratory system of Columba livia

The respiratory system of Columba
livia (the rock pigeon) is highly
efficient and adapted to meet the
high metabolic demands of flight.
1. Nostrils and Nasal Cavity: The
respiratory system begins with the
nostrils (nares) located at the base of
the beak. Air enters the nostrils and
passes through the nasal cavity,
where it is warmed, moistened, and
filtered.
2. Trachea: The nasal cavity leads to
the trachea, a tube supported by
cartilaginous rings that prevent it
from collapsing. The trachea extends
down the neck and splits into two
bronchi, each leading to a lung.
3. Syrinx: At the junction of the
trachea and bronchi, there is a
specialized sound-producing organ called the syrinx. It allows pigeons to produce vocal sounds.
4. Lungs: Avian lungs do not expand and contract. They are relatively small, compact, and
attached to the dorsal wall of the thoracic cavity. The lungs are the site of gas exchange, but they
play a relatively small role in ventilation compared to the air sacs.
5. Air Sacs: Columba livia has nine air sacs: one pair of cervical, one pair of anterior thoracic, one
pair of posterior thoracic, one pair of abdominal, and one unpaired interclavicular air sac. These
air sacs are thin-walled and are not involved in gas exchange. Instead, they act as bellows to move
air through the lungs in a unidirectional flow. The air sacs also help to keep the body light, which
is essential for flight.
6. Bronchi and Parabronchi: The primary bronchi branch into secondary bronchi and then into
parabronchi, where the actual gas exchange takes place. Air flows through the parabronchi in one
direction, which allows for a continuous and efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
7. Unidirectional Airflow: Pigeons have a unique respiratory mechanism where air flows in one
direction through the lungs during both inhalation and exhalation. This is achieved through the
coordination of the air sacs and parabronchi. During inhalation, air passes through the trachea and
primary bronchi into the posterior air sacs. Simultaneously, air in the lungs moves into the anterior

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU
air sacs. During exhalation, air from the posterior air sacs is pushed through the parabronchi for
gas exchange, while air from the anterior air sacs is expelled out of the body.
8. Efficiency: This system is highly efficient, ensuring that the lungs receive a continuous supply
of fresh air, even during exhalation, which is crucial for sustaining the high energy demands of
flight.
9. Function in Flight: The lightweight nature of the air sacs and their role in respiration are critical
adaptations for flight. They also help in regulating body temperature and buoyancy.
Overall, the respiratory system of Columba livia is an excellent example of evolutionary adaptation
to a high-energy, aerial lifestyle

4.3.1. Structure and function of Heart of Columba livia

Pigeon has an efficient circulatory system to meet the metabolic demands of flight, but also plays
a significant role in maintaining the body temperature.
The circulatory system of pigeon includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart of the pigeon
is four chambered with two auricles and two ventricles. There is no sinus venosus.
The two precaval veins or superior venae cavae, a post caval vein or inferior vena cava opens
into the right auricle; the pulmonary aorta and systemic trunks arise from the right and left
ventricles respectively.
The right side of the heart is completely separated from the left side of the heart by a septum.
The right auricle opens into the right ventricle by the right auriculo ventricular aperture and the
left auricle into the left ventricle by the left auriculo ventricular aperture. There are valves at
these apertures, which allows the blood to flow only in one direction, i.e., from the auricle into the
ventricle but not backwards. The right auriculo-ventricular valve consists of a single flap without
connecting chordae tendinae; the valve on the left side has two flaps connected to the papillary
muscles by chordae tendinae.
The pulmonary aorta arises from the right ventricle and the aortic arch from the left ventricle. The
pulmonary veins open into the left auricle. There are three semilunar valves at the junction of the
pulmonary aorta and the right ventricle.
The pulmonary aorta divides into two branches, each entering a lung. Only the right aortic arch is
present in birds.
The right auricles of the heart receives venous blood from all parts of the body except the lungs,
through the precaval and post caval veins.
The right ventricles pumps venous blood into the lungs through the pulmonary aorta. The
oxygenated blood from the lungs is returned to the left auricle through the pulmonary veins. From
the left ventricle a single right aortic arch carries oxygenated blood to the different parts of the
body.
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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU
The right half of the heart receives and discharges only venous blood and the left half
only arterial blood. Thus birds possess a complete double circulation which includes
the pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU

4.3.2. Structure and function of Brain of Columba livia

The brain of pigeon is larger than in lower forms, it is short, broad and rounded within cranial
cavity. Brain is covered by two meninges, the outer duramater and an inner pia-arachnoid
membrane and the space between the two meninges is filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
The cerebral hemispheres of the pigeon are large and extend behind to meet the cerebellum. The
cerebrum controls voluntary movements and is the center for memory and intelligence.
The diencephalon is covered dorsally by the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum. The
diencephalon relays impulses to the cerebral hemispheres, integrates the autonomic system and the
perception of extreme cold, pain, heat etc.
On the ventral side of the diencephalon is the optic chiasma, behind the chiasma projects
the infundibulum bearing a large hypophysis or pituitary.
The optic lobes are
large and occupy a
lateral position
owing to the large
size of the cerebral
hemispheres and
cerebellum. Optic
lobes are centres for
sight. The pineal
body and
infundibulum are
present.
The cerebellum is
highly developed
and convoluted
indicating the
delicate sense of
equilibrium and the
great power of muscular co-ordination required for birds.

The cerebellum extends backwards covering a large part of the medulla oblongata which
descends downwards to join the spinal cord. The medulla oblongata controls the involuntary
movement. The olfactory lobes or bulbs are small and degenerate due to poorly developed organs
of smell.

