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Cambridge
IGCSETM and O Level
History
Option B:
The 20th Century
Third edition

Ben Walsh
Benjamin Harrison

Covers the revised Cambridge IGCSETM,

IGCSE (9-1) and O Level syllabuses
(0470/0977/2147) for examination from 2024
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Contents
How this book will help you to achieve your
best in Cambridge IGCSE TM and O Level History iv
Photo acknowledgements vi

SECTION 1 Core Content Option B

The 20th century: International Relations from 1919
Part 1 The Inter-War Years, 1919–39 2
1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair? 5
2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success? 25
3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the
outbreak of war in Europe in 1939? 55

Part 2 The Cold War, 1945–75 78

4 Who was to blame for the Cold War? 81
5 How effectively did the USA contain the spread of communism? 99
6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989? 127
Focus on: Structured Questions 148
Focus on: Document Questions 155

SECTION 2 Depth Studies

7 Russia, 1905–41 171
8 Germany, 1918–45 221
9 The USA, 1919–41 285
Focus on: Structured Questions 338
Focus on: Alternative to Coursework 343
Glossary 356
Index 363

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SECTION 1
Core Content
Option B The 20th century:
International Relations
from 1919
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The Inter-War
PART 1
Years, 1919–39

1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929

The First Post-war crises Improving international relations

World
War

Jan 1920 1925 1926 1928

The League The Germany The Kellogg–
of Nations Locarno joins the Briand Pact:
starts work. Its Treaties: League most nations
task is to sort Germany of agree not to
out disputes appears to Nations go to war to
between accept the settle their
countries fairly Treaty of disputes
Versailles

Jan–June 1919 1923 Oct 1929

The Paris Peace Crisis in The Wall
Conference: Germany as Street Crash
Allied leaders France invades leads to a
meet and draw the Ruhr worldwide
up the Treaty of and inflation economic
Versailles makes money depression
worthless

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Focus
Chapters 1–3 of this book cover a turbulent period evaluate its successes (it did have many) and its
of European history. After the trauma of the First failures (which tend to be remembered rather more
World War, citizens of European countries were than the successes) and reach your own view on how
hoping for peace, prosperity and calm. Instead they we should remember the League – as a success or a
got revolutions, economic depression, international failure or something between.
disputes, dictatorships, and in the end a Second World ■ Finally in Chapter 3 you will examine the events of
War. How did this happen? the 1930s which finally tipped Europe back into war.
It is common to blame Hitler and his foreign policy
■ In Chapter 1 you will examine the Treaty of
for this slide to war but this chapter will help you to
Versailles at the end of the First World War and
reach a balanced view that sees what other factors
consider whether it was fair on Germany. Some
played a part.
would say that the Treaty created problems for the
future; others that it was the fairest it could have The events in these chapters overlap in time. The
been given the very difficult situation after the timeline below gives you an overview of the main
First World War. events you will be studying. It would be helpful if you
■ The League of Nations was set up in 1920 to prevent made your own copy and added your own notes to it as
war between countries. In Chapter 2 you will you study.

1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940

Worldwide economic depression Deteriorating international relations The Second

World War

1933 1937
Japan and Italy leaves
Germany the League
leave the of Nations
League of
Nations

1931–33 Jan 1933 1933–1935 1935–1936 Mar 1936 Oct 1938 1939
The Hitler Germany The German The policy of Aug: Hitler and
Manchurian becomes begins to Abyssinian troops appeasement Stalin sign the
Crisis: Japan leader of rearm crisis: Italy enter the ends with the Nazi–Soviet Pact
expands its Germany invades Rhineland Munich Sept: They both
Pacific empire and pledges Abyssinia agreement invade Poland
to abolish giving the
the Treaty of Sudetenland to
Versailles Germany

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1
Was the Treaty of Versailles
fair?
FOCUS POINTS
What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles?
Why did the victors not get everything they wanted?
What was the impact of the Treaty on Germany up to the end
of 1923?
Could the Treaty be justified at the time?

However long or violent a war is, eventually the opposing sides must
make peace. But because war is destructive and leaves a bitter legacy, the
peacemaking after a long conflict can be the hardest job of all.
The people who had that role in 1919 had a particularly hard task. The First
World War involved more countries, using more powerful weapons, causing
greater casualties and physical destruction, than any war before it. The war
had bankrupted some countries. It led to revolutions in others. There was
bitterness and resentment.
In this post-war atmosphere almost everyone agreed that part of the job of
the peacemakers was to avoid another war like it – but no one agreed how
to do that.
Any treaty is a balancing act. The peacemakers have to keep the victors
This British cartoon was
happy but ensure that the defeated country accepts the terms of the
published in 1919 shortly peace. Was it really possible to produce a treaty which all sides would
after the terms of the have seen as fair? That’s the key question you will have to think about in
Treaty of Versailles had this chapter.
been announced. A German
You are going to investigate what happened when these peacemakers got
man is holding the treaty
together to draw up the Treaty of Versailles.
terms which say how much
Germany has to pay for the You will focus on:
damage caused by the war. ■ what the peacemakers were hoping to achieve
1 Does he think the Treaty ■ how they worked
■ what they decided
is fair? Why or why not?
■ why they decided it.
2 Does the cartoonist
think the Treaty is fair? Then you will reach conclusions about the key question – how ‘fair’ was the
Why or why not? Treaty they came up with, which means thinking about:
3 What is the message of ■ whether people at the time thought the Treaty was fair, and why or why
this cartoon? not
■ whether historians (with the benefit of hindsight) think it was fair.

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Aims of the Big Three: Wilson's viewpoint

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Profile
Woodrow Wilson
(President of the USA)
High hopes for peace
Looking back it may seem that the peacemakers in 1919 had an impossible
job. But that is not how people saw it at the time. There was great
optimism. One of the main reasons for these high hopes was the American
President Woodrow Wilson.
In 1918 Wilson made a speech outlining Fourteen Points (see Factfile),
guidelines for a just and lasting peace treaty to end conflict.
When he arrived in Europe for the Paris Peace Conference, Wilson was seen
almost as a saintly figure. Newspaper reports described wounded soldiers
in Italy trying to kiss the hem of his cloak and in France peasant families
kneeling to pray as his train passed by.
Background
■ Born 1856. Wilson’s ideas
■ Became a university professor.
How did Wilson think the peacemakers could build a better and more
■ First entered politics in 1910.
■ Became President in 1912 and
peaceful world?
was re-elected in 1916. ■ Don’t be too harsh on Germany. Wilson did believe Germany should
■ From 1914 to 1917 he be punished. But he also believed that if Germany was treated harshly,
concentrated on keeping the some day it would recover and want revenge. He was also concerned
USA out of the war. that extremist groups, especially communists, might exploit resentment
■ Once the USA had joined the war among the Germans and communists might even seize power in Germany
in 1917, he drew up the Fourteen
as they had in Russia in 1917.
Points as the basis for ending the
war fairly, so that future wars
■ Strengthen democracy in defeated countries. For Wilson democracy
could be avoided. was a key to peace in Europe. If leaders in defeated nations had to
listen to the views of their people and win their votes those people
Character would not let their leaders cause another war.
■ An idealist and a reformer. ■ Give self-determination to small countries that had once been part
■ As President, he had campaigned of the European empires. He wanted the different peoples of eastern
against corruption in politics and Europe (for example, Poles, Czechs and Slovaks) to rule themselves
business. However, he had a poor
record with regard to the rights
rather than be part of Austria–Hungary’s empire.
of African Americans. ■ International co-operation. Wilson also believed that nations should
■ He was obstinate. Once he made co-operate to achieve world peace. This would be achieved through a
his mind up on an issue he was ‘League of Nations’, Wilson’s most important of the Fourteen Points.
almost impossible to shift.
You can see from these principles that Wilson was an idealist. However, he
was not a politician who could be pushed around. For example, he refused
to cancel the debts owed to the USA by Britain and its Allies so that he
could put pressure on them to accept his ideas.

FOCUS TASK 1.1 Revision Tip

What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles? Your completed chart from the
Focus Task should be perfect for
Using the information and sources on pages 6–9, fill out a chart like the revision on this topic. The basic
one below summarising the aims of the three leaders at the Paris Peace requirement is to be sure you can
Conference. Leave the fifth column blank. You will need it for a later task. name:
■ each of the Big Three
Leader Country Attitude towards Main aim(s)
■ one priority for each of them at
Germany and motives
the peace talks
Wilson ■ two issues that they disagreed
Lloyd George about.
Clemenceau

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SOURCE 1

1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

Source Analysis
Study the main features of
Source 1. Who is making the soup?
Who is helping him? What are they
adding to the mix? What is already A cartoon published in 1919 in an Australian newspaper.
in there?

Factfile
The Fourteen Points: a summary
1 No secret treaties. 10 Self-determination for the peoples of eastern Europe
2 Free access to the seas in peacetime or wartime. (they should rule themselves and not be ruled by
3 Free trade between countries. empires).
4 All countries to work towards disarmament. 11 Serbia to have access to the sea.
5 Colonies to have a say in their own future. 12 Self-determination for the people in the Turkish empire.
6 German troops to leave Russia. 13 Poland to become an independent state with access to
7 Independence for Belgium. the sea.
8 France to regain Alsace–Lorraine. 14 League of Nations to be set up.
9 Frontier between Austria and Italy to be adjusted.

Factfile
The Paris Peace Conference, 1919–20
■ The Conference took place in the Palace of Versailles (a ■ All of the important decisions on the fate of Germany
short distance from Paris). were taken by Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France),
■ It lasted for twelve months. Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Britain) and Wilson
■ Thirty-two nations were supposed to be represented, but (President of the USA) who together were known as ‘The
no one from the defeated countries was invited. Big Three’.
■ Five treaties were drawn up at the Conference. The ■ The Big Three were supported by a huge army of
main one was the Treaty of Versailles, which dealt with diplomats and expert advisers, but the Big Three often
Germany. The other treaties dealt with Germany’s allies. ignored their advice.

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Did everyone share Wilson’s viewpoint?

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Profile
David Lloyd George Not surprisingly, when Wilson talked about lasting peace and justice other
(Prime Minister of Britain) leaders agreed with him. After all, who would want to stand up in public
and say they were against a just and lasting peace?!
However, many were doubtful about Wilson’s ideas for achieving it. For
example, ‘self-determination’: it would be very difficult to give the peoples
of eastern Europe the opportunity to rule themselves because they were
scattered across many countries. Some people were bound to end up being
ruled by people from another group with different customs and a different
language. Some historians have pointed out that while Wilson talked a
great deal about eastern and central Europe, he did not actually know very
much about the area.
There were other concerns as well. So let’s look at the aims and views of
Background the other leaders at the Paris Peace Conference: David Lloyd George (from
■ Born 1863. Britain) and Georges Clemenceau (from France).
■ First entered politics in 1890.
■ He was a very able politician Did Lloyd George agree with Wilson?
who became Prime Minister in
In public Lloyd George praised Wilson and his ideas. However, in private he
1916 and remained in power until
1922. was less positive. He complained to one of his officials that Wilson came to
Paris like a missionary to rescue the Europeans with his little sermons and
Character lectures.
A realist. As an experienced
politician, he knew there would have
He agreed with Wilson on many issues, particularly that Germany should be
to be compromise. Thus he occupied punished but not too harshly. He did not want Germany to seek revenge in
the middle ground between the the future and possibly start another war.
views of Wilson and Clemenceau.
Like Wilson he was deeply concerned that a harsh treaty might lead to a
communist revolution like the one in Russia in 1917. He also wanted Britain
and Germany to begin trading with each other again. Before the war,
Germany had been Britain’s second largest trading partner. British people
might not like it, but the fact was that trade with Germany meant jobs in
Britain.
However, unlike Wilson, Lloyd George had the needs of the British empire
in mind. He wanted Germany to lose its navy and its colonies because they
threatened the British empire.
SOURCE 2
We want a peace which will be just, but not vindictive. We want a stern peace
because the occasion demands it, but the severity must be designed, not for
vengeance, but for justice. Above all, we want to protect the future against a
repetition of the horrors of this war.
Lloyd George speaking to the House of Commons before the Peace Conference.

SOURCE 3
If I am elected, Germany is going to pay . . . I have personally no doubt we will get
everything that you can squeeze out of a lemon, and a bit more. I propose that every
Source Analysis bit of [German-owned] property, movable and immovable, in Allied and neutral
1 In what ways are Sources 2 and 3 countries, whether State property or private property, should be surrendered by the
different? Germans.
2 Are there any ways in which they Sir Eric Geddes, a government minister, speaking to a rally in the general election
are similar? campaign, December 1918.

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Pressures on Lloyd George

1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

Profile
Lloyd George faced huge public pressures at home for a harsh treaty (see
Georges Clemenceau Source 2). People in Britain were not sympathetic to Germany in any way.
(Prime Minister of France) They had suffered over 1 million casualties in the fighting, as well as food
shortages and other hardships at home. They had been fed anti-German
propaganda for four years. They had also seen how Germany had treated
Russia in 1918 when Russia surrendered. Under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Germany had stripped Russia of 25 per cent of its population and huge
areas of Russia’s best agricultural land.
Lloyd George had just won the 1918 election in Britain by promising to
‘make Germany pay’, even though he realised the dangers of this course of
action. So Lloyd George had to balance these pressures at home with his
desire not to leave Germany wanting revenge.

Background
Did Clemenceau agree with Wilson?
■ Born 1841 (he was aged 77 when
In public, Clemenceau of course agreed with Wilson’s aim for a fair and
the Paris Conference began). lasting peace. However, he found Wilson very hard to work with. While he
■ First entered French politics in did not publicly criticise the Fourteen Points, Clemenceau once pointed out
1871. that even God had only needed Ten Commandments!
■ Was Prime Minister of France
from 1906 to 1909. The major disagreement was over Germany. Clemenceau and other French
■ From 1914 to 1917 he was leaders saw the Treaty as an opportunity to cripple Germany so that it
very critical of the French war could not attack France again.
leaders. In November 1917 he
was elected to lead France Pressures on Clemenceau
through the last year of the war.
France had suffered enormous damage to its land, industry, people – and
Character self-confidence. Over two-thirds of the men who had served in the French
A hard, tough politician army had been killed or wounded. The war affected almost an entire
with a reputation for being generation.
uncompromising. He had seen
his country invaded twice by the By comparison, Germany seemed to many French people as powerful and
Germans, in 1870 and in 1914. He threatening as ever. German land and industry had not been as badly
was determined not to allow such damaged as France’s. France’s population (around 40 million) was in decline
devastation ever again. compared to Germany’s (around 75 million).
The French people wanted a treaty that would punish Germany and weaken
it as much as possible. The French President (Poincaré) even wanted
Germany broken up into a collection of smaller states, but Clemenceau
knew that the British and Americans would not agree to this.
Clemenceau was a realist and knew he would probably be forced to
compromise on some issues. However, he had to show he was aware of
public opinion in France.

Think!
1 One of the ideas put forward at the Paris Conference b) Germany to pay compensation for damage done by
was that Germany should lose some of its key German forces in lands they occupied during the
industrial areas. How would you expect Lloyd George war.
to react to a proposal like this? You could present c) Germany’s armed forces to be severely limited.
your answer as a short speech by Lloyd George or in a
Which of these terms do you think made it into the final
paragraph of text.
Treaty? Give each term a percentage chance and keep a
2 Here are some extracts from the demands made by
note of your guesses. You will find out if you were right
France before the Peace Conference started:
later in the chapter.
a) German armed forces to be banned from the bank
of the River Rhine (which bordered France).

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How did the peacemaking process

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

actually work?
In theory, the major issues like borders and reparations (compensation for
war damage) were discussed in detail by all the delegates at the conference
(see Source 4) – over 32 leaders with all their officials and advisers! As
Source 5 shows, it quickly became impossible to consult everyone.

SOURCE 4

A painting showing the delegates at the Paris Peace Conference at work. It was made for the Illustrated London News,
which was a very popular British newspaper aimed at a mass market. It was particularly well known for using paintings even after
photography was well established. The paper’s artists were given official access to the meetings of the Peace Conference to report
and create illustrations. This image had the official approval of the Big Three.

SOURCE 5
Source Analysis
Study Source 4 carefully and then
‘Wilson the Just’ quickly disappointed expectations. Everything about him served to
discuss these questions. disillusion those he dealt with. All too soon the President was qualifying the Fourteen
1 Why was this picture published? Points with ‘Four Principles’ and modifying them with ‘Five Particulars’. Finding that
2 What impression was it trying to one principle conflicted with another, he made compromising declarations about
give of the conference and the both. The Big Three abandoned Wilson’s principle of open covenants openly arrived
delegates? at, consulting others only when they needed expert advice. They were occasionally to
3 After studying Source 4 and the be seen crawling round their maps on the hearth rug. Sometimes they agreed and,
other information in this section,
do you think the impression is
according to one British official ‘were so pleased with themselves for doing so that
accurate? Make sure you can they quite forgot to tell anyone what the agreement was’. Sometimes they almost
explain your view. came to blows. Lloyd George made rapid, quick fire points but they were ineffective
4 If you were using this image to against Clemenceau’s granite obstinacy. Even Wilson’s self-important confidence
introduce a documentary on the crashed against the rock of Clemenceau … Clemenceau was delighted when the
Treaty of Versailles, what main American President fell ill. He suggested that Lloyd George should bribe Wilson’s
points would you make in the doctor to make the illness last.
commentary that the viewer
would hear? Historian Piers Brendon writing in 2006.

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It soon became clear it would be impossible to agree terms that everyone

1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

would agree about.
■ Clemenceau clashed with Wilson over many issues. The USA had
not suffered nearly as badly as France in the war. Clemenceau resented
Wilson’s more generous attitude to Germany. They disagreed over what
to do about Germany’s Rhineland and coalfields in the Saar. In the end,
Wilson had to give way on these issues. In return, Clemenceau and Lloyd
George did give Wilson what he wanted in eastern Europe, despite their
reservations about his idea of self-determination. However, this mainly
affected the peace treaties with the other defeated countries rather
than the Treaty of Versailles.
■ Clemenceau also clashed with Lloyd George, particularly over
Lloyd George’s desire not to treat Germany too harshly. For example,
Clemenceau said that ‘if the British are so anxious to appease Germany
they should look overseas and make colonial, naval or commercial
concessions’. Clemenceau felt that the British were quite happy to treat
Germany fairly in Europe, where France rather than Britain was most
under threat. However, they were less happy to allow Germany to keep
its navy and colonies, which would be more of a threat to Britain.
■ Wilson and Lloyd George did not always agree either. Lloyd George
was particularly unhappy with point 2 of the Fourteen Points, allowing
all nations access to the seas. Similarly, Wilson’s views on people ruling
themselves were threatening to the British government, for the British
empire ruled millions of people all across the world from London.

ACTIVITY
Who said what about whom?
Here are some statements that were made by the Big Three
at the Paris Peace Conference. Your task is to decide which
leader made the statement and also whom he was talking
about. You will need to be able to explain your answer.
a) ‘He is too anxious to preserve his empire to want self-
determination for colonies.’
b) ‘His country has been ruling the waves for too long to
accept the need for freedom of the seas.’
c) ‘He wants to wreck a country which in a few years could
be a valuable trading partner and a source of vital jobs.’
d) ‘Freedom of the seas is all very well but who or what will
protect my country’s ships and trade?’
e) ‘What does he know about colonies and how they should Wilson
be ruled? He probably doesn’t know where most of them
are!’
f) ‘How can I work with a man who thinks he is the first
leader in 2000 years who knows anything about peace?’
g) ‘If he is so anxious to make concessions to the Germans
then they should look overseas and make naval or
colonial concessions.’
h) ‘He is stuck in the past. If he gets his way Germany will be
left bitter and vengeful and there will be another war in a
few years.’
i) ‘He is very happy to give concessions to Germany in areas Clemenceau Lloyd George
which do not threaten his country.’
j) ‘If you carry on annoying me I am going to punch you!’
k) ‘There are new, better ways of making a peace agreement.
He should accept that all states should disarm.’
l) ‘He must make concessions to the Germans, perhaps
over the Rhineland or Alsace–Lorraine.’

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The terms of the Treaty of Versailles

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

None of the Big Three was happy with the eventual terms of the Treaty.
After months of negotiation, each of them had to compromise on some of
their aims; otherwise there would never have been a treaty. The main terms
can be divided into five areas.

1 War guilt ■ Article 231 of the Treaty was simple but was seen by the Germans as
extremely harsh. Germany had to accept the blame for starting the war.
2 Reparations ■ The major powers agreed, without consulting Germany, that Germany
had to pay reparations to the Allies for the damage caused by the war.
The exact figure was not agreed until 1921 when it was set at £6,600
million (132 billion gold marks) – an enormous figure. If the terms of the
payments had not later been changed under the Young Plan in 1929 (see
page 38), Germany would not have finished paying this bill until 1984.
■ France also received the coal from the Saarland for fifteen years.
3 German territories ■ Germany’s European borders were very extensive, and the section
dealing with German territory in Europe was a complicated part of
and colonies the Treaty. You can see the detail in Figure 6. The Treaty also forbade
Germany to join together (ANSCHLUSS) with its former ally Austria.