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU
4.3 Migration in Birds
Migration in birds is a phenomenon in which birds travel from one place to another in search of
favourable conditions and more resources for their survival. Bird migration is a two-way journey from
breeding or resting place to feeding or nesting place and vice versa. It is a periodic, regular, to and fro
movement.
Some species of birds do not migrate and remain in a place throughout the year are called residents.
Ex. Bobwhite, Rufflet, Sand goose etc. The birds from northern hemisphere are more migratory than the
southern hemisphere. Ex. Siberian crane, Golden plover, Cuckoos etc.
Bird migration may be diurnal, nocturnal or both. Ex. Hawk, Robin of diurnal, Sparrow, Webler of
nocturnal and duck, gull of both. Distance travelled by migratory birds depends on the local condition and
species of birds. Ex. Golden lover is the non-stop fighter; Arctic terns are king of migrants.
i. Causes of bird migration

 Due to seasonal changes, scarcity of food, the shortening of daylight, increase in cold etc.
 According to Bissonnette, decrease in pituitary activity in winter cause bird to migrate southward.
In summer, the pituitary activity becomes active and gonads develop, so, the birds return northward
for breeding.
 Migration is a part of the sexual cycle. Birds begin to migrate northward as their gonads begin to
swell
 The birds also migrate to save their offspring and themselves from predators and diseases.
ii. Factors affecting the migration
Physical factor: Light, temperature, a velocity of wind etc. affect bird migration
Metabolic factor: When birds consume more amount of food, the fats deposited under subcutaneous layer
affects the nervous system, then, the birds migrate towards the breeding place.
Hormonal or Biological factor: Due to the intensity of light, the pituitary gland stimulated which secretes
the gonadotrophic hormone (FSH and LH). These hormones activate gonads, which affect nervous system,
and then the birds migrate towards breeding place.
Shortage of food: In the northern hemisphere, due to ice sheet during winter, shortage of food occurs. So,
the birds migrate towards southern hemisphere
iii. Types of bird migrations
Latitudinal migration: North to south and vice-versa. Ex. Siberian crane
Longitudinal migration: East to west and vice-versa Ex. Starling bird
Vertical migration: Up and down in the mountain region Ex. Daphe
Partial Migration: Within a single species, some do migrate and some do not. Ex. Birds of the temperate
regions
Irregular migration: Migrate in all direction covering few or many miles Ex. Herons
Regular migration: Birds can out from their nest in the morning to search food and return back in evening
hour Daily. Ex. Pigeon, Sparrow

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU
Seasonal migration: Some birds are winter visitors like know bunting whereas some birds are summer
visitors like swift
iv. Advantages of bird migration
 Birds get more food, better climatic condition, and breeding place
 Birds get better adaptability in new place
 There will be the wide geographical distribution of birds
v. Disadvantages of bird migration
 Predator will die due to the shortage of food when birds of that place migrate
 During migration, birds need to face several risks (pollution, storms, wildfires, and habitat
destruction along migration routes) in enormous number of birds die
 They can carry the germs like bird flu
 Hunting along migration routes threatens some bird species

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III SEM U4 – AVES Animal Diversity –II Biology of Chordates K HARISH BABU
4.4.2 Flight Adaptation in Birds
Flying is a unique ability of birds, and for this, they have acquired various adaptations. It's obvious
that birds have evolved wings to fly, but their flight is so energy-intensive that they have evolved many
adaptations to improve it.
There are two main types of flight or aerial adaptation in birds.
i. Morphological Adaptation
The following morphological adaptations to flight are found in birds:
Body contour: Bird’s bodies are streamlined, and spindle-shaped to help overcome air resistance.
Compact Body: The body of birds is compact and is light and strong dorsally and heavy ventrally. This
shape helps in maintaining equilibrium in the air.
Body covering of Feather: The body of all birds is covered by feathers, helps in maintain its buoyancy
and constant body temperature.
Wings: The wings of birds are unique, powerful, and propelling organs that are modified form of forelimbs.
The wings are the sole organs of flight.
Mobility in the neck and head: In birds, the neck is long and flexible which helps in the movement head.
Perching: When a bird sits on a branch of the tree, the toes close around the twig automatically (for arboreal
life). It happens due to a mechanism known as perching. Birds can sleep in this position without any fear
of falling off.
Short tail: Rectrices serves as a rudder during flight. The short tails also assist in steering, lifting, and
counterbalancing during flight and perching.
ii. Anatomical adaptation:
The following anatomical adaptations are found in flying birds:
Flight muscles: A bird's wings are controlled by the flight muscles, which weigh about one-sixth of its
body weight, while its back muscles are reduced. Large muscles, the pectoralis major depress the wings,
while the pectoralis minor elevates them.
Lightness and Rigidity of Endoskeleton: Flying birds have very stout and light skeletal structures. Flying
birds have pneumatic bones, which are filled with air sacs. Bone marrow is absent. Due to the fusion of
bones, the skeletal framework becomes compact, centralized, and rigid.
Digestive system: Birds' rectum become much smaller and do not store undigested food. Birds lack gall
bladders, which minimizes their body weight.
Respiratory system: There is a remarkable system of air sacs in the lungs of birds, which reduce the
specific gravity of birds and facilitate complete aeration.
Circulatory system: Birds have large, four-chambered, powerful, and efficient hearts. Hemoglobin is
abundant in the red blood cells of birds.
Warm bloodedness: In birds, the body temperature is constant and high, which allows them to fly at high
altitudes and stay active all year round.
Excretory system: The urinary bladder is absent in birds. Semi-solid uric acid is excreted out immediately,
since it does not remain in the body for long.
Reproductive organs: The left side of female birds has a single functional ovary. Furthermore, it reduces
body weight, which is essential for flying.
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