FIGURE 6

Key
NORWAY
Land taken
away from
Germany
Lithuania, Estonia
and Latvia became
Demilitarised
independent states. ESTONIA
zone
SWEDEN Germany had taken
N these states from
Russia in 1918
LATVIA

0 500 km To Denmark after Danzig (free city) run LITHUANIA

Scale a vote (or plebiscite) by League of Nations.
This was to give To Lithuania
Poland a sea port
North
Schleswig
North Sea East
Prussia
The Rhineland
became a
‘Polish corridor’
demilitarised zone
West Prussia
POLAND
and Posen To Poland
GERMANY

Saarland: run by League To Poland

of Nations and then a
plebiscite to be held
after 15 years Upper
Silesia

Alsace–
Lorraine
To France Anschluss between Austria
and Germany was forbidden
FRANCE

HUNGARY
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA

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1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

■ Germany’s overseas empire was taken away. It had been one of the
causes of bad relations between Britain and Germany before the war.
Former German colonies, such as Cameroon, became mandates controlled
by the League of Nations, which effectively meant that France and
Britain controlled them.
4 Germany’s armed forces The size and power of the German army was a major concern, especially for
France. The Treaty therefore restricted German armed forces to a level well
below what they had been before the war.
■ The army was limited to 100,000 men.
■ CONSCRIPTION was banned – soldiers had to be volunteers.
■ Germany was not allowed armoured vehicles, submarines or aircraft.
■ The navy could have only six battleships and 15,000 sailors.
■ The Rhineland became a DEMILITARISED zone. This meant that no German
troops were allowed into that area. The Rhineland was important because
it was the border area between Germany and France (see Figure 6).
5 League of Nations ■ Previous methods of keeping peace had failed and so the League of
Nations was set up as an international ‘police force’. (You will study the
League in detail in Chapter 2.)
■ Germany was not invited to join the League until it had shown that it
was a peace-loving country.

Revision Tip FOCUS TASK 1.2

The more you know about the Treaty Why did the victors not get everything they wanted?
of Versailles, the more it will help 1 Work in threes. Look back at the profiles of Wilson, Lloyd George and
you. Make sure you can remember Clemenceau on pages 6, 8 and 9. Choose one each. Study the terms of the
one or two key points under each of Treaty on these two pages. Think about:
these headings: a) which terms of the Treaty would please your chosen leader and why
■ Blame b) which terms would displease him and why
■ Reparations c) how far he seemed to have achieved his aims.
■ Arms Report your findings to your partners.
■ Territory. 2 Look back at the chart you compiled on page 6. There should be a blank
fifth column. Put the heading ‘How they felt about the Treaty’ and fill it in
for each leader with a one-sentence summary.
3 a) Choose one of the following phrases to finish off this sentence:
The victors did not get everything they wanted because . . .
– Clemenceau bullied Wilson and Lloyd George into agreeing to a
harsh treaty.
– the leaders’ aims were too different – they could not all have got
what they wanted and someone was bound to be disappointed.
– public opinion in their home countries affected the leaders’ decisions.
b) Write a paragraph to explain why you chose that phrase.
c) Write two more paragraphs to explain whether there is evidence to
support the other two.

FOCUS TASK 1.3

Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?
It is important to make up your own mind about this key question and be able to back up your view with evidence and
arguments. So place yourself on this scale and write some sentences to explain your position. This is provisional. You
will return to it again.

FAIR UNFAIR

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German reactions to the Treaty of

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Versailles
The government that took Germany to war in 1914 had been overthrown
in a revolution and the new democratic government in Germany was
hoping for fair and equal treatment from the Allies. When the terms
were announced on 7 May the Germans were horrified. Their reasons are
summarised in the diagram opposite.
The new German government refused to sign the Treaty and the German
navy sank its own ships in protest. At one point, it looked as though war
might break out again. But what could the German leader Friedrich Ebert
do? Germany would quickly be defeated if it tried to fight.
Reluctantly, Ebert agreed to accept the terms of the Treaty and it was
signed on 28 June 1919.

SOURCE 7 SOURCE 8
THE TREATY IS ONLY A SCRAP OF
PAPER! We will seek vengeance for the
shame of 1919.
German newspaper Deutsche Zeitung,
June 1919.

Source Analysis
Study Source 8. If you did not know
this source was German would you
be able to work this out? Explain Cartoon from the German magazine Simplicissimus, June 1919. The caption in the
how. magazine read: ‘The Allies are burying Germany with the peace terms.’

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1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

War guilt and reparations Disarmament
Germany had to accept the blame The German army was reduced to
for starting the war and therefore 100,000 men. It could have no air
had to pay reparations. force, and only a tiny navy.

• This ‘war guilt’ clause was particularly hated. Germans felt these terms were very unfair. An
Germans did not feel they had started the army of 100,000 was very small for a country
war. They felt at the very least that blame of Germany’s size and the army was a symbol
should be shared. of German pride.
• They were bitter that Germany was expected Also, despite Wilson’s Fourteen Points calling for
to pay for all the damage caused by the war disarmament, none of the Allies were being
even though the German economy was asked or forced to disarm in the same way.
severely weakened.

German territories
Germany certainly lost a lot The Fourteen Points
of territory. and the League of Nations
• 10 per cent of its land in Europe
• All of its overseas colonies
• 12.5 per cent of its population
German • To most Germans, the treatment of Germany
was not in keeping with Wilson’s Fourteen
• 16 per cent of its coalfields and criticisms Points. For example, while self-determination
almost half of its iron and steel of the was given to countries such as Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania, German-speaking
industry. Treaty of peoples were being hived off into new

This was a major blow to German pride, and

Versailles countries such as Czechoslovakia to be ruled
by non-Germans. Anschluss (union) with
to its economy. Both the Saar and Upper Silesia Austria was forbidden.
were important industrial areas. • Germany felt further insulted by not being
Meanwhile, as Germany was losing colonies, invited to join the League of Nations.
the British and French were increasing their
empires by taking control of German territories
in Africa.
Non-representation

Germans were angry that their government was

not represented at the peace talks and that they
were being forced to accept a harsh treaty
without any choice or even comment. Germans
did not feel they had lost the war so they should
not have been treated as a defeated country.

SOURCE 9

A mass protest in Berlin in June 1919 against the Treaty of Versailles.

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Consequences of the Treaty for Germany

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

The Treaty of Versailles had a profound effect on Germany for the next ten
years and more. The Treaty was universally resented. The historian Zara
Steiner argues that hatred of the Versailles Treaty was almost the only issue
which all Germans in this period agreed on.
Many Germans viewed the signing of the Treaty as a betrayal and a
humiliation. Right-wing groups referred to the Weimar politicians as the
‘NOVEMBER CRIMINALS’ who had stabbed Germany in the back at the end of
the war. Territorial losses to France, Belgium, Denmark and Poland meant
many ethnic Germans now lived in different countries, which led to social
problems and even conflict. Also, the creation of the Polish Corridor had
split East Prussia from the rest of Germany causing many German families
to migrate back to mainland Germany. The military restrictions left German
Source Analysis citizens feeling defenceless and demoralised as the German army had been
Study Source 10. The artist had a a source of pride for many.
difficult aim to achieve because he
wanted to show the German worker
as strong and determined but at the
Political violence
same time being threatened by the Right-wing opponents of Ebert’s government protested against the Treaty. In
French troops. Do you think he has 1920, bands of ex-soldiers called FREIKORPS were ordered to disband by the
achieved this aim? Explain which government as their existence broke the military terms of the Treaty. Led
elements of the poster led you to by Wolfgang Kapp, an uprising began in March 1920 to overthrow Ebert and
this conclusion. install a nationalist government. This rising, called the Kapp Putsch, was
defeated by a GENERAL STRIKE by Berlin workers which paralysed essential
services such as power and transport. It saved Ebert’s government
SOURCE 10 but it added to the chaos in Germany – and the bitterness of Germans
towards the Treaty.
Although Kapp was defeated, political violence remained a constant
threat. There were numerous political assassinations or attempted
assassinations. In the summer of 1922 Germany’s foreign minister
Walther Rathenau was murdered by extremists. Then in November
1923 Adolf Hitler led an attempted rebellion in Munich, known as
the Munich Putsch (see page 236). Hitler’s rebellion was defeated
but he was let off lightly when he was put on trial and it was clear
many Germans shared his hatred of Versailles. Over the next ten years
he exploited German resentment of the Treaty of Versailles to gain
support for himself and his Nazi party.

Conflict in the Ruhr

Under the Treaty Germany agreed to pay £6,600 million in reparations
to the Allies. The first instalment of £50 million was paid in 1921, but
in 1922 nothing was paid. Ebert tried to negotiate concessions from
the Allies, but the French ran out of patience. In 1923 French and
Belgian soldiers entered the Ruhr region and simply took what was
owed to them in the form of raw materials and goods. This was quite
legal under the Treaty of Versailles.
The results of the occupation of the Ruhr were disastrous for Germany.
The German government ordered the workers to go on strike so that
A German poster from 1923 showing a German
they were not producing anything for the French to take. The French
worker refusing to obey the French troops reacted harshly, killing over 100 workers and expelling over 100,000
ordering him to work. The caption says protesters from the region. More importantly, the strike meant that
‘No, you can’t force me’. Germany had no goods to trade, and no money to buy things with.
Their response led, in turn, to hyperinflation (see page 17).

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There is much debate about the developments in the Ruhr. Most Germans

1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

believed that the crisis arose because the reparations were too high
and Germany was virtually bankrupted. Many commentators at the time
(including the British and French leaders) claimed that Germany was quite
able to afford reparations: it just did not want to pay! Some historians
argue that Germany stopped paying reparations in order to create a crisis
and force the international community to revise the terms of the Treaty.
The debate goes on, but there is no doubt that most Germans at the time
believed the Treaty was responsible for the crisis and that the reparations
were far too high.

Hyperinflation
The government solved the problem of not having enough money by simply
printing extra money, but this caused a new problem – hyperinflation. The
money was virtually worthless, so prices shot up. The price of goods could
rise between joining the back of a
SOURCE 11 queue in a shop and reaching the front
(see page XXX)! Wages began to be
paid daily instead of weekly.
Some Germans gained from this
disaster. The government and big
industrialists were able to pay off
their huge debts in worthless marks.
But others, especially pensioners,
were practically left penniless. A
prosperous middle-class family would
find that their savings, which might
have bought a house in 1921, by 1923
would not even buy a loaf of bread.
SOURCE 12
Billion mark notes were quickly handed
A German banknote of 1923 for one billion marks. on as though they burned one’s fingers,
for tomorrow one would no longer pay in
Revision Tip notes but in bundles of notes ... One afternoon I rang Aunt Louise’s bell. The door was
There were many problems opened merely a crack. From the dark came an odd broken voice: ‘I’ve used 60 billion
Germany faced in the period marks’ worth of gas. My milk bill is 1 million. But all I have left is 2000 marks. I don’t
1919–23: understand any more.’
■ social problems Extract from Convert to Freedom by Eitel Dobert, published in 1941. Dobert
■ political violence, and was a writer and lecturer and joined the Nazi party in 1920.
■ hyperinflation.

Make sure you can explain how Germany eventually recovered from this disaster, but it left a bitter
each one was linked to the Treaty of memory. The bitterness was directed towards the Treaty of Versailles. It is
Versailles. no coincidence that when Germany faced economic problems again in 1929
many Germans believed Hitler’s claims that the Treaty was to blame and
they should support his plans to overturn it.
FOCUS TASK 1.4
What was the impact of the Treaty Summary
on Germany up to the end of 1923?
While the Treaty did cause some genuine problems for Germany the
Summarise the impact of the important thing to realise is that many Germans blamed it for other
Treaty on Germany under each of problems which had little to do with it. This resentment was then in turn
these headings: exploited by extreme groups in Germany to gain power and influence for
a) Political impact
themselves.
b) Economic impact
c) Social impact, e.g. morale

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How was the Treaty seen at the time?

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

It was unfair! Some said the Treaty was unfair!

None of the Big Three was happy with the Treaty (although for different
reasons) and some of the diplomats who helped shape the Treaty were
dissatisfied.
SOURCE 13
Some commentators at the time believed that the Treaty was unfair and
The historian, with every justification, unjust (see Source 13 for example).
will come to the conclusion that we
were very stupid men . . . We arrived Source 14 is probably the most famous cartoon produced about the Treaty
determined that a Peace of justice of Versailles. The artist, Will Dyson, thought that the peacemakers were
blind and selfish and as a result they produced a disastrous treaty that
and wisdom should be negotiated; we
would cause another terrible war. It is a powerful cartoon. Because history
left the conference conscious that the
proved it right (the cartoonist even gets the date of the Second World War
treaties imposed upon our enemies were
almost right) this cartoon has been reproduced many times ever since,
neither just nor wise. including in millions of school textbooks.
Harold Nicolson, a British official who
attended the talks. SOURCE 14
Italy’s leader
Orlando
(Italy).
Cannon fodder –
a reference to the
millions of men mown
The Big
down by guns in the
Three: Lloyd
First World War.
George
(Britain);
Clemenceau
(France);
Wilson (USA).

The Tiger is
Clemenceau –
he cannot see
why the child
is weeping.

The child is the class of

1940 – children like him
will be the ones who
will fight in a future war
because of the Treaty.

A cartoon published in the socialist newspaper The Daily Herald in 1919.

Another powerful critic of the Treaty was a British economist, John

Maynard Keynes. He wrote a very critical book called The Economic
Consequences of The Peace published in 1919. This book was widely read and
accepted and has influenced the way people have looked at the Treaty.
It is easy to think that everyone felt this way about the Treaty – but they
did not!
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Others said the Treaty was fair!

1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

It was fair!
At the time German complaints about the Treaty mostly fell on deaf ears.
There were celebrations in Britain and France. If ordinary people in Britain
had any reservations about the Treaty it was more likely to be that it was
SOURCE 15 not harsh enough.
The Germans have given in … They ■ Many people felt that the Germans were themselves operating a double
writhe [thrash] at the obligation imposed standard. Their call for fairer treatment did not square with the harsh
on them to confess their guilt … way they had treated Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918.
Some of the conditions, they affirm, Versailles was a much less harsh treaty than Brest-Litovsk. This is the
are designed to deprive the German comment being made in the cartoon on page 4.
■ There was also the fact that Germany’s economic problems, although
people of its honour … They thought
real, were partly self-inflicted. Other states had raised taxes to pay
little of the honour of the nations
for the war. The Kaiser’s government had not done this. It had simply
whose territories they defiled with their
allowed debts to mount up because it had planned to pay Germany’s war
barbarous and inhuman warfare for
debts by extracting reparations from the defeated states.
more than three awful years.
British newspaper The Times, SOURCE 16
24 June 1919.

SOURCE 17
Terms of Treaty Better Than
Germany Deserves
WAR MAKERS MUST BE MADE
TO SUFFER
Germany’s chickens are coming home
to roost, and she is making no end of a
song about it. That was expected, but
it will not help her much … If Germany
had her deserts, indeed, there would be
no Germany left to bear any burden at
all; she would be wiped off the map of
Europe … Stern justice would demand
for Germany a punishment 10 times
harder than any she will have to bear …
The feeling in this country is not that
Germany is being too hardly dealt by,
but that she is being let off too lightly.
From the British newspaper The People,
May 1919.

Source Analysis
1 Study Source 16. On your own
copy, analyse Source 16 the way
we have analysed Source 14 on
page 18.
2 What does Source 16 reveal
about British opinions on the
Treaty? A British cartoon published in 1919.

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Did opinions change on whether the treaty

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

could be justified?
Looking back at the Treaty from the present day we know that it helped
to create the cruel Nazi regime in Germany and helped cause the Second
World War.
As early as 1933–34 the British historian W.H. Dawson was arguing that the
Versailles settlement was a major cause of the rise of Hitler’s aggressive
Nazi regime in Germany (see Source 19). And while many later historians
disagreed with Dawson about the Treaty, they did agree that Hitler was able
to exploit the way Germans felt about the Treaty (see Sources 18 and 20).
SOURCE 18 SOURCE 19
The Versailles Treaty was one of The rise of Hitler to power and the resurgence of militant nationalism throughout
the most outrageous and predatory Germany is alarming. Hitler is certain to demand a reconsideration of the territorial
treaties in history. It was a blatant act provision in the Versailles settlement. These demands, in a country which was
of plunder perpetrated by a gang of supposedly defeated and restrained indefinitely, serve as a warning to the powers
robbers against a helpless, prostrate and who wish to defend peace and stability in Europe. They are also a reminder that
bleeding Germany. Among its numerous nations tend to be slow to accept the truth of a given situation unless they are forced
provisions, it required Germany and to. Germany’s claims of unfair treatment under the settlement have been clarified
its allies to accept full responsibility for and strengthened from year to year with the findings of impartial research by myself
causing the war and, under the terms and other colleagues. No attempt was made by the victorious powers at Versailles to
of articles 231–248, to disarm, make respect the rights and valid claims of Germany.
substantial territorial concessions and British historian W.H. Dawson writing in 1933.
pay reparations to the Entente powers.
An extract from an article on the website SOURCE 20
‘In Defence of Marxism’, published
in 2009. The title of the article was Hitler used the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 to raise the European storms that Britain
‘The Treaty of Versailles – the Peace and France wanted to calm in the 1930s. Hitler’s demands for the destruction
to end all Peace’. of Versailles won him support at home and also allowed him to disguise his true
ambitions to build a great empire from the German people and from foreign
statesmen. Most Germans wished to change Versailles and so they supported Hitler.
Even in Britain, Hitler’s demands did not seem to be completely unacceptable. To the
British, if Hitler’s only purpose was to modify the Versailles settlement then it seemed
reasonable to listen to him and give concessions. The grievances of Versailles provided
Hitler with the means to appeal to German and foreign support for demands over
territory and reparations. Indeed, to British observers the history of reparations came
to be seen as the history of a grave and very large mistake.
British historian R.A.C. Parker writing in 1993.

We call this hindsight – when you look back at a historical event and
Think!
judge it knowing its consequences. You would expect hindsight to affect
Look back at your work in Focus
historians’ attitudes to the Treaty and it has – but maybe not exactly as
Task 1.3 on page 13. Have you
you might expect.
changed your views after reading
the information and sources on Some historians side with critics of the Treaty and its makers. Others
pages 18–20? point out that the majority of people outside Germany thought that the
Treaty was fair and that a more generous treaty would have been totally
unacceptable to public opinion in Britain and France. They highlight that
the peacemakers had a very difficult job balancing public opinion in their
own countries with visions of a fairer future. Some say that the Treaty may
have been the best that could be achieved in the circumstances.

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SOURCE 21 SOURCE 22

1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

Nazi cartoon commenting on the military terms of the
Versailles Treaty. The text reads: ‘The Mammoth Military A demonstration against the Treaty of Versailles in 1933. The march
superiority of our neighbours’. The chain symbol = military was organised by the Nazi Party. The banners read ‘Day of Versailles,
treaties; F = peace time strength; R = reserves; the German day of dishonour!’ and ‘We would be free from Versailles!’
Reich is surrounded by France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia
and Poland (left to right).

Source Analysis SOURCE 23

Study Sources 21 and 22. Explain
how the authors of Sources 19 The Treaty of Versailles has been repeatedly pilloried [criticised], most famously in
and 20 could have used these as John Maynard Keynes’ The Economic Consequences of the Peace, published at
evidence to support their ideas. the end of 1919 and still the argument underpinning too many current textbooks …
The Treaty of Versailles was not excessively harsh. Germany was not destroyed. Nor
was it reduced to a second rank power or permanently prevented from returning to
great power status … With the disintegration of Austria-Hungary and the collapse
of Tsarist Russia it left Germany in a stronger strategic position than before the war
… The Versailles Treaty was, nonetheless, flawed. It failed to solve the problem of
both punishing and conciliating a country that remained a great power despite the
four years of fighting and a military defeat. It could hardly have been otherwise, given
the very different aims of the peacemakers, not to speak of the many problems they
faced, many of which lay beyond their competence or control.
FOCUS TASK 1.5
Historian Zara Steiner writing in 2004.
Could the Treaty of Versailles be
justified at the time?
1 Study Sources 18–24 carefully. SOURCE 24
Match one source to each of
these headlines:
The peacemakers of 1919 made mistakes, of course. By their offhand treatment of the
■ The best that could non-European world they stirred up resentments for which the West is still paying today.
be achieved in the They took pains over the borders in Europe, even if they did not draw them to everyone’s
circumstances satisfaction, but in Africa they carried on the old practice of handing out territory to suit
■ They did what the people the imperialist powers. In the Middle East they threw together peoples, in Iraq most
wanted notably, who still have not managed to cohere into a civil society. [But] they could have
■ A death warrant for Europe
done much worse. They tried, even cynical old Clemenceau, to build a better order. They
■ Betrayal.
could not foresee the future and they certainly could not control it. That was up to their
2 For each source, decide
whether you think it is a successors. When war came in 1939, it was a result of twenty years of decisions taken
critical, positive or balanced or not taken, not of arrangements made in 1919.
view of the Treaty. Historian Margaret MacMillan writing in Peacemakers, 2001.

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PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Factfile
Peace treaties for the other defeated countries
Germany had allies in the First World War – Austria–Hungary, Bulgaria and
Turkey – known as the Central Powers. There were four other peace treaties
imposed on them by the Allies:
■ Austria: Treaty of St Germain, 1919
■ Bulgaria: Treaty of Neuilly, 1919
■ Hungary: Treaty of Trianon, 1920
■ Turkey: Treaty of Sevres, 1920, later revised by the Treaty of Lausanne, 1923.

These treaties included many similar restrictions to the Treaty of Versailles and
saw the empires of Austria–Hungary and Turkey broken up into new states.

FOCUS TASK 1.6

Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?
The key question for this topic is ‘Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?’ Use
Sources 13–24 on pages 18–21 and your own knowledge to help you reach a
judgement. You may want to also refer back to your answers for Focus Task
1.3 on page 13 before you start to complete the table.

Source Does the source Support from Examples

suggest the the source from my own
Treaty was fair knowledge
or unfair?

1 Write the number of the source you are examining in column 1. Use
column 2 to decide whether the source suggests the Treaty was fair or
unfair. Column 3 should be used to record some details from the source –
a quote or a description of what you can see – that provide good evidence
of your decision. You can then link this to your own knowledge in the final
column.
2 Now reach your overall judgement: do you think the Treaty of Versailles
was fair or not? Make sure you can give reasons to support your
argument.

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1 Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

Keywords Chapter Summary
Make sure you know what these Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?
terms mean and are able to define 1 The Paris Peace Conference was set up to sort out what would happen to
them confidently: the defeated countries after the First World War.
• Anschluss 2 The Conference was dominated by ‘The Big Three’: Wilson, Clemenceau
• Big Three and Lloyd George representing the USA, France and Britain (the countries
• conscription that won the war).
• co-operation 3 The Big Three did not agree on many things. In particular they disagreed
• demilitarised zone on how to treat Germany, the League of Nations and Wilson’s Fourteen
• democracy Points.
• disarmament 4 The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles were that Germany should
• Fourteen Points accept blame for starting the war, pay reparations, lose land (including
• free trade industry and population) and colonies, and agree to disarm.
• Freikorps 5 People in Germany were appalled by the Treaty, but Germany had no
• general strike choice but to sign it.
• hindsight 6 Germany had many post-war problems such as attempted revolutions and
• hyperinflation hyperinflation, which they blamed on the Treaty, but the Treaty was not the
• idealist/realist sole reason for these problems.
• Kapp Putsch 7 The Treaty also set up a League of Nations whose role was to enforce the
• League of Nations Treaty of Versailles and to help prevent another war.
• mandates 8 Opinion on the Treaty of Versailles varied at the time: some people thought
• November Criminals it was too lenient on Germany, others that it was too harsh and would lead
• Paris Peace Conference to Germany wanting revenge.
• public opinion 9 The views on the Treaty would change over time with many seeing it as
• reparations a cause of problems in Germany and a factor that led to another war in
• Rhineland Europe.
• right-wing
• Ruhr
• Saar
• secret treaties PRACTICE QUESTIONS
• self-determination Structured questions
• territories 1 (a) What were Germany’s main territorial losses under the Treaty of
• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Versailles? [4]
• Treaty of Versailles (b) Why did Clemenceau and Lloyd George disagree about how to treat
• war guilt Germany at the Paris Peace Conference? [6]
• Young Plan (c) ‘The Treaty of Versailles was a fair settlement.’ How far do you agree
with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
Document questions
1 Study Source 14 on page 18. What is the message of the cartoonist?
Explain your answer using details of the source and your own
knowledge. [7]
2 Study Sources 13 and 17 on pages 18 and 19. How far do these two sources
agree? Explain your answer using details of the sources and your own
knowledge. (8)
3 Study Source 15 on page 19. Does this source prove that the Versailles
settlement was fair to Germany? Explain your answer using details of the
source and your own knowledge. [7]
4 Study Sources 19 and 20 on page 20. How similar are these two sources?
Explain your answer using details of the sources and your own knowledge. (8)
5 Study Sources 13–20 on pages 18–20. How far do these sources provide
convincing evidence that the Treaty of Versailles was an unfair settlement
for Germany? Use the sources to explain your answer. (9)
These are examples of the types of questions on this topic. There is more
guidance on answering such questions on pages 148–67 but the key thing,
always, is to answer the question rather than write everything you know.

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2
To what extent was the
League of Nations a success?
FOCUS POINTS
How far did weaknesses in the League’s organisation and
membership make failure inevitable?
How successful were the League’s attempts at peacekeeping
in the 1920s?
How important was the League’s humanitarian work?
How far did the Depression make the work of the League more
difficult in the 1930s?

You saw in Chapter 1 that setting up a League of Nations was one of

Woodrow Wilson’s key ideas for preventing another war. He saw the League
as an organisation that would solve international disputes. He hoped that
if the Great Powers had to talk to each other they would no longer need or
even want to make secret ALLIANCES as they did before the First World War.
He thought the League would protect smaller nations from aggression –
if they had concerns then the League would be a place where their case
would be heard by the world.
Without spoiling the story, Wilson’s original plan for the League never
happened! This chapter will explain why. However, a scaled-down version of
the League was created. How well did it do?
On the one hand people argue that the League achieved a lot.
■ Its humanitarian agencies helped the sick, the poor and the homeless.
■ Its financial agencies helped to stabilise several economies after the war.
■ The League handled 66 major international disputes between the wars
and was successful in half of them.
This picture was used as However, the League was unsuccessful in the larger international disputes
the menu card for a League that involved the major powers. The League failed to stop the Japanese
of Nations banquet in the invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia in 1935,
1930s. It shows Briand which had disastrous consequences for international relations in Europe.
(who was one of the most
So your key question in this chapter is to judge to what extent the League
influential figures in the
succeeded. This is not a question with a ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answer. To tackle a ‘to
League) as Moses leading what extent’ question you need to:
the statesmen of the world ■ weigh the League’s successes against its failures
to view the ‘Promised ■ compare the aims of the League with what it actually achieved
Land’. The sunrise is ■ assess whether the failures were the fault of the League or other
labelled ‘The United States factors, and particularly:
of Europe’. Discuss: – how far the League’s organisation weakened it
1 What impression does – how far the League was let down by its own members and the other
this picture give you of Great Powers
the League? – how far the League’s work was hampered by the worldwide ECONOMIC
DEPRESSION that made the 1930s a dark and dangerous time.
2 Does this picture
surprise you? Why or This chapter takes you step by step through those questions so you can
why not? reach your own view on this key question: ‘To what extent was the League
of Nations a success?’

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How far did weaknesses in

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

the League's organisation and

membership make failure
inevitable?
The birth of the League
SOURCE 1

Source Analysis
1 Study Source 1. Explain why it
is useful as evidence about the
state of international relations in
December 1918.
2 Some commentators at the time
said that they found Wilson to be
pompous and arrogant. Is there
any evidence to support this in The front page of the Daily Express, 27 December 1918. President Wilson was given a
Sources 2 and 3? warm reception throughout Europe after the First World War.

SOURCE 2
After the First World War everyone wanted to avoid repeating the mass
Merely to win the war was not enough. slaughter of the war that had just ended. They also agreed that a LEAGUE
It must be won in such a way as to OF NATIONS – an organisation that could solve international problems
ensure the future peace of the world. without resorting to war – would help achieve this. However, there was
President Woodrow Wilson, 1918. disagreement about what kind of organisation it should be.
■ President Wilson wanted the League of Nations to be like a world
parliament where representatives of all nations could meet together
Think! regularly to decide on any matters that affected them all.
Which of the three kinds of League ■ Many British leaders thought the best League would be a simple
proposed by the Allies do you think organisation that would only meet in emergencies. An organisation like
would be the best at keeping peace: this already existed – the CONFERENCE OF AMBASSADORS.
■ a world parliament ■ France proposed a strong League with its own army.
■ a simple organisation for
emergencies only It was President Wilson who won. He insisted that discussions about a
■ a strong organisation with its League should be a major part of the peace treaties and by February 1919
own army? he had drawn up a very ambitious plan for the League.
All the major nations would join the League. They would disarm. If they
SOURCE 3 had a dispute with another country, they would take it to the League. They
promised to accept the decision made by the League. They also promised
[If the European powers] had dared to protect one another if they were invaded. If any member did break the
to discuss their problems for a single COVENANT (see page 30) and go to war, other members promised to stop
fortnight in 1914 the First World War trading with it and to send troops if necessary to force it to stop fighting.
would never have happened. If they Wilson’s hope was that citizens of all countries would be so much against
had been forced to discuss them for another conflict that this would prevent their leaders from going to war.
a whole year, war would have been
The plan was prepared in a great hurry and critics suggested there was
inconceivable.
some woolly thinking. Some people were angered by Wilson’s arrogant style.
President Wilson speaking in 1918.
He acted as if only he knew the solutions to Europe’s problems. Others were
worried by his idealism. Under threat of war, would the public really behave
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in the way he suggested? Would countries really do what the League said?

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Wilson glossed over what the League would do if they didn’t.
Even so, most people in Europe were prepared to give Wilson’s plans a try.
They hoped that no country would dare invade another if they knew that the
USA and other powerful nations of the world would stop trading with them
or send their armies to stop them. In 1919 hopes were high that the League,
with the United States in the driving seat, could be a powerful peacemaker.

SOURCE 4A SOURCE 4B

Two British cartoons from 1919/1920.

Source Analysis FOCUS TASK 2.1

Work in pairs. One of you work with Was the League of Nations destined to fail from the start?
Source 4A and the other work with
Source 4B. Your prediction
50%
1 What is the message of your You may already have formed an opinion on the Successes
cartoon? Make sure that you League of Nations – but if you haven’t, even better!
explain what details in the Make your prediction as to how successful you think
cartoon help to get this message the League will be in the 1920s. For example, how 50%
across. successful do you think it will be in settling the Failures
2 Is your cartoon optimistic or problems left over from the First World War?
pessimistic about the League of
Nations? Give reasons. To record your prediction, make your own larger
3 Compare your ideas with your copy of this diagram, but with one difference. Redraw the segments to show
partner’s, then write a paragraph how successful you think it is going to be.
comparing the two cartoons. Keep your diagram somewhere you can refer to it again as you will be asked
to check back a number of times to reconsider your prediction.

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A body blow to the League

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Think!
Study Figure 5. Write a ten-word
slogan summarising each reason Back in the USA Woodrow Wilson had problems. Before the USA could even
for opposing the USA’s membership join the League, let alone take a leading role, he needed the approval of his
of the League. Congress (the American ‘Parliament’). And in the USA the idea of a League
was not at all popular, as you can see from Figure 5.
FIGURE 5

If the League imposed SANCTIONS

The League was supposed to (e.g. stopping trade with a
enforce the TREATY OF VERSAILLES country that was behaving
yet some Americans, particularly aggressively) it might be
the millions who had German American trade and business
ancestors, hated the Treaty itself. that suffered most!

Some feared that joining the

Some feared that the League
League meant sending US
would be dominated by Britain
soldiers to settle every little
or France – and would be called
conflict around the world.
to help defend their empires!
No one wanted that after the
Many in the US were anti-
casualties of the First World War.
empires.

Reasons for opposition to the League in the USA.

SOURCE 6

An American cartoon reprinted in the

British newspaper the Star, June 1919.
The original caption said:
‘JOHN BULL: “Your bridge, Jonathan.
We shan’t quarrel about this.” [Some of
President Wilson’s political opponents
in the U.S.A. are trying to criticise his
League of Nations, by representing that it
is a British scheme to exploit the U.S.A.]’

Source Analysis Together, the critics of Wilson’s plans (see Figure 5) put up powerful
1 What is the message of the
opposition to the League. They were joined by Wilson’s many other political
cartoon in Source 6? opponents. Wilson’s Democratic Party had run the USA for eight troubled
2 Explain how the bridge in the years. Its opponents saw the League as an ideal opportunity to defeat
cartoon might have been seen by him. Wilson toured the USA to put his arguments to the people, but when
a) supporters Congress voted in 1919 he was defeated. So, when the League opened for
b) opponents of the League. business in January 1920, the American chair was empty.

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SOURCE 7

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

A British cartoon from December 1919. The figure in the white top hat represents the USA.

Source Analysis
Source 7 is one of the most famous Wilson defeated
cartoons about the League of
Nations. On your own copy of the
In 1920 Wilson became seriously ill after a stroke. Despite that, he
cartoon add annotations to explain continued to press for the USA to join the League. He took the proposal
the key features. Then write your back to Congress again in March 1920, but they defeated it by 49 votes
own summary of the message of the to 35.
cartoonist.
Still the DEMOCRATS did not give up. They were convinced that if the USA did
not get involved in international affairs, another world war might follow. In
Think! the 1920 election Wilson could not run for president – he was too ill – but
Look back to your prediction from his successor made membership of the League a major part of the Democrat
Focus Task 2.1 on page 27. Do you campaign.
want to change your prediction in
The REPUBLICAN candidate, Warren Harding, on the other hand, campaigned
light of the fact that the USA has not
joined the League?
for America to be ISOLATIONIST (i.e. not to get involved in international
alliances but follow its own policies and self-interest). His slogan was to
‘return to NORMALCY ’, by which he meant life as it was before the war, with
Revision Tip the USA isolating itself from European affairs. Harding and the Republicans
Be sure you can remember: won a landslide victory.
■ at least two reasons why some
The USA never joined the League. This was a personal rebuff for Wilson and
Americans were opposed to the
USA joining the League (see
the Democrats, but it was also a body blow to the League.
Figure 5)
■ what isolationism means and how
it affected the USA’s decision.

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The aims of the League

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Factfile
The League of Nations A Covenant set out the aims of the League of Nations. These were:
■ The League’s home was in ■ to discourage aggression from any nation
Geneva in Switzerland. ■ to encourage countries to co-operate, especially in business and trade
■ Despite it being the brainchild of ■ to encourage nations to disarm
the US president, the USA was ■ to improve the living and working conditions of people in all parts of
never a member of the League. the world.
■ The most influential part of the
League was the COUNCIL – a small
group representing the most Article 10 = collective security
powerful members. But it was The Covenant set out 26 Articles or rules, which all members of the League
a vast organisation with lots of agreed to follow. Probably the most important Article was ARTICLE 10. It said:
different parts to fulfil
different functions (see chart ‘The members of the League undertake to preserve against external
on pages 32–33). aggression the territory and existing independence of all members of the
■ The League did not have its League. In case of threat of danger the Council [of the League] shall advise
own army. But it could call on
upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.’
the armies of its members if
necessary. Article 10 really meant COLLECTIVE SECURITY. By acting together (collectively),
■ One of the jobs of the League was the members of the League could prevent war by defending the lands and
to uphold and enforce the Treaty
interests of all nations, large or small.
of Versailles. This included
running some of the territories
(MANDATES) that had belonged to SOURCE 8
the defeated countries. The five giants represent the five continents of the
■ Forty-two countries joined the Earth. The giants are standing firm together.
League at the start. By the 1930s
it had 59 members.

Think!
The League had four main aims:
■ discourage aggression
■ encourage CO-OPERATION
■ encourage DISARMAMENT
■ improve living conditions.

As you work through the chapter

note down examples that you think
could be used as
■ evidence of success
■ evidence of failure
in each of the aims.
You could record your evidence in a
table.

Revision Tip
Make sure you can remember: At the giants’ feet, leaders of all the nations are working, reading and
■ the four aims of the League (the talking together. The League’s members came from all five continents.
initial letters may help you as The League believed that strength came from unity.
they spell out AC/DC)
■ one example of the League The famous Spanish artist José Maria Sert was asked to decorate the walls and ceilings
succeeding or failing in this aim of the Assembly Chamber in the League’s Headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
in the 1920s. His murals were designed to show the aims and values of the League.

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Membership of the League

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

In the absence of the USA, Britain and France were the most powerful
countries in the League. Italy and Japan were also permanent members
of the Council. The League had 42 members when it was founded in
January 1920. Germany was not allowed to join until it could prove it was
a peaceful nation. It was allowed to join in 1926. The USSR was prevented
from joining until 1934 as many member states, including Britain and
France, did not trust communist states. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s it
SOURCE 9 was Britain and France who usually guided policy. Any action by the League
needed their support.
The League of Nations is not set up to However, both countries were poorly placed to take on this role. Both
deal with a world in chaos, or with any had been weakened by the First World War. Neither country was quite the
part of the world which is in chaos. The major power it had once been. Neither of them had the resources to fill
League of Nations may give assistance the gap left by the USA. Indeed, some British politicians said that if they
but it is not, and cannot be, a complete had foreseen the American decision, they would not have voted to join the
instrument for bringing order out of League either. They felt that the Americans were the only nation with the
chaos. resources or influence to make the League work. In particular, they felt
Arthur Balfour, chief British that TRADE SANCTIONS would only work if the Americans applied them.
representative at the League of Nations, For the leaders of Britain and France the League posed a real problem. They
speaking in 1920.
had to make it work, yet from the start they doubted how effective it could be.
Both countries had other priorities.
■ British politicians, for example, were more interested in rebuilding
British trade and looking after the British empire than in being an
international police force.
■ France’s main concern was still Germany. It was worried that without
an army of its own the League was too weak to protect France from its
powerful neighbour. It did not think Britain was likely to send an army
to help it. This made France quite prepared to bypass the League if
necessary in order to strengthen its position against Germany.
FIGURE 10
Think!
1 List the strengths and
weaknesses of Britain and France 1919
France as leaders of the League 1945
of Nations. Britain 1919
2 France proposed that the 1945
League should have an army of
Italy 1919 1937
its own. Why do you think most
people opposed this?
3 Think back to Wilson’s ideas Japan 1919 1933
for the League. What problems
would be caused by the fact that: Germany 1926 1933
a) the USA
b) Germany
were not members of the USSR 1934 1939
League?

USA never joined

Membership of the League of Nations. This chart shows only the most powerful
nations. More than 50 other countries were also members.

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Organisation of the League

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Think!
1 Study the diagram. Which part of
the League would deal with the
The Covenant laid out the League’s structure and the rules for each of the
following problems:
a) an outbreak of a new
bodies within it – see the diagram below.
infectious disease
b) a border dispute between The Council
two countries
The Council was a smaller group than the Assembly, which met
c) accidents caused by
more often, usually about five times a year or more often in case of
dangerous machinery in
emergency. It included:
factories
d) complaints from people in permanent members. In 1920 these were Britain, France, Italy
Palestine that the British and Japan.
were not running the temporary members. They were elected by the Assembly for
mandated territory properly? three-year periods.
Each of the permanent members of the Council had a veto. This meant
The Assembly that one permanent member could stop the Council acting even if all
This was the League’s ‘Parliament’. other members agreed.
Every country in the League sent The main aim of the Council was to resolve disputes by talking.
a representative to the A SSEMBLY. However, if this did not work, the Council could use a range of powers:
The Assembly could recommend MORAL CONDEMNATION: they could decide which country was ‘the
action to the Council. aggressor’, and tell it to stop what it was doing.
It could also vote on admitting Economic and financial
new members to the League. sanctions: members of
the League could refuse to
The Assembly only met once a year.
trade with the aggressor.
Decisions made by the Assembly
Military force: the
had to be UNANIMOUS – they had to
armed forces of member
be agreed by all members of the
countries could be used
Assembly.
against an aggressor.

The Secretariat
The SECRETARIAT was a sort of civil service serving all the other
The Permanent Court of bodies within the League.
International Justice It kept records of League meetings and prepared reports.
The Court was based at the Hague The Secretariat had a key role in
in the Netherlands and was made bringing together experts from across
up of judges from the member the world on key issues such as health,
countries. disarmament and economic matters.
This was meant to play a key role
in the League’s work by settling
disputes between countries
peacefully.
If it was asked, the Court would
give a decision on a border
dispute between countries.
The International Labour Organization (ILO)
However, the Court had no way
of making sure that countries The ILO brought together employers,
followed its rulings. governments and workers’ representatives.
Its aim was to improve the conditions
of working people throughout the world.
It collected statistics and information about
working conditions and how to improve them
and it tried to persuade member countries to
adopt its suggestions.

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2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

The League of Nations Agencies and Commissions FOCUS TASK 2.2
As well as dealing with disputes between its members, the League also attempted Were there weaknesses in the
to tackle other major problems. This was done through agencies, COMMISSIONS or League’s organisation?
committees. The panels below set out the aims of some of these agencies. See Here is a conversation which might
Figure 11 on page 34 for a description of some of the actions they took. have taken place between two
diplomats in 1920.
The Mandates Commissions
The First World War had led to many former colonies of Peace at last! The League of
Germany and her allies ending up as League of Nations Nations will keep large and small
mandates ruled by Britain and France on behalf of the nations secure.
League. The Mandates Commission was made up of
teams of expert advisers whose job was to report to
the League on how people in the mandates were being
treated. Their aim was to make sure that Britain and
France acted in the interests of the people of that
territory, not its own interests.

The Refugees Committee

At the end of the First World War there were hundreds of
thousands of refugees who had fled from the areas of I’m not sure. It might look
conflict. Some were trying to get back to their homes; impressive but I think there are
others had no homes to go to. The most pressing problems weaknesses in the League.
were in former Russian territories: the Balkans, Greece,
Armenia and Turkey. It was a huge task.
1 Work in pairs. Choose one
statement each and write out
the reasons each diplomat
The Slavery Commission might give for his opinion. In
This Commission worked to abolish slavery around the your answer make sure you
world. It was a particular issue in East Africa but slavery refer to:
was also a major concern in many other parts of the world. ■ the membership of the
There were also many workers who were not technically League
■ what the main bodies within
slaves but were treated like slaves. The Commission tried
the League can do
to help them too.
■ how each body will make
decisions
■ how the League will enforce
The Health Committee its decisions.
2 Go back to your diagram from
The Health Committee attempted to deal with the problem of dangerous page 27 and see if you want to
diseases and to educate people about health and sanitation. The First World change your predictions about
War had brought about rapid developments in medicine and ideas about how successful the League
public health and disease prevention. The Health Committee brought experts will be.
together and worked with charities and many other independent agencies to
collect statistics about health issues, to spread the new ideas and to develop
programmes to fight disease.

Revision Tip
This is quite a complex chart. Your
main aim is to be sure you know the
difference between the League’s
Council and its Assembly.

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How successful were

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

the League's attempts at

Think!
Four of the problems in Figure 11
peackeeping in the 1920s?
are highlighted in bold text. As
The treaties signed at the PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE had created new states and
you read about each one, score changed the borders of others. Inevitably this led to disputes and it was
the League’s success on a scale the job of the League to sort out border disputes. From the start there
of –5 (a total failure) to +5 (a great was so much to do that some disputes were handled by the Conference of
success). Make sure you can give a Ambassadors. Strictly this was not a body of the League of Nations. But it
reason for your score. was made up of leading politicians from the main members of the League
– Britain, France and Italy – so it was very closely linked to the League. As
you can see from Figure 11 the 1920s was a busy time. This map only shows
a small selection of the disputes which involved the League in this period.

FIGURE 11
Aaland Islands dispute. Finland & Sweden, 1921 Prisoners of war
N FINLAND
Finland and Sweden threatened war over the Aaland repatriated from
Islands but Sweden accepted the League’s ruling that
Aaland Siberia, 1920–22
the islands should belong to Finland.
Is.
NORWAY
Vilna: Polish–Lithuanian dispute, 1920–29
In 1920 Poland took control of the Lithuanian
North Sea ESTONIA
SWEDEN capital Vilna. Lithuania appealed to the League
for help. The League protested to Poland but the
LATVIA Poles did not pull out. France and Britain were
not prepared to act.
LITHUANIA USSR
Rights of German settlers
Vilna in Poland protected,
UNITED Danzig 1923
KINGDOM
Saar territory NETHERLANDS POLAND
administered by
the League BELGIUM GERMANY

CZECH Ca
OSLO
VAKIA sp
Atlantic ia
n
Ocean Se
a
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA HUNGARY
FRANCE ROMANIA
Geneva Danub Black Sea
ITALY e
YUGOSLAVIA Bulgarian refugee
settlement, 1926
L

BULGARIA
A
TUG

SPAIN PERSIA
POR

ALBANIA

Corfu crisis, 1923 TURKEY

See page 35.
GREECE
Mosul
M e d i t e
r r a
ne
a SYRIA
(French
n

Mandate)
Key S IRAQ
TUNISIA e
a (British
Border dispute Mandate)
Prevention of war
Refugee problem or between Greece &
PALESTINE
protection of Bulgaria, 1925 (British Mandate)
ALGERIA
ethnic minorities See page 36.
0 400 km
Other EGYPT
Scale

Problems dealt with by the League of Nations or the Conference of Ambassadors in the 1920s.
Some problems dealt with byThe
theproblems
League ofinNations or the
bold text Conferenceon
are described ofpages
Ambassadors
33–4.
in the 1920s.

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SOURCE 12 Vilna: Polish–Lithuanian dispute, 1920–29

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

The League had been designed to deal Poland and Lithuania became independent states after the breakup of the
with just such a dangerous problem as Russian Empire at the end of the war. There had already been some conflict
this. It had acted promptly and fairly between the two states and the Soviet Union between 1918 and 1920.
and it had condemned the violence of But on 7 October 1920, Vilna, with its largely Polish-speaking population,
the Italians. But it had lost the initiative. became the new seat of the Lithuanian government after negotiations
The result was that a great power had with the League and the withdrawal of Soviet troops. However, two days
once again got away with using force later, Vilna was annexed by a Polish army and Lithuania appealed to the
against a small power. League of Nations. The League ordered the Polish army to withdraw from
Historians Gibbons and Morican referring the region and wait for a plebiscite. Poland refused and the League was
to the Corfu crisis in The League of powerless to stop the conflict. France and Britain were not prepared to
Nations and the UNO, 1970. escalate the situation.

SOURCE 13 Aaland Islands dispute, 1921

The Aaland Islands, located in the Baltic Sea between Finland and Sweden,
The settlement of the dispute between was a Finnish territory but whose population was largely Swedish. Many
Italy and Greece, though not strictly a islanders wanted independence from Finland which almost led to conflict
League victory, upheld the principles on between the two countries. The League investigated the dispute and
which it was based. awarded the Aaland Islands to Finland but with protections for Swedish
From J. and G. Stokes, Europe and the Islanders, including the removal of Finnish troops. Both countries accepted
Modern World, 1973. the League’s decision.

Source Analysis
Corfu, 1923
One of the boundaries that had to be sorted out after the war was the
1 Sources 12 and 13 are referring
border between Greece and Albania. The Conference of Ambassadors was
to the same event. How do their
interpretations differ? given this job and it appointed an Italian general called Tellini to supervise
2 Could they both be right? Explain it. On 27 August, while surveying the Greek side of the frontier area, Tellini
your answer. and his team were ambushed and killed. The Italian leader Mussolini was
furious and blamed the Greek Government for the murder. On 31 August
Mussolini bombarded and then occupied the Greek island of Corfu. Fifteen
people were killed.
Greece appealed to the League for help. Fortunately, the Council was
already in session, so the League acted swiftly. Articles 12 and 15 of the
League of Nations were designed for exactly this situation. They said that
when League members were in dispute and there was a danger of war,
members could take their dispute to the Council and get a judgement.
By 7 September it had prepared its judgement. It condemned Mussolini’s
actions. It also suggested that Greece pay compensation, but that this
would be held by the League to be paid to Italy if, and when, Tellini’s
killers were found.
Mussolini refused to let the matter rest. He insisted that this dispute had
to be settled by the Conference of Ambassadors because, he said, the
Council of the League was not competent to deal with the issue. He even
threatened to leave the League if this did not happen.
Mussolini would probably not have got his way if the British and French had
stood together. Records from the meetings show that the British did not
Think! accept the Italian case and were prepared to send warships to force
‘The main problem in the Corfu Mussolini out of Corfu. However, the French completely disagreed and
crisis was not the League’s backed the Italians, probably because their forces were tied up in the RUHR
organisation but the attitude of its at this time (see page 16) and could not tackle a dispute with Italy as well.
own members.’ Explain whether
The British were not prepared to act without the French and now argued
you agree.
that Mussolini’s actions did not constitute an act of war.

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In the end Mussolini got his way and the Conference of Ambassadors made
PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

the final ruling on the dispute. The League’s ruling was changed. Instead
of condemning Mussolini the Conference ordered that the Greeks apologise
and pay compensation directly to Italy. On 27 September, Mussolini
withdrew from Corfu, boasting of his triumph.
There was much anger in the League over the Ambassadors’ actions and
League lawyers challenged the decision. However, the ruling was never
changed. As historian Zara Steiner says, ‘the dispute showed that the
weakest of the great powers could get its way when Britain and France
agreed to sacrifice justice for co-operation’.

The Geneva Protocol

The Corfu incident demonstrated how the League of Nations could be
undermined by its own members. Britain and France drew up the Geneva
Protocol in 1924, which said that if two members were in dispute they
would have to ask the League to sort out the disagreement and they would
have to accept the Council’s decision. They hoped this would strengthen
the League. But before the plan could be put into effect there was a
general election in Britain. The new Conservative government refused
to sign the Protocol, worried that Britain would be forced to agree to
something that was not in its own interests. So the Protocol, intended to
strengthen the League, in fact weakened it.

Bulgaria, 1925
Two years after Corfu, the League was tested yet again. In October 1925,
Greek troops invaded Bulgaria after an incident on the border in which
some Greek soldiers were killed. Bulgaria appealed for help. It also sent
instructions to its army (see Source 14).
The secretary-general of the League acted quickly and decisively, calling a
meeting of the League Council in Paris. The League demanded both sides
stand their forces down and Greek forces withdraw from Bulgaria. Britain and
France solidly backed the League’s judgement (and it is worth remembering
they were negotiating the Locarno Treaties at the same time – see the Factfile
on page 38). The League sent observers to assess the situation and judged in
favour of the Bulgarians. Greece had to pay £45,000 in compensation and was
threatened with sanctions if it did not follow the ruling.
The Greeks obeyed, although they did complain that there seemed to be one
rule for the large states (such as Italy) and another for the smaller ones (such
as themselves). Nevertheless the incident was seen as a major success for the
League and many observers seemed to forget the shame of the Corfu incident
as optimism about the effectiveness of the League soared. Few pointed out
that it was not so much the effectiveness of the machinery of the League in
this dispute but the fact that the great powers were united in their decision.
SOURCE 14
Make only slight resistance. Protect the refugees. Prevent the spread of panic. Do
not expose the troops to unnecessary losses in view of the fact that the incident has
Source Analysis been laid before the Council of the League of Nations, which is expected to stop the
1 Read Source 14. Why do you think invasion.
Bulgaria was so optimistic about A telegram from the Bulgarian Ministry of War in Sofia to its army commanders, 22
the League? October 1925.

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SOURCE 15

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Source Analysis
1 Look at Source 15. What
impression of the League does
this cartoon give you?

Revision Tip
Border disputes
Make sure you can:
■ describe one success in the
1920s and explain why it was a
success
■ describe one failure in the 1920s
and explain why it was a failure
A cartoon about the Bulgarian crisis in Punch, 11 November 1925. The characters are
and as a bonus: based on Tweedledum and Tweedledee, who were always quarrelling, from the
■ describe and explain one partial children’s book Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland.
success or failure.

Success or failure?
The League’s most important aims were to try to prevent future wars and
to encourage cooperation and compromise between nations. As you can
see over the last few pages, the League cannot be considered a complete
failure. Even without the USA, Germany or the USSR as members, the
League did manage to intervene in border disputes and help different
countries avoid conflict by accepting its judgements.
However, it is important to remember that the League was often frustrated
by the actions of its own leading members. The League found it very
challenging to get more powerful countries, such as Italy, to accept its
decisions, especially when these countries were leading members of the
League’s Council. It was also increasingly clear to many that without
Britain and France being willing to act and enforce decisions, the League
became less effective and even failed to resolve disputes satisfactorily.
Britain and France were prepared to use the League to solve disputes as
long as it did not interfere with their national interests and priorities.
You will now look at the League’s record on disarmament and the climate of
economic recovery and internationalism that developed in the 1920s.

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Disarmament
PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

In the 1920s, the League largely failed to bring about disarmament. At the
Washington Conference in 1921 the USA, Japan, Britain and France agreed to
limit the size of their navies, but that was as far as disarmament ever got.
The failure of disarmament was particularly damaging to the League’s reputation
in Germany. Germany had disarmed. It had been forced to. But no other
countries had disarmed to the same extent. They were not prepared to give up
their own armies and they were certainly not prepared to be the first to disarm.
Even so, in the late 1920s, the League’s failure over disarmament did not
seem too serious because of a series of international agreements that
seemed to promise a more peaceful world (see Factfile).
SOURCE 16

Source Analysis
1 What is Source 16 commenting
on?
2 Is the cartoonist praising or
criticising someone or something
in Source 16? Explain your
answer.

SOURCE 17
There was a tendency for nations to
conduct much of their diplomacy outside
the League of Nations and to put their
trust in paper treaties. After the USA
assisted Europe financially there seemed
to be more goodwill which statesmen
tried to capture in pacts and treaties.
Many of them, however, were of little
value. They represented no more than
the hopes of decent men.
Written by historian Jack Watson
in 1984.

A Punch cartoon from 1925. The woman on the billboard represents Germany.
'A League Triumph. With Mr Punch's congratulations
to the British Commissionaire.'

Factfile
International agreements of the 1920s
■ 1921 Washington Conference: USA, Britain, France and Japan agreed to limit the size of their navies.
■ 1922 Rapallo Treaty: the USSR and Germany re-established DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS.
■ 1924 The Dawes Plan: to avert a terrible economic crisis in Germany, the USA lent money to Germany to help it to pay its
REPARATIONS bill (see this page).
■ 1925 Locarno treaties: Germany accepted its western borders as set out in the Treaty of Versailles. This was greeted with
great enthusiasm, especially in France. It paved the way for Germany to join the League of Nations.
■ 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact: 65 nations agreed not to use force to settle disputes. This is also known as the Pact of Paris.
■ 1929 Young Plan: reduced Germany’s reparations payments.

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FIGURE 18
Economic recovery

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Increased
international trade Another reason for optimism in 1928 was that, after the
Increased employment
difficult years of the early 1920s, the economies of the
European countries were once again recovering. The DAWES
PLAN of 1924 had helped to sort out Germany’s economic
chaos and had also helped to get the economies of
Britain and France moving again (see Figure 19).
Increased trade between countries helped to reduce
political tension. That is why one of the aims of the
League had been to encourage trading links between the
American loans Rebuilt industry
countries. When countries trade with one another, they
are much less likely to go to war with each other.

Internationalism
Although Wilson’s version of the League never happened,
the League still achieved a lot in the 1920s. Perhaps most
H elp e

important of all, the League became one of the ways in

Increased profits
dt

which the world sorted out international disputes (even if

op

y
ba
a

ck
Am
it was not the only way). Historian Zara Steiner has said
e r ic a that ‘the League was very effective in handling the “small
Sales

n loa n s
change” of international diplomacy’. Her implication, of
course, is that the League could not deal with ‘big’ issues,
but it was not tested in this way in the 1920s.
How the Dawes Plan helped recovery in Europe. Some historians believe that the biggest achievement
of the League was the way it helped develop an
‘internationalist mind-set’ among leaders – it encouraged them to think in
terms of collaborating rather than competing. One way it did this was simply
by existing! Great and small powers felt that it was worth sending their
ministers to League meetings throughout the 1920s and 1930s. This meant
they would often talk together when they might not have done so otherwise.
Even when powerful countries acted on their own (for example, over Corfu) it
was often after their ministers had discussed their plans at League meetings!

FOCUS TASK 2.3

Did the League's weaknesses in membership and organisation affect its attempts at peacekeeping in the 1920s?
Can you find evidence to support or challenge each of the following criticisms of the League’s organisation:
■ that it would be slow to act
■ that members would act in their own interests, not the League’s
■ that without the USA it would be powerless?

Use a table like this to record your answers:

Criticism Evidence for Evidence against

Focus on the Vilna and Aaland Islands disputes and the Corfu and Bulgarian crises first. These will be most useful for
your exam. Then look for evidence from the other crises.
Keep your table safe. You will add to it in a later task on page 51.
Once you have completed your table, look at the balance of evidence. Does this suggest to you that the League could
have succeeded, or not?

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How important was the League's

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

SOURCE 19
humanitarian work?
The League of Nations had set itself a wider task than simply waiting for
disputes to arise and hoping to solve them. Through its commissions or
committees (see page 33), the League fought poverty, disease and injustice
all over the world.

Refugees
It is estimated that in the first few years after the war, about 400,000
prisoners were returned to their homes by the League’s agencies. When war
led to a refugee crisis in Turkey in 1922, hundreds of thousands of people
had to be housed in refugee camps. The League acted quickly to stamp
out cholera, smallpox and dysentery in the camps. However, the Refugees
One of the League of Nations’ projects. Committee was constantly short of funds and its work became more
difficult in the 1930s as the international situation became tenser and the
authority of the League declined.
Source Analysis
How useful is this photograph for
finding out about the League of
Working conditions
Nations? The International Labour Organization succeeded in banning poisonous
white lead from paint and in limiting the hours that small children were
allowed to work. It also campaigned strongly for employers to improve
Think! working conditions. It introduced a resolution for a maximum 48-hour
1 Study Source 16. What aspects
week, and an eight-hour day, but a majority of members refused to adopt it
of the League’s work do you because they thought it would cost their industries too much. The ILO was
think it shows? hampered by lack of funds and lack of power. It could not do much more
2 Why do you think the founders than ‘name and shame’ countries or organisations that broke its regulations.
of the League wanted it to tackle
social problems? Health
3 The work of the League’s As well as collecting statistical information and spreading good practice,
commissions affected hundreds it sponsored research into infectious diseases at institutes in Singapore,
of millions of people, yet
London and Denmark. These institutes helped develop vaccines and
historians write very little about
medicines to fight deadly diseases such as leprosy and malaria. The Health
this side of its work. Why do you
think this is? Committee is generally regarded as one of the most successful of the
League’s organisations and its work was continued after 1945 in the form of
the World Health Organization.

Revision Tip Slavery and forced labour

The commissions It helped free 200,000 slaves in British-owned Sierra Leone. It organised
raids against slave owners and traders in Burma. It challenged the use of
Make sure you can remember two forced labour to build the Tanganyika railway in Africa, where the death
specific examples of work done rate among the African workers was a staggering 50 per cent. League
by the League’s commissions or
pressure brought this down to 4 per cent, which it said was ‘a much more
committees. Choose the ones that
you think affected the most people.
acceptable figure’.

Other action
Even in the areas where it could not remove social injustice the League
kept careful records of what was going on and provided information on
problems such as drug trafficking, prostitution and slavery. The League
blacklisted four large German, Dutch, French and Swiss companies
which were involved in the illegal drug trade. The League also made
recommendations on practical problems such as marking shipping lanes and
produced an international highway code for road users.

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2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

FOCUS TASK 2.4
How important was the League’s humanitarian work?
Use the information on page 40 and refer back to the information on the diagram on page 33.
1 Draw a table like the one below to assess the importance of the humanitarian work of the League of Nations.
2 Add evidence of success and failure in the relevant columns before assessing the overall importance in the last
column.
3 Then write a paragraph explaining your overall judgement of the importance of the humanitarian work of the
League of Nations.

Area of humanitarian work

Refugees Working Health Slavery Overall
conditions
Evidence of
success
Evidence of
failure
Importance

When assessing importance consider the following:

■ The extent to which the agency or commission achieved its aims.
■ The impact the agency or commission had with trying to improve people’s living and working conditions.
■ The value the League placed on these agencies and their work compared to its other aims, such as disarmament
and enforcing the Treaty of Versailles.

FOCUS TASK 2.5

How successful was the League in the 1920s?
It is now time to draw some conclusions to this key question.
Stage 1: Evaluate the League’s successes and failures
1 Create four cards like the ones on the right – one for each of the
League’s aims.
2 On the back of each card summarise your evidence of success or
failure in each aim. You will have plenty of detail to use from the table Discourage Encourage
you started in the Think! task on page 30. aggression co-operation
3 Based on the evidence on your cards, put the aim you think was
achieved to the greatest extent at the top, and that which was achieved
to the least extent at the bottom.
4 Write some paragraphs to explain your order and support your
paragraphs with evidence from your cards. Encourage Improve living
5 Extension: Suggest one change the League could make to be more disarmament conditions
effective in one of its objectives. Explain how the change would help.
You might find your work on Focus Task 2.3 on page 39 useful for this.
Stage 2: Reach an overall judgement
6 Look back to your predictions for the League for the 1920s (page 27). Has the League performed better or worse
than you predicted? Redraw your pie chart to show the balance of success and failure in the 1920s.
7 Which of the following statements do you most agree with?
■ ‘The League of Nations was a great force for peace in the 1920s.’
■ ‘Events of the 1920s showed just how weak the League really was.’
■ ‘The League’s successes in the 1920s were small-scale. Its failures had a higher profile.’
Explain why you have chosen your statement, and why you rejected the others.

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How far did the Depression

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

make the work of the

FIGURE 1
League more difficult in
the 1930s?
Most historians agree that in the 1930s the League of Nations was
Manchurian crisis 1931–33
Problem: Japan invaded Manchuria a failure. Figure 1 sums up the three main challenges the League
(in north-east China) faced in the 1930s and how the League dealt with them. It makes
Response: After a long delay, quite depressing reading! However, not all historians agree on how
no action was taken far these failures were the fault of the League and how far other
Effect: Made the League
seem weak and ineffective
factors beyond the League’s control were more important. The
biggest of these ‘other factors’ was the economic depression of
the 1930s so let’s start with that.

Disarmament conference 1932–34

DE

Problem: Germany complained that only it had disarmed

CL

Response: League could not get other members to agree to disarm

INI

Effect: Germany left the League and began to rearm openly

League members such as Britain no longer tried to stop it
NG

League members also began to rearm themselves

CO

FI
N

DE
NCE IN THE Abyssinian crisis 1935–36
Problem: Italy invaded Abyssinia
LE

Response: League members could not

A

agree effective sanctions

GU

against Italy. Britain and France

AND IT
E

tried to do a secret deal to give

S DE C
LI most of Abyssinia to Italy
Effect: League was seen as powerless
N

and irrelevant
IN
G
IN
FL
UE
NC

FAILURE
E

The challenges faced by the League in the 1930s.

The economic depression

In the late 1920s international trade prospered. The USA, the world’s
richest nation, was a market for other countries to export to. It also helped
economic recovery with loans to many countries, particularly Germany.
In 1929 disaster struck. The WALL STREET CRASH in the USA started a long
depression that quickly caused economic problems throughout the rest of
the world (see Figure 2).
In the 1930s, as a result of the Depression, much of the goodwill of the
late 1920s evaporated.
■ As US loans dried up, businesses in many countries went bankrupt,
leading to unemployment.
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■ Some countries tried to protect their own industries by putting TARIFFS

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Revision Tip on imports. But this just meant their trading partners did the same
■ The key idea to grasp from Figure thing and trade got even worse.
2 is that the Depression created ■ Many countries (including Germany, Japan, Italy and Britain) started to
economic problems which led to
rearm (build up their armed forces) as a way of trying to get industries
political problems later on.
■ The two most important examples
working and giving jobs to the unemployed. But these new armies
are Germany and Japan so make caused alarm and tension.
sure you can describe how the The internationalist spirit of the 1920s was replaced by a more nationalist
Depression affected them. ‘beggar my neighbour’ approach in the 1930s (protecting a country’s
interest at the expense of other countries).
FIGURE 2

The USA Japan

One way that the League of The Depression threatened to bankrupt Japan.
Nations could stop one Its main export was silk to the USA, but the USA
country invading another was buying less silk. So Japan had less money
was to use economic Top priority – to buy food and raw materials. Its leaders were
sanctions. But the sort out US all army generals. They decided to continue to
Depression made the USA economy. expand their empire by taking over weaker Plans for
Low priority – countries that had the raw materials Japan Japanese
unwilling to help in this empire
help sort out needed. They started by invading Manchuria
because economic international
sanctions would make its (part of China) in 1931.
disputes.
own economy even worse.

Germany
The Depression hit Germany badly.
There was unemployment, poverty and
chaos. Germany’s weak leaders seemed
He’ll make
unable to do anything. Many Germans Germany
Britain began supporting the Nazi Party and great again.
Britain was one of the leaders of the Hitler was appointed chancellor in 1933.
League of Nations. But, like the USA, He was not good news for international
it was unwilling to help sort out peace. He openly planned to invade
international disputes while its economy Germany’s neighbours and to win back
was bad. For example, when Japan land that Germany had lost in the
invaded Manchuria it did nothing – it did Treaty of Versailles.
not support economic
sanctions against Japan
and did not send troops Italy
to protect In Italy economic problems encouraged
Top priority – Mussolini to try to build an overseas
Manchuria.
sort out empire to distract people’s attention from
British the difficulties the government faced.
economy.
Low priority –
help sort out
international
disputes.

The impact of the Depression on different countries.

FOCUS TASK 2.6

How far did the Depression make the work of the League more difficult in the 1930s?
Study these statements:
a) ‘I have not worked since last year.’
b) ‘I will support anyone who can get the country back to work.’
c) ‘If we had our own empire we would have the resources we need. Economic depression would not damage us so much.’
d) ‘Reparations have caused this mess.’
e) ‘The bank has closed. We’ve lost everything!’
f) ‘We need tough leaders who will not be pushed around by the League of Nations or the USA.’
g) ‘We should tax all foreign goods. That will protect the jobs of our workers.’
1 Suggest in which of the following countries (USA, Britain, France, Germany, Japan or Italy) someone might have
said each of the above statements during the Depression. Some might apply to more than one country.
2 Suggest why each viewpoint would worry the League of Nations or make its work harder.

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How did the Manchurian crisis weaken

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

the League?
FIGURE 3

MONGOLIA
USSR N
Chine s e
Eas te
r nR MANCHURIA–
ail
The South Manchurian Railway. wa MANCHUKUO
This railway through Manchuria y
was built by the Japanese and Most of Japan is covered by
controlled by the Japanese army. high [Link] is little
It carried Japanese goods into Changchun farm land to grow food. In the
Manchuria and the rest of China Vladivostok
1920s Japan depended on
and brought food and raw JEHOL importing food from China for
materials such as iron, coal and PROVINCE
its growing population.
timber back to Japan.
Mukden
Japan did not have raw materials
Antung such as iron ore and coal. These
Peking were imported from China.

AN
Sea of P Tokyo
CHINA Japan JA
KOREA
Kwantung – formerly the
Liaotung Peninsula and Korea had been annexed
leased by Japan by Japan in 1910. This
Key would make an invasion
from China.
1931–32 invasion of Manchuria easier for
1933 invasion the Japanese military. 0 400 km
1932 sea attack
Scale
Japanese Empire in 1931 Shanghai

The railways and natural resources of Manchuria.

Revision Tip Background

Make sure you can explain: Since 1900 Japan’s economy and population had been growing rapidly.
■ what the League decided should By the 1920s Japan was a major power with a powerful military, strong
happen in Manchuria industries and a growing empire (see Figure 3). But the Depression hit
■ why it was unable to force Japan Japan badly as China and the USA put up tariffs (trade barriers) against
to obey. Japanese goods. Army leaders in Japan were in no doubt about the solution
The first major test for the League to Japan’s problems – Japan would not face these problems if it expanded
came when the Japanese invaded its empire to provide resources and markets for Japanese goods.
Manchuria in 1931.
Invasion 1, 1931
In 1931 an incident in Manchuria gave them an ideal opportunity. The
Japanese army controlled the South Manchurian Railway (see Figure 3).
When Chinese troops allegedly attacked the railway the Japanese armed
forces used this as an excuse to invade and set up a government in
Manchukuo (Manchuria), which they controlled. This was known as the
Mukden Incident. Japan’s civilian government protested but the military
were now in charge.

China appeals
China appealed to the League. The Japanese argued that China was in such
a state of anarchy that they had to invade in self-defence to keep peace
in the area. For the League of Nations this was a serious test. Japan was a
leading member of the League. It needed careful handling. What should the
League do?
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4 The Lytton Report

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

SOURCE
I was sad to find everyone [at the Britain and France both had colonies in South-East Asia. They did not want
League] so dejected. The Assembly to provoke a war with Japan. Many European member states also viewed
was a dead thing. The Council was the incident as a problem far away. Some members even believed that
without confidence in itself. Beneš [the Japanese rule would bring order to the region. Investigation of the Mukden
Czechoslovak leader], who is not given to Incident was finally entrusted to Lord Lytton and the Lytton Commission.
hysterics, said [about the people at the It took them over a year to present the Lytton Report in September 1932.
League] ‘They are too frightened. I tell It was detailed and balanced, but the judgement was very clear. Japan had
them we are not going to have war now; acted unlawfully. Manchuria should be returned to the Chinese.
we have five years before us, perhaps
six. We must make the most of them.’
Invasion 2, 1933
However, in February 1933, instead of withdrawing from Manchuria the
The British elder statesman Sir Austen Japanese announced that they intended to invade more of China. They
Chamberlain visited the League of
still argued that this was necessary in self-defence. On 24 February 1933
Nations late in 1932 in the middle of the
Manchurian crisis. This is an adapted
the report from the League’s officials was approved by 42 votes to 1 in
extract from his letters. the Assembly. Only Japan voted against. Smarting at the insult, Japan
resigned from the League on 27 March 1933. The next week it invaded
Jehol (see Figure 3).

The League responds

The League was powerless. It discussed economic sanctions, but without the
USA, Japan’s main trading partner, they would be meaningless. Besides, Britain
Source Analysis seemed more interested in keeping up a good relationship with Japan than in
1 Source 5 is a comment on this
agreeing to sanctions. The League also discussed banning arms sales to Japan,
Manchurian crisis. On your but the member countries could not even agree about that. They were worried
own copy of this cartoon add that Japan would retaliate and the war would escalate.
annotations to explain: There was no prospect at all of Britain and France risking their navies or
a) the key features
armies in a war with Japan. Only the USA and the USSR would have had the
b) the message
resources to remove the Japanese from Manchuria by force and they were
c) what the cartoonist thinks of
the League. not even members of the League.
2 Read Source 4. Does Beneš share
the same view of the League as Consequences
the cartoonist in Source 5? All sorts of excuses were offered for the failure of the League: Japan was
so far away; Japan was a special case; Japan did have a point when it said
that China was itself in the grip of anarchy.
SOURCE 5 However, the significance of the MANCHURIAN
CRISIS was obvious. As many of its critics had
predicted, the League was powerless if a
strong nation decided to pursue an aggressive
policy and invade its neighbours. Japan had
committed blatant aggression and got away
with it. Back in Europe, both Hitler and
Mussolini looked on with interest. Within three
years they would both follow Japan’s example.

Think!
1 Why did it take so long for the League to
make a decision over Manchuria?
2 Did the League fail in this incident because
of the way it worked or because of the
attitude of its members?

A cartoon by David Low, published in a British newspaper in 1933

(see also Source 8 on page 47 for more information about the cartoonist).

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SOURCE 6 Why did disarmament fail in the 1930s?

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

To make myself perfectly clear, I would

ask: is there anyone within or without The next big failure of the League of Nations was over disarmament.
Germany who honestly considers the As you saw on page 38, the League had not had success in this area in
present German regime to be peaceful the 1920s either, but at that stage, when the international climate was
in its instincts … Germany is inhibited better, it had not seemed to matter so much. In the 1930s, however,
there was increased pressure for the League to do something about
from disturbing the peace of Europe
disarmament. The Germans had long been angry that they had been forced
solely by its consciousness of its present
to disarm after the First World War while other nations had not done the
military inferiority.
same. Many countries were actually spending more on armaments than
Professor William Rappard speaking to before the First World War.
the League in 1932.
Disarmament Conference
After the Manchurian crisis, members of the League realised the urgency of
the problem. In February 1932 the long-promised Disarmament Conference
finally got under way. By July 1932 it had produced resolutions to
prohibit bombing of civilian populations, limit the size of artillery, limit
the tonnage of tanks, and prohibit chemical warfare. But there was very
little in the resolutions to show how these limits would be achieved. For
example, the bombing of civilians was to be prohibited, but all attempts
to agree to abolish planes capable of bombing were defeated. Even the
proposal to ban the manufacture of CHEMICAL WEAPONS was defeated.

German disarmament
It was not a promising start. However, there was a bigger problem facing
Source Analysis the Conference – what to do about Germany. The Germans had been in the
1 What is the message of Source 7? League for six years. Most people now accepted that they should be treated
2 Why might this cartoon have more equally than under the Treaty of Versailles. The big question was
been published in Germany in whether everyone else should disarm to the level that Germany had been
July 1933? forced to, or whether the Germans should be allowed to rearm to a level
closer to that of the other powers. The experience of the 1920s showed
that the first option was a non-starter. But there was great reluctance in
the League to allow the second option. The timeline shows how events
SOURCE 7 relating to Germany moved over the next 18 months.

July 1932: Germany proposed all countries disarm to its level. When the
Conference failed to agree this principle of ‘equality’, the Germans walked out.
September 1932: The British sent the Germans a note that went some way to
agreeing equality, but the superior tone of the note angered the Germans still
further.
December 1932: An agreement was finally reached to treat Germany equally.
January 1933: Germany announced it was coming back to the Conference.
February 1933: Hitler became CHANCELLOR of Germany at the end of January. He
immediately started to rearm Germany, although secretly.
May 1933: Hitler promised not to rearm Germany if ‘in five years all other
nations destroyed their arms’.
June 1933: Britain produced an ambitious disarmament plan, but it failed to
achieve support at the Conference.
A German cartoon from July 1933. The October 1933: Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference, and soon after
parrot represents France. It is calling for took Germany out of the League altogether.
more security.

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By this stage, all the powers knew that Hitler was secretly rearming

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Germany already. They also began to rebuild their own armaments. Against
that background the Disarmament Conference struggled on for another year
but in an atmosphere of increasing futility. It finally ended in 1934.
SOURCE 8
Source Analysis
Look at Source 8. Explain what the
cartoonist is saying about:
a) ordinary people
b) political leaders.

David Low’s cartoon commenting on the failure of the Disarmament Conference in 1934.
Low was one of the most famous cartoonists of the 1930s. He regularly criticised
both the actions of dictators around the world and the ineffectiveness of the
League of Nations.

Reasons for failure

The Conference failed for a number of reasons. Some say it was all doomed
from the start. No one was very serious about disarmament anyway. But
there were other factors at work.
It did not help that Britain and France were divided on this issue. By 1933
many British people felt that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair. In fact,
to the dismay of the French, the British signed the Anglo-German Naval
Agreement with Germany in 1935 that allowed Germany to build up its
navy as long as it stayed under 35 per cent of the size of the British navy.
Britain did not consult either its allies or the League about this, even
though this violated the Treaty of Versailles.
Revision Tip It seemed that each country was looking after itself and ignoring the
Although disarmament was a key League.
aim of the League it never really
had much success in this in either Think!
the 1920s or the 1930s. The key
1 In what ways were each of the following to blame for the failure of the
thing to remember is why this was
Disarmament Conference:
more serious in the 1930s than
a) Germany
in the 1920s. In the 1930s it was
b) Britain
serious because Germany used the
c) the League itself?
failure as an excuse for its rapid
2 Do you think the disarmament failure did less or more damage to the
and risky rearmament programme.
League’s reputation than the Manchurian crisis? Give reasons.

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How did Mussolini’s invasion of

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Abyssinia damage the League?

The fatal blow to the League came when the Italian DICTATOR
FIGURE 9
Mussolini invaded Abyssinia in 1935. There were both
similarities with and differences from the Japanese invasion
N
of Manchuria.
■ Like Japan, Italy was a leading member of the League.
ITALY

Like Japan, Italy wanted to expand its empire by

invading another country.
■ However, unlike Manchuria, this dispute was on the
Supplies via the League’s doorstep. Italy was a European power. It
Suez Canal even had a border with France. Abyssinia bordered on
the Anglo-Egyptian territory of Sudan and the British
colonies of Uganda, Kenya and British Somaliland. Unlike
LIBYA
EGYPT events in Manchuria, the League could not claim that
this problem was in an inaccessible part of the world.
FRENCH EMPIRE Some argued that Manchuria had been a special case. Would
IN AFRICA
SUDAN
ERITREA the League do any better in this ABYSSINIAN CRISIS?

Background
Addis BRITISH
Ababa SOMALILAND
Wal-Wal
Key ABYSSINIA The origins of this crisis lay back in the previous century.
Italian advance In 1896 Italian troops had tried to invade Abyssinia but
UGANDA
KENYA
ITALIAN
SOMALILAND
had been defeated by a poorly equipped army of tribesmen
Italian territory
in the Battle of Adowa. Mussolini wanted revenge for this
French territory TANGANYIKA
humiliating defeat. He also had his eye on the fertile land
0 500 km
British territory or and mineral wealth of Abyssinia. However, most importantly,
strong British influence Scale
he wanted glory and conquest. His style of leadership
needed military victories and he had often talked of
British, French and Italian possessions in eastern Africa. restoring the glory of the Roman Empire.
In December 1934 there was a dispute between Italian and Abyssinian
Think! soldiers at the Wal-Wal oasis – 80 km inside Abyssinia. Mussolini took this
To help you analyse these events as his cue and claimed this was actually Italian territory. He demanded an
draw a timeline, from December apology and began preparing the Italian army for an invasion of Abyssinia.
1934 to May 1936, down the middle The Abyssinian emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the League for help.
of a piece of paper and use the text
to mark the key events on it. On one Phase 1: the League plays for time
side put the actions of Mussolini or From January 1935 to October 1935, Mussolini was supposedly negotiating
Hitler, on the other side the actions
with the League to settle the dispute. However, at the same time he was
of Britain, France and the League.
shipping his vast army to Africa and whipping up war fever among the
Italian people.
To start with, the British and the French failed to take the situation
seriously. They played for time. They were desperate to keep good relations
with Mussolini, who seemed to be their strongest ally against Hitler. They
signed an agreement with him early in 1935 known as the Stresa Pact, which
was a formal statement against German REARMAMENT and a commitment to
stand united against Germany. At the meeting to discuss this, they did not
even raise the question of Abyssinia. Some historians suggest that Mussolini
believed that Britain and France had promised to turn a blind eye to his
exploits in Abyssinia in return for his joining them in the Stresa Pact.
However, as the year wore on, there was a public outcry against Italy’s
behaviour. A ballot was taken by the League of Nations Union in Britain in
1934–35. It showed that a majority of British people supported the use of
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to defend Abyssinia if necessary. Facing an autumn election at

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

MILITARY FORCE
Source Analysis home, British politicians now began to ‘get tough’. At an assembly of the
1 Study Source 10. At what point in League, the British foreign minister, Hoare, made a grand speech about the
the crisis do you think this might
value of collective security, to the delight of the League’s members and all
have been published? Use the
the smaller nations. There was much talking and negotiating. However, the
details in the source and the text
to help you decide. League never actually did anything to discourage Mussolini.
2 Here are three possible reasons On 4 September, after eight months’ deliberation, a committee reported
why this cartoon was drawn: to the League that neither side could be held responsible for the Wal-Wal
■ To inform people in Britain
incident. The League put forward a plan that would give Mussolini some of
about British and French
Abyssinia. Mussolini rejected it.
policy
■ To criticise British and French
policy Phase 2: sanctions or not?
■ To change British and French In October 1935 Mussolini’s army was ready. He launched a full-scale invasion
policy. of Abyssinia. Despite brave resistance, the Abyssinians were no match for the
Which do you think is the best modern Italian army equipped with tanks, aeroplanes and poison gas.
explanation?
This was a clear-cut case of a large, powerful state attacking a smaller
one. The League was designed for just such disputes and, unlike in the
Manchurian crisis, it was ideally placed to act.
SOURCE 10 There was no doubting the seriousness of the
issue either.
The Covenant (see page 30) made it clear
that sanctions must be introduced against
the aggressor. A committee was immediately
set up to agree what sanctions to impose.
Sanctions would only work if they were
imposed quickly and decisively. Each week a
decision was delayed would allow Mussolini to
build up his stockpile of raw materials.
The League banned arms sales to Italy; banned
loans to Italy; banned imports from Italy. It
also banned the export to Italy of rubber, tin
and metals. However, the League delayed a
decision for two months over whether to ban
oil exports to Italy. It feared the Americans
would not support the sanctions. It also feared
that its members’ economic interests would be
further damaged. In Britain, the Cabinet was
informed that 30,000 British coal miners were
about to lose their jobs because of the ban on
coal exports to Italy.
More important still, the Suez Canal, which
was owned by Britain and France, was not
closed to Mussolini’s supply ships. The
canal was the Italians’ main supply route to
Abyssinia and closing it could have ended the
Abyssinian campaign very quickly. Both Britain
and France were afraid that closing the canal
could have resulted in war with Italy. This
failure was fatal for Abyssinia.

A cartoon from Punch, 1935, commenting on the Abyssinian crisis. Punch

was usually very patriotic towards Britain. It seldom criticised British
politicians over foreign policy.

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The Hoare–Laval Pact

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Think!
1 How did: Equally damaging to the League was the secret dealing between the British
a) the USA and the French that was going on behind the scenes. In December 1935, while
b) Britain
sanctions discussions were still taking place, the British and French foreign
undermine the League’s
attempts to impose sanctions on
ministers, Hoare and Laval, were hatching a plan. This aimed to give Mussolini
Italy? two-thirds of Abyssinia in return for his calling off his invasion! Laval even
2 Explain in your own words: proposed to put the plan to Mussolini before they showed it to either the League
a) why the Hoare–Laval deal of Nations or Haile Selassie. Laval told the British that if they did not agree to
caused such outrage the plan, then the French would no longer support sanctions against Italy.
b) how it affected attitudes to
However, details of the plan were leaked to the French press. It proved
the League
c) how the USA undermined the
quite disastrous for the League. Haile Selassie demanded an immediate
League. League debate about it. In both Britain and France it was seen as a blatant
act of treachery against the League. Hoare and Laval were both sacked. But
the real damage was to the sanctions discussions. They lost all momentum.
Source Analysis
1 Look at Source 11. What event is No oil sanctions
the cartoonist referring to when The question about whether to ban oil sales was further delayed. In February
the warrior says ‘the matter has 1936 the committee concluded that if they did stop oil sales to Italy, the
been settled elsewhere’? Italians’ supplies would be exhausted in two months, even if the Americans
2 Compare Sources 11 and 12. kept on selling oil to them. But by then it was all too late. Mussolini had
How far do they agree about the already taken over large parts of Abyssinia. And the Americans were even
implications of the Abyssinian
more disgusted with the ditherings of the French and the British than they
crisis?
had been before and so blocked a move to support the League’s sanctions.
American oil producers actually stepped up their exports to Italy.
SOURCE 11
The outcomes
On 7 March 1936 the fatal blow was delivered. Hitler, timing
his move to perfection, marched his troops into the RHINELAND,
an act prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles (see page 12).
If there had been any hope of getting the French to support
sanctions against Italy, it was now dead. The French were
desperate to gain the support of Italy and were now prepared
to pay the price of giving Abyssinia to Mussolini.
Italy continued to defy the League’s orders and by May
1936 had taken the capital of Abyssinia, Addis Ababa.
On 2 May, Haile Selassie was forced into exile. On 9 May,
Mussolini formally annexed the entire country.
The League watched helplessly. Collective security had
been shown up as an empty promise. The League of Nations
had failed. If the British and French had hoped that their
handling of the Abyssinian crisis would help strengthen
their position against Hitler, they were soon proved very
wrong. In November 1936 Mussolini and Hitler signed an
agreement of their own called the Rome–Berlin Axis.
SOURCE 12
Could the League survive the failure of sanctions to rescue
Abyssinia? Could it ever impose sanctions again? Probably there
A German cartoon from the front cover of the pro-Nazi had never been such a clear-cut case for sanctions. If the League
magazine Simplicissimus, 1936. The warrior is delivering a had failed in this case there could probably be no confidence that
message to the League of Nations (the ‘Völkerbund’): ‘I am
sorry to disturb your sleep but I just wanted to tell you
it could succeed again in the future.
that you should no longer bother yourselves about this Anthony Eden, British foreign minister, expressing his feelings
Abyssinian business. The matter has been settled elsewhere.’ about the crisis to the British Cabinet in May 1936.

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SOURCE 13 A disaster for the League and for

2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

the world
Historians often disagree about how to interpret
important events. However, one of the most striking
things about the events of 1935 and 1936 is that most
historians seem to agree about the Abyssinian crisis:
it was a disaster for the League of Nations and had
serious consequences for world peace.
SOURCE 14
The implications of the conquest of Abyssinia were not
confined to East Africa. Although victory cemented
Mussolini’s personal prestige at home, Italy gained little
or nothing from it in material terms. The damage done,
meanwhile, to the prestige of Britain, France and the League
of Nations was irreversible. The only winner in the whole sorry
episode was Adolf Hitler.
Written by historian T.A. Morris in 1995.

SOURCE 15
After seeing what happened first in Manchuria and then in
Abyssinia, most people drew the conclusion that it was no
longer much use placing their hopes in the League…
Written by historian James Joll in 1976.

A cartoon from Punch, 1938. The doctors represent Britain

and France. SOURCE 16
The real death of the League was in 1935. One day it was
a powerful body imposing sanctions, the next day it was an
Think! empty sham, everyone scuttling from it as quickly as possible.
Write a caption for the cartoon in Source 13, showing Hitler watched.
people’s feelings about the League after the Abyssinian Written by historian A.J.P. Taylor in 1966.
crisis. The real caption is on page vi.

SOURCE 17
FOCUS TASK 2.7 Yes, we know that World War began in Manchuria fifteen
Did the League's weaknesses in membership and years ago. We know that four years later we could easily
organisation affect its attempts at peacekeeping in have stopped Mussolini if we had taken the sanctions against
the 1930s?
1 When the League was set up, its critics said there
Mussolini that were obviously required, if we had closed the
were weaknesses in its organisation that would Suez Canal to the aggressor and stopped his oil.
make it ineffective. On page 39 you drew up a table British statesman Philip Noel Baker speaking at the very last
to analyse the effect of these weaknesses in the session of the League in April 1946.
1920s. Now do a similar analysis for the 1930s.
What evidence is there in the Manchurian crisis, the
disarmament talks and the Abyssinian crisis of the
following criticisms of the League:
■ that it would be slow to act
■ that members would act in their own interests
■ that without the USA it would be powerless?
2 ‘The way the League was set up meant it was
bound to fail.’ Explain how far you agree with this
statement. Support your answer with evidence from
the tables you have compiled for this Focus Task and
Focus Task 2.3 on page 39.

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PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

FOCUS TASK 2.8

Why did the League of Nations fail in the 1930s?
Here is a diagram summarising reasons for the failure of the League of Nations in the 1930s. Complete your own copy of
the diagram to explain how each weakness affected the League’s actions in Manchuria and Abyssinia. We have filled in
some points for you. There is one weakness that you will not be able to write about – you will find out about it in Chapter 3.

In In Manchuria,
In In Abyssinia,
Abyssinia, this was a problem
Manchuria, they … the USA …
they … because …

French Absent
and British self- powers – key countries,
interest – they looked after particularly the USA, were not in
their own interests rather the League.
than the League’s. Failure of
the League A
F
In
In Abyssinia, …
Manchuria, economic
problems led to Japan … I
Ineffective
Economic
E sanctions –
depression led to sanctions either weren’t
the rise of the dictators – used or didn’t work.
and made League members less
willing to impose sanctions for
fear of harming their own In
trade. Manchuria, …

In
Abyssinia, economic
worries prevented … L
U Lack
of armed forces – the
R Unfair
treaty – the
League had no troops of its
Reaching own.
decisions too slowly – League’s job was to
the League took ages to enforce treaties that some In
members thought were Manchuria, In
act.
unfair. the League Abyssinia,
could not send British and French
In In troops there as it forces could have acted
Manchuria, … Abyssinia, … was impossible on behalf of the League, but
See
to reach. the British and French
Chapter 3.
governments
refused.

Revision Tip
The memory aid FAILURE should
help you remember these key
points for an exam.

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2 To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

Keywords FOCUS TASK 2.9
Make sure you know these terms, To what extent was the League of Nations a success?
people or events and are able The last few pages have been all about failure. But remember there were
to use them or describe them successes too. To help you reach a balanced judgement on this key question,
confidently. use these steps to review your work over the whole chapter.
• Abyssinian crisis Stage 1: Evaluate the League’s successes and failures in the 1930s
• Article 10 On page 41 you created four cards to summarise the League’s successes and
• Assembly failures in the 1920s. Now do the same for the 1930s.
• Collective security 1 Create four cards – one for each of the League’s aims.
• Commissions ■ discourage aggression ■ encourage disarmament
• Conference of Ambassadors ■ encourage co-operation ■ improve living conditions.
• Council On the back of each card summarise evidence of success or failure in each
• Covenant aim in the 1930s. You may not be able to do them all.
• Disarmament 2 Based on the evidence on your 1930s cards, put the aim you think was
• Economic depression achieved to the greatest extent in the 1930s at the top, and that which was
• Isolationism achieved to the least extent at the bottom.
• Manchurian crisis 3 Write some paragraphs to explain your order and support your paragraphs
• Military force with evidence from your cards.
• Moral condemnation 4 If your order is different from the order you had for the 1920s, write a
• Normalcy further paragraph explaining how and why this has changed.
• Secretariat
Stage 2: Consider reasons for success or failure
• Tariffs
5 For each aim decide:
• Trade sanctions
a) how far you think the League should get credit for its successes or how far
• Unanimous
other factors (e.g. the economy; the Great Powers) deserve more credit.
• Wall Street Crash
b) how far you think the League should get blamed for its failures; were
they more the result of the League’s actions or other factors?
Stage 3: Reach a judgement
6 Now it’s judgement time. Taking all the work you have done; considering the
four aims and its relative success and failure in each one; and taking into
account both the 1920s and the 1930s, how does the League score out of 100?
7 Write a short paragraph explaining your mark out of 100.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS Chapter Summary

1 (a) Describe the main powers To what extent was the League of Nations a success?
available to the League 1 The League of Nations was set up to solve problems between countries
to sort out international before they led to war.
disputes. [4] 2 Its methods were mainly diplomacy (talking), trade sanctions, or if
(b) Why did the League of necessary using the armies of their members.
Nations fail to impose 3 It was the big idea of President Wilson, but his own country, the USA,
meaningful sanctions never joined and instead returned to its isolationist policy.
against Italy during the 4 The leading members were Britain and France, but they had their own
Abyssinian crisis? [6] interests and bypassed the League when it suited them.
(c) ‘The League of Nations had 5 The League’s structure made it slow to take decisions, which made it less effective
failed before the Abyssinian in settling international disputes, but it did have some successes in the 1920s.
crisis even started.’ How 6 The League’s agencies (committees and commissions) were set up to solve
far do you agree with this social problems such as post-war refugee crises, health problems and
statement? Explain your slavery/forced labour. It had many successes throughout the 1920s and 1930s.
answer. [10] 7 The League was supposed to encourage disarmament but failed to get any
See pages 148–54 for advice on the countries to disarm.
different types of questions. 8 In the 1930s the League’s work was made much harder by the economic
depression, which made countries less willing to co-operate and helped
turn previously democratic countries such as Germany into DICTATORSHIPS.
9 In 1931–32 the League condemned the Japanese invasion of Manchuria
and China but was helpless to do anything to stop it.
10 In 1936–37 the League tried to prevent Italy invading Abyssinia but it could
not agree what to do and never even enforced trade sanctions.
11 From 1936 the League was seen as irrelevant to international affairs
although its agencies continued its humanitarian work.

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3
How far was Hitler’s foreign
policy to blame for the
outbreak of war in Europe
in 1939?
FOCUS POINTS
What were the long-term consequences of the Treaty of Versailles?
What were the consequences of the failures of the League of
Nations in the 1930s?
Was the policy of Appeasement justified?
How important was the Nazi–Soviet Pact?
Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939?

The image on the opposite page represents the most famous moment of
Appeasement – the policy followed by Britain and France towards Hitler
through the 1930s. The British prime minister has returned from a meeting
with Hitler having agreed to give him parts of Czechoslovakia, in return for
which Hitler promised peace.
If you know the story already then you will know that this agreement
proved totally empty – ‘not worth the paper it was written on’ as they say!
Hitler did not keep his word, and probably never meant to.
But just forget HINDSIGHT for a moment and try to join with the people
of Britain welcoming back a leader who seemed to be doing his best to
preserve a crumbling peace.
You can see from the newspaper there is a genuine desire to believe in
the possibility of peace. Chamberlain had not given up on the possibility
of peace, nor had the British people. They did not think that war was
Opposite is the front inevitable – even in 1938. They did all they could to avoid it.
page of the Daily Sketch,
1 October 1938. Read it In this chapter your task is to work out why, despite all the efforts of
carefully and select one or international leaders, and all the horrors of war, international peace finally
collapsed in 1939.
two phrases which suggest
or prove that: Here are some of the factors you will consider. They are all relevant and
they are all connected. Your task will be to examine each one, then see the
■ the British people connections and weigh the importance of these different factors.
thought Chamberlain
was a hero 1. The impact of the 2. The failures of the 3. The worldwide
■ the newspaper approves Treaty of Versailles League of Nations economic
of Chamberlain on Germany depression
■ people in Britain
genuinely feared a war
was imminent in 1938
4. The policy of 5. The Nazi–Soviet 6. Hitler’s actions
■ Hitler was respected
Appeasement Pact and particularly
■ Hitler could be trusted
his foreign policy
■ this agreement would
bring lasting peace.

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‘Hitler’s war’?
PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Between 1918 and 1933 Adolf Hitler rose from being an obscure and
demoralised member of the defeated German army to become the all-
powerful Führer, DICTATOR of Germany, with almost unlimited power and
an overwhelming ambition to make Germany great once again. His is an
astonishing story which you can read about in detail in Chapter 9. Here you
will be concentrating on just one intriguing and controversial question:
how far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war?
SOURCE 1
We demand equality of rights for the Hitler’s plans
German people in its dealings with other Hitler was never secretive about his plans for Germany. As early as 1925
nations, and abolition of the Peace he had laid out in his book MEIN KAMPF what he would do if the Nazis ever
Treaties of Versailles and St Germain. achieved power in Germany.
From the National Socialist Program, 1920
Abolish the Treaty of Versailles!
SOURCE 2 Like many Germans, Hitler believed that the TREATY OF VERSAILLES was unjust.
We turn our eyes towards the lands He hated the Treaty and called the German leaders who had signed it ‘The
of the east … When we speak of new NOVEMBER CRIMINALS’. The Treaty was a constant reminder to Germans of their
territory in Europe today, we must defeat in the First World War and their humiliation by the Allies. Hitler
principally think of Russia and the border promised that if he became leader of Germany he would reverse it (see
states subject to her. Destiny itself Source 1).
seems to wish to point out the way for By the time he came to power in Germany, some of the terms had already
us here. been changed. For example, Germany had stopped making REPARATIONS
Colonisation of the eastern frontiers is of payments altogether. However, most points were still in place. The table on
extreme importance. It will be the duty page 57 shows the terms of the Treaty that most angered Hitler.
of Germany’s foreign policy to provide
large spaces for the nourishment and
Expand German territory!
settlement of the growing population of The Treaty of Versailles had taken away territory from Germany. Hitler
Germany. wanted to get that territory back. He wanted Germany to unite with
Austria. He wanted German minorities in other countries such as
From Hitler’s Mein Kampf.
Czechoslovakia to rejoin Germany. But he also wanted to carve out an
empire in eastern Europe to give extra LEBENSRAUM or ‘living space’ for
ACTIVITY Germans (see Source 2).
It is 1933. Write a briefing paper for
the British Government on Hitler’s Defeat communism!
plans for Germany. Use Sources A German empire carved out of the SOVIET UNION would also help Hitler in
1–3 to help you. Conclude with one of his other objectives – the defeat of COMMUNISM or BOLSHEVISM. Hitler
your own assessment on whether was anticommunist. He believed that Bolsheviks had helped to bring about
the Government should be worried the defeat of Germany in the First World War. He also believed that the
about Hitler and his plans. In your Bolsheviks wanted to take over Germany (see Source 3).
conclusion, remember these facts
about the British Government: SOURCE 3
■ Britain is a leading member
of the League of Nations and We must not forget that the Bolsheviks are blood-stained. That they overran a great
is supposed to uphold the state [Russia], and in a fury of massacre wiped out millions of their most intelligent
Treaty of Versailles, by force if fellow-countrymen … Germany is the next great objective of Bolshevism. All our
necessary. strength is needed to raise up our nation once more and rescue it from the embrace
■ The British Government does not
of the international python … The first essential is the expulsion of the Marxist
trust the communists and thinks
poison from the body of our nation.
that a strong Germany could help
to stop the communist threat. From Hitler’s Mein Kampf.

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Hitler’s actions

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
This timeline shows how, between 1933 and 1939, Hitler turned his plans
into actions.
DATE ACTION
1933 Took Germany out of the League of Nations; began rearming Germany
1934 Tried to take over Austria but was prevented by Mussolini
1935 Held massive REARMAMENT rally in Germany; reintroduced CONSCRIPTION in Germany
1936 Sent German troops into the RHINELAND; made an anticommunist ALLIANCE with Japan
1937 Tried out Germany’s new weapons in the SPANISH CIVIL WAR; made an anticommunist alliance with Italy
1938 Took over Austria; took over the SUDETENLAND area of Czechoslovakia
1939 Invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia; invaded Poland; war
War

Other factors
SOURCE 4 When you see events leading up to the war laid out this way, it makes it
seem as if Hitler planned it all step by step. In fact, this view of events
Any account of the origins and course of was widely accepted by historians until the 1960s. In the 1960s, however,
the Second World War must give Hitler the British historian A.J.P. Taylor came up with a new interpretation. His
the leading part. Without him a major view was that Hitler was a gambler rather than a planner. Hitler simply took
war in the early 1940s between all the the logical next step to see what he could get away with. He was bold. He
world’s great powers was unthinkable. kept his nerve. As other countries gave in to him and allowed him to get
British historian Professor Richard Overy, away with each gamble, so he became bolder and risked more. In Taylor’s
writing in 1996. interpretation it is Britain, the Allies and the League of Nations who are to
blame for letting Hitler get away with it – by not standing up to him. In this
interpretation it is other factors that are as much to blame as Hitler himself:
Revision Tip ■ the worldwide ECONOMIC DEPRESSION
The details in your version of the ■ the weaknesses of the post-war treaties
table below will be a very useful ■ the actions of the leading powers – Britain, France, the USA and the USSR.
revision aid. So add pictures and As you examine Hitler’s actions in more detail, you will see that both
highlights to help you learn the interpretations are possible. You can make up your own mind which you
information. agree with.

Think!
Hitler and the Treaty of Versailles
1 Draw up a table like this one to show some of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that affected Germany.
2 As you work through this chapter, fill out the other columns of this ‘Versailles chart’.

Terms of the Treaty of Versailles What Hitler did and The reasons he gave The response from
when for his action Britain and France
Germany’s armed forces to be severely limited

The Rhineland to be a demilitarised zone

Germany forbidden to unite with Austria

The Sudetenland taken into the new state of

Czechoslovakia
The Polish Corridor given to Poland

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Rearmament
PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933. One of his first steps was to
SOURCE 5 increase Germany’s armed forces. Thousands of unemployed workers were
I am convinced that Hitler does not drafted into the army. This helped him to reduce unemployment, which was
want war … what the Germans are one of the biggest problems he faced in Germany. But it also helped him to
after is a strong army which will enable deliver on his promise to make Germany strong again and to challenge the
them to deal with Russia. terms of the Treaty of Versailles.
British politician Lord Lothian, Hitler knew that German people supported rearmament. But he also knew it
January 1935. would cause alarm in other countries. He handled it cleverly. Rearmament
began in secret at first. He made a great public display of his desire not to
rearm Germany – that he was only doing it because other countries refused
FIGURE 6 to disarm (see page 46). He then followed Japan’s example and withdrew
from the League of Nations.
40
38.0
In 1935 Hitler openly staged a massive military rally celebrating the
35
German armed forces and he even reintroduced conscription to the army.
30
He was breaking the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, but he guessed
25
correctly that he would get away with rearmament. Many other countries
per cent

20 23.0
were using rearmament as a way to fight unemployment. The collapse of
15 16.6 the League of Nations Disarmament Conference in 1934 (see pages 48–49)
10 12.4 11.8 had shown that other nations were not prepared to disarm.
5 7.4
Rearmament was a very popular move in Germany. It boosted Nazi support.
0 Hitler also knew that Britain had some sympathy with Germany on this
1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940
issue. Britain believed that the limits put on Germany’s armed forces by the
The proportion of German spending that Treaty of Versailles were too tight. The permitted forces were not enough
went into armaments, 1935–40.
to defend Germany from attack. Britain also thought that a strong Germany
would be a good buffer against communism.
Britain had already helped to dismantle the Treaty by signing the Anglo-
Source Analysis German Naval Agreement with Hitler in 1935, allowing Germany to increase
How far do Figures 6 and 7 prove its navy to up to 35 per cent of the size of the British navy. The French
Source 5 to be wrong? were angry with Britain about this, but there was little they could do.
Through the rest of the 1930s Hitler ploughed more and more spending into
armaments (see Figures 6 and 7).
FIGURE 7
Warships Aircraft Soldiers

1932 (36)
(100,000)
(30)

Think!
1 Fill out the first row of your
‘Versailles chart’ on page 57 to
summarise what Hitler did about
rearmament. 1939
2 What factors allowed Hitler
to get away with rearming
Germany? Look for:
(95)
a) the impact of the Depression
b) the Treaty of Versailles
c) the League of Nations
(8,250) (950,000)
d) the actions of Britain and
France. German armed forces in 1932 and 1939.

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The Saar plebiscite

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
The SAAR region of Germany had been run by the League of Nations since
1919 (see page 34).
In 1935 the League of Nations held the promised plebiscite for people to vote
on whether their region should return to German rule. Hitler was initially wary
as many of his opponents had fled to the Saar. The League, however, was
determined that the vote should take place and Hitler bowed to this pressure.
So it seemed that the League was being firm and decisive with Hitler. The
vote was an overwhelming success for Hitler. His PROPAGANDA minister Joseph
Goebbels mounted a massive campaign to persuade the people of the Saar to
vote for the Reich. Around 90 per cent of the population voted to return to
German rule. This was entirely legal and within the terms of the Treaty. It was
also a real morale booster for Hitler. After the vote Hitler declared that he had
‘no further territorial demands to make of France’.
SOURCE 8
Source Analysis
1 Describe the scene shown in
Source 8 as though you were
reporting it on the radio.
2 Who or what do you think might
be represented by the figure
being hanged?
3 Do you find this source
convincing evidence that the Saar
wanted to rejoin Germany?

A photograph showing German forces moving back into

the Saar after the plebiscite in 1935.
SOURCE 9

A British cartoon published in January

1935, soon after the Saar plebiscite. The
figure in bed is the League of Nations.
The caption was ‘Sitting up and taking
nourishment’. The writing on the wall
reads, ‘Name: League of Nations; Trouble:
Anaemia; Condition: Dying’.

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FIGURE 10 Remilitarisation of the Rhineland

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

0 100 km In March 1936, Hitler took his first really big risk by moving troops into the
N Rhineland area of Germany. The Rhineland was the large area either side
Scale
of the River Rhine that formed Germany’s western border with France and
North
NETHERLANDS Belgium.
Sea
GERMANY The demilitarisation of the Rhineland was one of the terms of the Treaty of
Versailles. It was designed to protect France from invasion from Germany.
Cologne It had also been accepted by Germany in the Locarno Treaties of 1925.
BELGIUM
Hitler was taking a huge gamble with REMILITARISATION. If he had been forced
to withdraw, he would have faced humiliation and would have lost the
LUXEMBOURG
support of the German army (many of the generals were unsure about him,
anyway). Hitler knew the risks, but he had chosen the time and place well.
ine

FRANCE
■ France and the USSR had just signed a treaty to protect each
Rh

Key other against attack from Germany (see Source 11). Hitler used the
agreement to claim that Germany was under threat. He argued that
January 1935:
Saar returned in the face of such a threat he should be allowed to place troops on
to Germany his own frontier.
after a SWITZERLAND
■ Hitler knew that many people in Britain felt that he had a right to
plebiscite
station his troops in the Rhineland and he was fairly confident that
March 1936:
German forces Britain would not intervene. His gamble was over France. Would France
re-enter the ITALY let him get away with it?
Rhineland

The Rhineland.

SOURCE 11 SOURCE 12

An American cartoon entitled ‘Ring-Around-the-Nazi!’ German troops marching through the city of Cologne in
published in March 1936 showing the encirclement of March 1936. This style of marching with high steps was known
Germany by France and the USSR. as goose-stepping.

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Hitler ordered 20,000 troops into the Rhineland and his generals had

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
Think!
orders to retreat if there was any resistance from the French. Despite the
Fill out row 2 of your ‘Versailles
rearmament programme, Germany’s army was no match for the French army.
chart’ on page 57 to summarise
what happened in the Rhineland.
It lacked essential equipment and air support. In the end, however, Hitler’s
luck held.
The attention of the League of Nations was on the Abyssinian crisis which
SOURCE 13
was happening at exactly the same time (see pages 51–52). The League
At that time we had no army worth condemned Hitler’s action but had no power to do anything else. Even the
mentioning … If the French had taken French, who were most directly threatened by the move, were divided over
any action we would have been easily what to do. They were about to hold an election and none of the French
defeated; our resistance would have leaders was prepared to take responsibility for plunging France into a war.
been over in a few days. And the Air Of course, they did not know how weak the German army was. In the end,
Force we had then was ridiculous – a France refused to act without British support and so Hitler’s big gamble
few Junkers 52s from Lufthansa and not paid off. Maybe next time he would risk more!
even enough bombs for them…
Hitler looks back on his gamble over the SOURCE 15
Rhineland some years after the event.

SOURCE 14
Hitler has got away with it. France is
not marching. No wonder the faces of
Göring and Blomberg [Nazi leaders]
were all smiles.
Oh, the stupidity (or is it the paralysis?)
of the French. I learnt today that the
German troops had orders to beat
a hasty retreat if the French army
opposed them in any way.
Written by William Shirer in 1936. He
was an American journalist in Germany
during the 1930s. He was a critic of
the Nazi regime and had to flee from
Germany in 1940.

Source Analysis
1 Does Source 11 prove that Hitler
was correct when he argued
that Germany was under threat?
Explain your answer.
2 What do Sources 13 and 14
disagree about? Why might they
disagree about it?
3 Why has the cartoonist in Source
15 shown Germany as a goose?
4 Look at the equipment being
carried by the goose. What
does this tell you about how
the cartoonist saw the new
Germany?
5 Would you regard reoccupation
of the Rhineland as a success
for Hitler or as a failure for the
French and the British? Explain
your answer by referring to the A British cartoon about the reoccupation of the Rhineland, 1936.
sources. Pax Germanica is Latin and means ‘Peace, German style’.

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The Spanish Civil War

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Source Analysis
1 What can we learn from Source 16 about:
■ what happened at Guernica In 1936 a CIVIL WAR broke out in Spain between supporters
■ the views of French people on Guernica of the Republican Government (Republicans) and RIGHT-
■ the views of the magazine which published the WING rebels (Nationalists) under General Franco. The war
photograph and caption? quickly gained an international dimension.
2 Use your thinking in Question 1 to write an answer to STALIN’S USSR supported the Republican Government (in
the question: How useful is Source 16 to a historian the form of weapons, aircraft and pilots). Thousands
studying the Spanish Civil War?
of volunteers from around 50 countries joined
International Brigades to support the Republicans.
Hitler and Mussolini then declared their support for
SOURCE 16 General Franco as a man who shared their world view.
Britain and France refused to intervene directly,
although France did provide some weapons for the
Republicans. Germany and Italy also agreed not to
intervene but then blatantly did so. Mussolini sent
thousands of Italian troops (officially they were
‘volunteers’). Germany sent aircraft and pilots who
took part in most of the major campaigns of the war
including bombing raids on civilian populations (see
Source 16). Hitler viewed the Spanish Civil War as a
good opportunity to try out his new Luftwaffe (air
force) and develop the Blitzkrieg tactics the German
military would use in future conflicts.
The conflict had important consequences for peace.
It strengthened the bonds between Mussolini and
Hitler. It encouraged Hitler to believe that Britain
and France would not intervene against him if he
took further actions against the Treaty of Versailles.
Although Britain did not intervene, Hitler’s actions
alarmed Chamberlain and he ordered massive increases
in spending on Britain’s armed forces, especially the
Royal Air Force. At the same time, the USSR became
increasingly suspicious of Britain and France because of
their reluctance to get involved in opposing fascism.

Militarism and the Axis

A postcard published in France to mark the bombing of
Guernica in 1937. The text reads ‘The Basque people murdered Meanwhile, in the east Japan was under the control of
by German planes. Guernica martyred 26 April 1937’. hardline nationalist commanders such as General Tojo.
They also had the support of business leaders in Japan.
They wanted to extend Japan’s empire across Asia so it
FOCUS TASK 3.1 could compete with other world powers, particularly the
What were the consequences of the failures of the USA. In 1937 the Japanese took their next big step with
League of Nations in the 1930s? the invasion of China. Some historians regard this as the
first campaign of the Second World War.
In Chapter 2 you studied the failures of the League
of Nations in the 1930s. You are now in a position to Hitler and Mussolini saw that they had much in common
evaluate the impact of those failures on Hitler’s actions. with the military DICTATORSHIP in Japan. In 1936, Germany and
1 Look back over pages 58–62. Look for evidence that Japan signed an ANTI-COMINTERN PACT, to oppose communism.
the weakness of the League of Nations in the 1930s Comintern was the USSR’s organisation for spreading
allowed Hitler to achieve what he did. communism to other countries. In 1937, Italy also signed
2 Write a paragraph describing the effect of each of it. This was called the Rome–Berlin Axis alliance.
the following on Hitler’s actions:
There was very little Britain or France could do about
■ the Manchurian crisis
the Axis, but it was another worrying development,
■ the failure of DISARMAMENT
■ the Abyssinian crisis.
especially as Britain did not have the resources to fight
Japan in the Far East and Germany in Europe.
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Anschluss with Austria, 1938

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
With the successes of 1936 and 1937 to boost him, Hitler turned his
attention to his homeland of Austria. Hitler believed that the two states
Think! belonged together as one German nation. Many in Austria supported the
Complete row 3 of your ‘Versailles idea of union with Germany. Hitler had tried to take over Austria in 1934,
chart’ on page 57, summarising but on that occasion Mussolini had stopped him. But in 1938 the situation
what Hitler did about Austria. was different. Hitler and Mussolini were now allies.
There was a strong Nazi Party in Austria. Hitler encouraged them to stir
up trouble for the Government and hold demonstrations demanding union
Source Analysis with Germany. Hitler then told the Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg that
Work in pairs. Take either Source 17 only ANSCHLUSS (political union) could sort out these problems. Schuschnigg
or Source 18. appealed to Britain and France but it failed to provide any support so
1 For your source work out:
Schuschnigg felt he had no option but to call a plebiscite (a referendum)
a) which character in the cartoon
represents Mussolini and
to see what the Austrian people wanted. Hitler was not prepared to risk
which Hitler this – he might lose! He simply sent his troops into Austria in March 1938,
b) what your cartoon suggests supposedly to guarantee a trouble-free plebiscite. Under the watchful eye
about the relationship of the Nazi troops, 99.75 per cent voted for Anschluss.
between Hitler and Mussolini Anschluss was completed without any military confrontation with France
c) what is the cartoonist’s and Britain. Chamberlain felt that Austrians and Germans had a right to be
opinion of the Anschluss.
united and that the Treaty of Versailles was wrong to separate them.
Find details in the source to
support your view. Once again, Hitler’s risky but decisive action had reaped a rich reward –
2 Compare your answers with your Austria’s soldiers, weapons and its rich deposits of gold and iron ore were
partner’s and discuss any points added to Germany’s increasingly strong army and industry. Hitler was
of agreement or disagreement. breaking yet another condition of the Treaty of Versailles, but it seemed
3 Write your own paragraph in clear to him that Britain and France were not prepared to go to war to
answer to this question: How far defend it. However, Britain and France were not naïve either. Chamberlain
do Sources 17 and 18 agree about
increased Britain’s rearmament spending further still and made plans for
the Anschluss?
compulsory military service and the preparation of air-raid defences.

SOURCE 17 SOURCE 18

A Soviet cartoon commenting on the Anschluss showing

A British cartoon commenting on the Anschluss. Hitler catching Austria.

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Appeasement: for and against!

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

If Britain and France were not prepared to defend the Treaty of Versailles,
would they let Hitler have more of his demands? The short answer is yes,
and Britain’s policy at this time is known as APPEASEMENT. Neville Chamberlain
is the man most associated with this policy (see Profile on page 67)
although he did not become prime minister until 1937. Many other British
people (probably the majority), including many politicians, were also in
favour of this policy. However, there were some at the time who were very
critical. Here are the main arguments for and against.

War
Trusting Hitler Fear of communism Memories of the Great Ger man arms
made Fre nch leader s,
After each new move he Hitler was not the only
concer n of
Bot h Bri tish and
tion, Ger many was rearming
publicly
Hitler said this was all
he Britain and its allies. He and much of their popula and quickly year by yea
t back was not hor rific r. Hitler
wanted. Yet he often wen even their main wor ry. viv idly remembered the claimed he was try ing to
easement They were t World catch
on tho se pro mis es. App more concer ned about the experiences of the Firs up with other countr ies,
en idea of communism and par ticu ead
spr to avo id but
was based on the mistak War . The y wis hed
any cos t. others could see that Ger
many
tru stw ort hy. larly r war at alm ost
that Hitler was the dangers to world pea
ce posed
anothe was bet ter armed than
Britain or
by Stalin, the new leader France.
in the
USSR. Many saw Hitler as
the
buf fer to the threat of spr
eading
communism.

British arms The British empire

The British Government The USA For Britain to fight a war against The Treaty of Versailles
believed n
that the armed forces wer American suppor t had bee Germany it needed to be sure it Many felt that the Treaty of
e not s in the
ready for war against Hit
ler. vital to Britain’s succes had the support of the countries Versailles was unfair to Germany.
could
Britain only began rearmi First World War. Britain in its empire or Commonwealth. Some of Hitler’s demands were
ng up to
1935 and INTELLIGENCE sug in not be sur e it cou ld fac e It was not a guaranteed certainty not unreasonable. They assumed
ges rantee
the British were some way ted Ger many without the gua that they would all support a war. that once these wrongs were
behind ce
the Ger mans. of American help. But sin There was also the prospect of put right then Germany would
1919 the USA Japan threatening British become a peaceful nation again.
had followed interests in Asia, particularly
a policy of Singapore and even India.
ISOL ATIONISM.
American
leaders were
determined
not to be
dragged into
another European war.
Make a stand! Hitler ’s allies
Hitler the gambler took Hitler had already observ
ed how
d
increasing risk s. He trie The Sov iet Union his allies, par ticularly the
right- Economic problems
there
something out to see if Hitler made no secret of dic tat ors hip s in Jap an and Britain and France had
his plans wing y wit h act s of large
would be to expand eastwards. He Italy, had got awa debts (many still left ove
had r from
any come- openly talked of tak ing
land in agg res sio n. fighting the First World
War) and
back. At Russia. Appeasement sen huge unemployment as
a result
t the
some point message to Stalin and the of the Depression. They
could not
USSR
therefore that Britain and France
would
afford a war.
Britain not stand in Hitler’s way
if he
and France invaded Russia.
needed to
stand up
to Hitler to
prevent a
later bigger
and more
dangerous move.

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3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
FOCUS TASK 3.2
Why did Britain and France follow a policy of
Appeasement?
4 Make notes under the following headings to
The cards on page 64 show various arguments that were summarise why Britain followed a policy of
advanced for or against Appeasement. Study the cards, Appeasement:
then: a) military reasons
1 Sort them into arguments for and arguments against b) economic reasons
Appeasement. If there are any you are not sure about c) fear
leave them aside as you can come back to them. d) public opinion.
2 On each card write a ‘for’ or ‘against’. 5 Use your notes to write a short paragraph to explain in
3 Sort the cards into those that: your own words why the British Government followed a
a) would have been obvious to British and French policy of Appeasement.
leaders at the time
b) would only be clear with hindsight.

ACTIVITY Cartoonist David Low

One of the most famous critics was David Low, cartoonist with the popular
Most people in Britain supported
the policy of Appeasement. Write newspaper the London Evening Standard. You have seen many of Low’s
a letter to the London Evening cartoons in this book already. Low was a fierce critic of Hitler, but also
Standard justifying Appeasement criticised the policy of Appeasement. Source 19 shows one of his cartoons
and pointing out why the cartoonist on the issue, but if you visit the British Cartoon Archive website you will
in Source 19 is wrong. Your letter be able to see all of Low’s cartoons.
should be written in either 1936
or 1938 and it will need to be SOURCE 19
different according to which date
you pick. You can use some of the
arguments from Focus Task 3.2
above in your letter.

Source Analysis
Fill out a table like this to analyse
Source 19. Fill out a second column
to analyse Source 27 on page 68 in
the same way.

Source
Source19
19 A cartoon by David Low from the London Evening Standard, 1936. This was
a popular newspaper with a large readership in Britain.
Date published
Critical or
supportive? Revision Tip
Make sure you can explain:
Of what/whom? ■ what Appeasement was
How can we tell? ■ two examples of Appeasement in action.

Be sure you can describe:

Why was the cartoon
■ one reason why Chamberlain followed the policy of Appeasement
published at this
■ one reason why people criticised the policy.
time?

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The Sudetenland, 1938

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

After the Austrian Anschluss, Hitler was beginning to feel that he could
not put a foot wrong. But his growing confidence was putting the peace of
Europe in increasing danger.

FIGURE 20 Czech fears

Baltic Sea N Unlike the leaders of Britain and
North Sea France, Edvard Beneš, the leader
GERMANY
Danzi of Czechoslovakia, was horrified
by the Anschluss. He realised
USSR

GREAT
BRITAIN

NETHERLANDS
Berlin that Czechoslovakia would be the
next country on Hitler’s list for
take-over. It seemed that Britain
POLAND
GERMANY
BELGIUM If the Nazis could take control
Rhinela

of the defences, such as forts,

t e nla positioned in the Sudetenland, and France were not prepared to
de nd
Su
this would make an invasion
stand up to Hitler. Beneš sought
nd

LUXEMBOURG
of the rest of Czechoslovakia
Over three million German
speakers lived in the CZECH
OSLO
VAKIA
easier.
guarantees from the British and
Sudetenland and Hitler
wanted them to be part
Munich
French that they would honour
of Greater Germany.
FRANCE Vienna their commitment to defend
SWITZERLAND AUSTRIA Czechoslovakia if Hitler invaded.
0 300 km HUNGARY

Scale
The French were bound by a
treaty and reluctantly said they
Central Europe after the Anschluss.
would. The British felt bound
to support the French. However,
Chamberlain asked Hitler whether
he had designs on Czechoslovakia
and was reassured by Hitler’s
promise (Source 21).

Hitler’s threats
Despite what he said to Chamberlain, Hitler did have designs on
SOURCE 21 Czechoslovakia. This new state, created by the Treaty of Versailles, included
a large number of Germans – former subjects of Austria–Hungary’s empire
I give you my word of honour that – in the Sudetenland area. Konrad Henlein, the leader of the Nazis in the
Czechoslovakia has nothing to fear from Sudetenland, demanded that the area should be part of Germany. In May
the Reich. 1938, Hitler made it clear that he intended to fight Czechoslovakia if
Hitler speaking to Chamberlain in 1938. necessary. Historians disagree as to whether Hitler really meant what he
said. There is considerable evidence that the German army was not at all
ready for war. Even so, the news put Europe on full war alert.
ACTIVITY
Write a series of newspaper Preparations for war
headlines for different stages Unlike Austria, Czechoslovakia would be no walk-over for Hitler. Britain,
of the Sudetenland crisis, for France and the USSR had all promised to support Czechoslovakia if it came
example: to war. The Czechs themselves had a modern army. The Czechoslovak leader,
■ March 1938 Beneš, was prepared to fight. He knew that without the Sudetenland and
■ May 1938
its forts, railways and industries, Czechoslovakia would be defenceless.
■ early September 1938
■ 30 September 1938. All through the summer the tension rose in Europe. If there was a war,
Include headlines for: people expected that it would bring heavy bombing of civilians as had
■ a Czech newspaper happened in the Spanish Civil War, and in cities around Britain councils
■ a British newspaper began digging air-raid shelters. Magazines carried advertisements for air-
■ a German newspaper. raid protection and gas masks.

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SOURCE 22 23

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
SOURCE
How horrible, fantastic, incredible it is that
we should be digging trenches and trying
on gas masks here because of a quarrel
in a far-away country between people of
whom we know nothing. I am myself a
man of peace to the depths of my soul.
From a radio broadcast by Neville
Chamberlain, September 1938.

Profile
Neville Chamberlain
Digging air-raid defences in London, September 1938.

Crisis talks
In September the problem reached crisis point. In a last-ditch effort to
avert war, Chamberlain flew to meet Hitler on 15 September. The meeting
appeared to go well. Hitler moderated his demands, saying he was only
interested in parts of the Sudetenland – and then only if a plebiscite
showed that the Sudeten Germans wanted to join Germany. Chamberlain
thought this was reasonable. He felt it was yet another of the terms of
the Treaty of Versailles that needed to be addressed. Chamberlain seemed
■ Born 1869. convinced that, if Hitler got what he wanted, he would at last be satisfied.
■ He was the son of the famous
On 19 September the French and the British put to the Czechs their plans
RADICAL politician Joseph
Chamberlain.
to give Hitler the parts of the Sudetenland that he wanted. However, three
■ He was a successful businessman days later at a second meeting, Hitler increased his demands. He said he
in the Midlands before entering ‘regretted’ that the previously arranged terms were not enough. He wanted
politics. all the Sudetenland.
■ During the First World War he
served in the Cabinet as director SOURCE 24
general of National Service.
During this time he saw the full The Sudetenland is the last problem that must be solved and it will be solved. It is the
horrors of war. last territorial claim which I have to make in Europe.
■ After the war he was health The aims of our foreign policy are not unlimited … They are grounded on the
minister and then CHANCELLOR.
determination to save the German people alone … Ten million Germans found
He was noted for his careful
work and his attention to detail. themselves beyond the frontiers of the Reich … Germans who wished to return to the
However, he was not good at Reich as their homeland.
listening to advice. Hitler speaking in Berlin, September 1938.
■ He was part of the government
throughout the 1920s and To justify his demands, he claimed that the Czech Government was
supported the policy of
Appeasement towards Hitler. He
mistreating the Germans in the Sudetenland and that he intended to
became prime minister in 1937, ‘rescue’ them by 1 October. Chamberlain told Hitler that his demands were
although he had little experience unreasonable. The British navy was MOBILISED. War seemed imminent.
The Munich Agreement
of foreign affairs.
■ He believed that Germany
had real grievances – this With Mussolini’s help, a final meeting was held in Munich on 29 September.
was the basis for his policy of While Europe held its breath, the leaders of Britain, Germany, France and
Appeasement.
■ He became a national hero after
Italy decided on the fate of Czechoslovakia.
the Munich Conference of 1938 On 29 September they decided to give Hitler what he wanted. They
averted war. announced that Czechoslovakia was to lose the Sudetenland. They did not
■ In 1940 Chamberlain resigned
consult the Czechs, nor did they consult the USSR. This is known as the
as prime minister and Winston
Churchill took over. MUNICH AGREEMENT. The following morning Chamberlain and Hitler published a
joint declaration, which Chamberlain said would bring ‘peace for our time’.

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SOURCE 25 Consequences of the Munich Agreement

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

People of Britain, your children are safe.

Hitler had gambled that the British would not risk war. The prize of the
Your husbands and your sons will not Sudetenland had been given to him without a shot being fired. On 1
march to war. Peace is a victory for all October German troops marched into the Sudetenland. At the same time,
mankind. If we must have a victor, let Hungary and Poland helped themselves to Czech territory where Hungarians
us choose Chamberlain, for the Prime and Poles were living.
Minister’s conquests are mighty and
The Czechs had been betrayed. Beneš resigned and the country descended
enduring – millions of happy homes and into chaos. But the rest of Europe breathed a sigh of relief. Chamberlain
hearts relieved of their burden. received a hero’s welcome back in Britain, when he returned with the ‘piece
The Daily Express comments on the of paper’ – the Agreement – signed by Hitler (see photo in the Profile,
Munich Agreement, 30 September 1938. page 67).

SOURCE 26 SOURCE 27
By repeatedly surrendering to force,
Chamberlain has encouraged aggression
… our central contention, therefore,
is that Mr Chamberlain’s policy has
throughout been based on a fatal
misunderstanding of the psychology of
dictatorship.
The Yorkshire Post, December 1938.

SOURCE 28
We have suffered a total defeat … I
think you will find that in a period of
time Czechoslovakia will be engulfed in
the Nazi regime. We have passed an
awful milestone in our history. This is
only the beginning of the reckoning.
Winston Churchill speaking in
October 1938. He felt that Britain should
resist the demands of Hitler. However, he
was an isolated figure in the 1930s.

Source Analysis
1 Study Sources 25–28. Sort them
into the categories:
a) those that support the Munich
A British cartoon published in 1938 at the time of the Munich Agreement.
Agreement
John Bull represents Britain.
b) those that criticise the Munich
Agreement.
2 List the reasons why each Triumph or sell-out?
source supports or criticises the What do you think of the Munich Agreement? Was it a good move or a
agreement. poor one? Most people in Britain were relieved that it had averted war,
3 Imagine you are a teacher setting but many were soon openly questioning the whole policy of Appeasement.
a test. Opinion polls in September 1938 show that the British people did not
■ Which of Sources 25–28
think Appeasement would stop Hitler. It simply delayed a war, rather than
would work well for an ‘Is it
surprising?’ question?
preventing it. And while he hoped for peace Chamberlain continued to
■ Which of Sources 25–28 would increase arms spending in preparation for war.
work well for a ‘How useful is
this source?’ question? Think!
Explain your answers. Complete row 4 of your ‘Versailles chart’ on page 57.

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Czechoslovakia, 1939: the end of

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
Appeasement
Although the British people welcomed the Munich Agreement, they did
not trust Hitler. In an opinion poll in October 1938, 93 per cent said they
did not believe him when he said he had no more territorial ambitions in
Europe. In March 1939 they were proved right. On 15 March, German troops
took over the rest of the country.
FIGURE 29
Key N Baltic Sea
October 1938
Teschen taken by Danzig
Poland GERMANY

November 1938 to
March 1939 Berlin The Polish
Slovak border areas Corridor
and Ruthenia taken POLAND
by Hungary Hitler needed the rest of
Czechoslovakia for his future
October 1938 GERMANY plans to invade Poland. He
Sudetenland region could now invade from two
given to Germany in fronts as well as more easily
the Munich Agreement defend Germany in the case
of invasion from the east, as
March 1939
Czechoslovakia stabbed
Remainder of AUSTRIA
HUNGARY into the side of Germany.
Czechoslovakia taken SWITZERLAND
under German control
ROMANIA
0 200 km
German border
in 1939 Scale

The take-over of Czechoslovakia by 1939.

SOURCE 30

German troops entering Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, in March 1939.

There was no resistance from the Czechs. Nor did Britain and France do
Think! anything about the situation. However, it was now clear that Hitler could
1 Choose five words to describe not be trusted. For Chamberlain it was a step too far. Unlike the Sudeten
the attitude of the crowd in Germans, the Czechs were not separated from their homeland by the Treaty
Source 30. of Versailles. This was an invasion. If Hitler continued unchecked, his next
2 Why do you think that there was target was likely to be Poland and his annexation of Czechoslovakia would
no resistance from the Czechs? allow him to invade Poland from two fronts.
3 Why do you think Britain and
Britain and France told Hitler that if he invaded Poland they would declare
France did nothing in response
war on Germany. The policy of Appeasement was ended. However, after
to the invasion?
years of Appeasement, Hitler did not actually believe that Britain and
France would risk war by resisting him.
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The Nazi–Soviet Pact, 1939

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Look at your ‘Versailles chart’ from page 57. You should have only one item
left. As Hitler was gradually retaking land lost at Versailles, you can see
from Figure 29 that logically his next target was the strip of former German
land in Poland known as the POLISH CORRIDOR. He had convinced himself that
Britain and France would not risk war over this, but he was less sure about
Stalin and the USSR. Let’s see why.
Stalin’s fears
Stalin had been very worried about the German threat to the Soviet Union
ever since Hitler came to power in 1933. Even so, Stalin could not reach any
kind of lasting agreement with Britain and France in the 1930s. In 1934 he
had made the USSR a member of the League of Nations, hoping the League
would guarantee his security against the threat from Germany. However,
all he saw at the League was its lack of action over Abyssinia and the
Spanish Civil War. Politicians in Britain and France had not resisted German
rearmament in the 1930s. Indeed, some in Britain seemed even to welcome
a stronger Germany as a force to fight communism, which they saw as a
bigger threat to British interests than Hitler.
Stalin’s fears and suspicions grew in the mid-1930s.
■ He signed a treaty with France in 1935 that said that France would help
the USSR if Germany invaded the Soviet Union. But Stalin was not sure
he could trust the French to stick to it, particularly when they failed
even to stop Hitler moving his troops into the Rhineland, which was
Source Analysis right on their own border.
What is the message of the ■ The Munich Agreement in 1938 increased Stalin’s concerns. He was not
cartoonist? consulted about it. Stalin concluded from the agreement that France
and Britain were powerless to stop Hitler or, even worse, that they were
happy for Hitler to take over eastern Europe and then the USSR.
SOURCE 31
Stalin’s negotiations
Despite his misgivings, Stalin was still prepared to
talk with Britain and France about an alliance against
Hitler. The three countries met in March 1939, but
Chamberlain was suspicious of the USSR and was
reluctant to commit Britain. From Stalin’s point of
view, France and Britain then made things worse by
giving Poland a guarantee that they would defend it
if it was invaded. Chamberlain meant the guarantee as
a warning to Hitler. Stalin saw it as support for one of
the USSR’s potential enemies.
Negotiations between Britain, France and the USSR
continued through the spring and summer of 1939.
However, Stalin also received visits from the Nazi
foreign minister Ribbentrop. They discussed a very
different deal, a NAZI–SOVIET PACT.
Stalin’s decision
In August, Stalin made his decision. On 23 August
1939, Hitler and Stalin, the two arch enemies,
signed the Nazi–Soviet Pact and announced the
A Soviet cartoon from 1939. CCCP is Russian for USSR. terms to the world. They agreed not to attack one
The French and the British are directing Hitler away from
another. Privately, they also agreed to divide Poland
western Europe and towards the USSR.
between them.
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Why did Stalin sign the Pact?

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
Source Analysis
1 What do Sources 31 and 32 agree It was clear what Hitler gained from the Pact. He regarded it as his greatest
about? achievement. It gave him half of Poland and ensured he would not face a
2 Which source do you most trust war on two fronts if he invaded Poland. He had promised the Russians they
to tell you about the reasons could have the rest of Poland as well as the Baltic states, but he never
Stalin signed the Pact?
intended to allow Stalin to keep these territories.
It is also clear what Stalin gained from it. It gave him some territory that
SOURCE 32 had once been part of Russia, but that was not the main point. The real
It will be asked how it was possible benefit was time! Stalin did not expect Hitler to keep his word. He knew
that the Soviet government signed a he was Hitler’s number one target. But he did not trust Britain and France
non-aggression pact with so deceitful either. He did not think they were strong enough or reliable enough as
allies against Hitler. He expected to have to fight Hitler alone at some
a nation, with such criminals as Hitler
point. So what he most needed was time to build up his forces to protect
and Ribbentrop … We secured peace
the USSR from the attack he knew would come.
for our country for eighteen months,
which enabled us to make military Consequences
preparations.
The Pact cleared the way for Hitler to invade Poland. On 1 September 1939
Stalin, in a speech in 1941.
the Germany army invaded Poland from the west, where they met little
resistance. Britain and France demanded he withdraw from Poland or they
would declare war. After the experience of the past three years Hitler was
certain Britain and France would not actually do anything about this. If
he was planning ahead at all, then in his mind the next move would surely
be an attack against his temporary ally, the USSR. However, Hitler was in
for a surprise. Britain and France kept their pledge. On 3 September they
declared war on Germany.

FOCUS TASK 3.3 FOCUS TASK 3.4

How important was the Nazi–Soviet Pact? Hitler and the Treaty of Versailles
These statements suggest different reasons why the Nazi–Soviet Pact is 1 You have been filling out your
important. Versailles chart. Now fill out
the final row summarising what
A. It showed that B. It freed Hitler from C. It exposed Britain Hitler did about Poland.
‘internationalism’ the problem of a two- and France’s hope that 2 ‘Germany’s bitterness about
had been completely front war, which helped Nazi Germany and the the Treaty of Versailles was the
abandoned. him to conquer Poland USSR would fight each cause of Hitler’s aggressive
and most of Western other rather than them. foreign policy.’ How far do you
Europe in 1939–40. agree with this statement?
Explain your answer carefully.
D. It showed that E. It gave Stalin time F. It gave Hitler the
Britain feared Stalin’s to build up forces confidence to defy
USSR as much as for future war with Britain and France and
Hitler’s Germany. Germany. attack Poland.
1 In groups decide which statements fit best under each of these headings

The Nazi–Soviet Pact was important because…

… it demonstrated important … it had direct military and
aspects of international relations political consequences.
at this time.

2 Now take one comment from each column and explain:

a) how the Nazi–Soviet Pact led to this consequence
b) whether this would have happened anyway, even without the
Nazi–Soviet Pact.

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Was Appeasement justified?

PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

FOCUS TASK 3.5

Was the policy of Appeasement
justified?
Chamberlain was not a coward or a weakling. When he had no choice but to
declare war in 1939 he did. Most people and most politicians at the time
The right policy at the supported Appeasement.
right time.
Yet when Hitler broke his promises and the policy did not stop war,
The wrong policy, but the supporters of Appeasement quickly turned against the policy, some
only with hindsight. claiming that they had been opposed all along. Appeasers were portrayed
as naïve, foolish or weak – Source 33 is one of hundreds of examples which
A betrayal of the people parody the policy and the people who pursued it. Historians since then and
of Czechoslovakia. popular opinion too have judged Chamberlain very harshly. Chamberlain’s
‘peace for our time’ speech is presented as self-deception and a betrayal.
A risky policy that
Chamberlain and his Cabinet are seen as ‘second-rate politicians’ who were
purchased valuable time.
out of their depth as events unfolded before them. On the other hand,
A bad policy but there the opponents of Appeasement such as Winston Churchill are portrayed as
was no realistic alternative. REALISTS who were far-sighted and brave.

1 a) Create five teams with SOURCE 33

one person acting as a
spokesperson and the others
working as researchers.
b) Each team will be arguing
for one of the viewpoints
above. Use pages 72–3 to
collect evidence to support
your viewpoint. Then the
spokesperson can write a
small speech to read to the
rest of the class, arguing their
case.
c) Take a vote at the end to see
which viewpoint won the
argument.
2 Choose one viewpoint that
you most agree with and write
some well-argued paragraphs
to explain your choice:
a) what the viewpoint means –
in your own words
b) what evidence there is to
support it
c) what evidence there is against
it and why you have rejected
that evidence
d) your conclusion as to why
this is a good verdict. A cartoon by the American artist Dr Seuss published on 13 August 1941
(before the USA entered the Second World War).
Think!
1 What is Source 33 trying to say SOURCE 34
about the policy of Appeasement?
2 Make a list of the reasons why The Gathering Storm has been one of the most influential books of our time. It is
Appeasement has generally no exaggeration to claim that it has strongly influenced the behaviour of Western
been seen in negative terms. politicians from Harry S. Truman to George W. Bush.
3 Churchill once remarked to
… It is a good tale, told by a master story-teller, who did, after all, win the Nobel
President Roosevelt, ‘History
will judge us kindly because I
prize for literature; but would a prize for fiction have been more appropriate?
shall write the history’. Read Professor John Charmley of the University of East Anglia writing about
Source 34. How should this affect Churchill’s account of the 1930s called The Gathering Storm.
our viewpoints on Appeasement?

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SOURCE 35 Until relatively recently the debate has been very one-sided. Yet this debate

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
matters because the failure of Appeasement to stop Hitler has had a profound
So how did my pre-emptive strategy influence on British and American foreign policy ever since. It is now seen as
stand up to a computer stress test? Not the ‘right thing’ to stand up to dictators. But are we learning the right lessons
as well as I had hoped, I have to confess. from the story of Appeasement? Before we leap so quickly to judgement on
The Calm & the Storm made it clear this issue, let’s run this argument through three different checks.
that lining up an anti-German coalition
in 1938 might have been harder than Check 1: If Chamberlain had stood up to Hitler
I’d assumed. To my horror, the French
turned down the alliance I proposed to
in 1938 what would have happened?
them. It also turned out that, when I The historian Professor Niall Ferguson has set out some ‘counter-factual’
scenarios – suggesting what might have happened if particular policies were
did go to war with Germany, my own
followed. In particular, he has argued that confronting Hitler in 1938 instead
position was pretty weak. The nadir [low
of appeasing him ‘would have paid handsome dividends. Even if it had come
point] was a successful German invasion to war over Czechoslovakia, Germany would not have won. Germany’s defences
of England, a scenario my book rules out were not yet ready for a two-front war’.
as militarily too risky.
Professor Ferguson then had the chance to test his scenario by playing a
Professor Niall Ferguson in an
computer game! The Calm & the Storm is a powerful simulation which allows
article for the New York Magazine,
16 October 2006.
users to make decisions and then computes the possible impact of those
decisions. You can read his conclusions in Source 35.
FIGURE 36 Check 2: Did Appeasement buy time for
In the 1930s, aircraft were generally seen as Chamberlain to rearm Britain?
the most important weapon.
One of the strongest arguments for Appeasement was that in 1938 Britain
9000
1936 simply was not equipped to fight a war with Germany. So did Appeasement
8000 1937 allow Britain to catch up?
1938 In the 1960s British historian A.J.P. Taylor argued that Chamberlain had an
7000
1939
exaggerated view of Germany’s strength. Taylor believed that German forces
Aircraft production

6000
were only 45 per cent of what British intelligence reports said they were.
5000
But Taylor was writing in 1965 – not much help to Chamberlain in the 1930s.
4000 The Government had talked about rearmament since 1935 but Britain only really
3000 started rearming when Chamberlain became prime minister in 1937. Chamberlain
certainly thought that Britain’s armed forces were not ready for war in 1938. His
2000
own military advisers and his intelligence services told him this. As you can see
1000 from Figure 36 aircraft production increased massively in 1939.
0
Germany Britain Check 3: Did Chamberlain have any realistic
Aircraft production in Britain and alternatives?
Germany, 1936–39.
In the 2000s some historians began to accept that Chamberlain made
mistakes and that he probably underestimated Hitler and overrated his own
abilities. At the same time, they also questioned whether there were any
realistic alternatives to the policies that Chamberlain followed which would
have stopped Hitler, mainly because Hitler was determined to have a war.
British historian Andrew Stedman (Source 37) is a good example.
SOURCE 37
It was easy to criticise Chamberlain from the side-lines. It was All of these options were considered by Chamberlain. Some
more difficult to suggest a constructive, coherent alternative. So were rejected and some were actually tried. In his ultimate
what were the other options open to Chamberlain? failure Chamberlain’s achievements deserve to be recognised. It
1 Isolation and absolute pacifism is difficult to believe that the Nazis could have been deterred.
2 Economic and Colonial Appeasement War was the Hitler regime’s main aim. In failing to achieve
3 League of Nations peace Chamberlain did at least make clear where the blame lay.
4 Alliances History should give him credit for this.
5 Armaments and Defence
6 War An extract from Alternatives to Appeasement by British historian
Andrew Stedman, 2011.

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PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

FOCUS TASK 3.6 1 The Treaty of Versailles

How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak 2 The failures of the
of war in Europe in 1939? League of Nations
You have covered a lot of material in the last two chapters.
In this task you are going to make sure that you have the 3 The worldwide
4 The policy of
important events and developments clear in your mind. economic Depression
Appeasement
1 Work in groups of six. Each take a blank sheet of paper and write
a heading like the ones on the right. On your sheet summarise
the ways in which this factor helped to bring about the war. t
5 The Nazi–Soviet Pac 6 Hitler’s actions and
2 Now come back together as a group and write your own
particularly his foreign
summary of how and why the war broke out. You can use
this structure, but set yourself a word limit of 75 words per policy
paragraph, less if you can.

Paragraph 1: There were important long-term factors which help to explain why war broke
(This is the place to explain how out in 1939. One factor was the Versailles Treaty. It was important because …
resentment against the Versailles Treaty
brought Hitler to power in the first place
and guided his actions in the 1930s.)

Paragraph 2:
The failure of the League of Nations in the 1930s also contributed towards
(Here you should explain how the failure
of the League encouraged Hitler and the outbreak of war. This was because …
made him think he could achieve his
aims.)

Paragraph 3:
(Here you should explain how the Economic factors also played an important role. The worldwide economic
Depression was an underlying cause Depression …
of the failure of the League, Japan’s
aggression and Hitler’s rise to power.)

Paragraph 4:
(Here you should briefly describe what Another factor which helps to explain the outbreak of war was the policy of
Appeasement was, and how instead of
Appeasement. Appeasement …
stopping Hitler it encouraged him. You
could also point out the links between
Appeasement and the Depression.)

Paragraph 5:
There were also key short-term factors which actually sparked off the war.
(Here you should explain how the Nazi–
Soviet Pact led to the invasion of Poland One of these was …
and how that in turn led to war. You
could also point out that these short-
term factors probably could not have
happened if there had not been a policy
of Appeasement.) Some people describe the Second World War as Hitler’s war. I think this is a
GOOD/POOR description because…
Paragraph 6:
(Here you should comment on Hitler’s
overall responsibility. How far do you
agree that Hitler wanted war, planned
for it, and if so does that mean he caused All of these factors played important roles. However, [INSERT YOUR
the war?) CHOICE OF FACTOR(S)] was / were particularly important because …
Paragraph 7:
(Here you should indicate which factor(s)
you think were most important.)

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3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
CHAPTER REVIEW FOCUS TASK
Reaching a judgement Stage 1: Understand and evaluate each factor
Almost there! In the last task you wrote a clear There are six major factors. The cards analyse why each
explanation of the various reasons why peace collapsed one might be seen as:
by 1939. However, you need to go further. You also need to ■ a critical factor (i.e. the war probably would not have
be able to compare the importance of these reasons (or happened without it) or just
factors) and see the links between them. For example, if ■ one of several important factors (i.e. the war could
you were asked this question: still possibly have happened without it).
‘The Nazi–Soviet Pact of 1939 was more important than a) Read the cards carefully to make sure you
the policy of Appeasement in causing the Second World understand the arguments.
War.’ How far do you agree with this statement? b) For each of the ‘killer sources’ 1–7 (on pages
76–77) decide whether this supports the argument
what would you say? Most students find it hard to explain that this factor was critical or just one of several
what they think and end up giving information about important factors.
each factor (describing events) rather than making a
judgement and supporting it. This review task helps you
to overcome this problem.

Factor 1: The Treaty of Versailles Factor 2: The failure of the League of Nations
■ Critical? Versailles and the other treaties created a situation ■ Critical? The League of Nations’ job was to make sure that
in Europe which made war inevitable. It was only a matter disputes were sorted out legally. In the 1920s it created a spirit
of time before Germany tried to seek revenge, overturn the of co-operation. But, in Manchuria 1931 and Abyssinia 1935–36
Treaty and start another war. Many commentators felt at the the League completely failed to stand up to aggression by
time that it was only a question of when war might come not Japan and Italy. This encouraged Hitler’s aggression from 1936
whether it would. onwards since he believed no one would try to stop him.
■ Important? The treaties contributed to the tensions of the ■ Important? The League never really fulfilled the role of
time but they did not create them. Politicians in the 1930s peacekeeper – even in the 1920s it gave in to Italy over
could have defended the treaties or changed them. It was Corfu. The failure of the League in the 1930s was important
political choices in the 1930s which caused war not the because it encouraged Hitler, but even if the League had been
treaties. stronger Hitler would still have tried to overturn the Treaty of
Versailles and to destroy communism.

Factor 3: The worldwide economic Depression Factor 4: The policy of Appeasement

■ Critical? The Depression critically weakened the League of ■ Critical? Appeasement was critical because it made Hitler think
Nations. It destroyed the spirit of international CO-OPERATION he could get away with anything. Britain and France could
which had built up in the 1920s, and set countries against each have stopped Hitler in 1936 when he marched troops into the
other. Without the Depression leading to these problems there Rhineland but their nerve failed. From this point on Hitler felt
could not have been a war. he could not lose and took gamble after gamble. As a result of
■ Important? The Depression was certainly important – it made Appeasement he did not even believe Britain would fight him
Japan and Italy invade Manchuria and Abyssinia. It brought when he invaded Poland in 1939.
Hitler to power in Germany and started German rearmament. ■ Important? The policy of Appeasement only came about because,
However, it is linked to all the other factors – it did not cause without the USA, the League of Nations, and its leading members
the war in itself. Even with the Depression Hitler could have Britain and France, were not strong enough to keep peace. The
been stopped if Britain and France had had the will to resist Depression so weakened Britain and France that they did not
him. The Depression did not make war inevitable. have the money to oppose Hitler. The policy of Appeasement
would not have been followed without these other factors.

Factor 5: The Nazi–Soviet Pact Factor 6: Hitler’s actions

■ Critical? Although Hitler thought that Britain and France ■ Critical? There could have been no war without Hitler. It was
would not fight him he was not sure about the Soviet Union. Hitler’s vision of Lebensraum, his hatred of communism and his
So the Soviet Union was the only country that stood in the determination to reverse the Versailles settlement which led
way of his plans. Without the Nazi–Soviet Pact, Hitler would to war. He consciously built up Germany’s army and weapons
not have taken the gamble to invade Poland and war would with the intention of taking it to war. At each stage of the
never have begun. road to war from 1936 to 1939 it was Hitler’s beliefs, actions
■ Important? The Pact allowed Hitler to invade Poland, but war or decisions that caused the problem.
was already inevitable before that – due to Hitler’s actions ■ Important? Hitler was the gambler. He only did what he
and his hatred of communism. Hitler had made clear his could get away with. So without the weakness of the League
plans to take land from the USSR. Plus it was the policy of of Nations, or the reluctance of Britain, France or the Soviet
Appeasement that drove Stalin to sign the Pact because he Union to stand up to him; without the flawed Treaty of
thought he could not rely on the support of Britain or France Versailles; without the economic problems of the 1930s, Hitler
to oppose Hitler. would not have got anywhere. He would have been forced to
follow a more peaceful foreign policy and there would have
been no war.

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PART 1 THE INTER-WAR YEARS, 1919–39

Stage 2: Investigate connections between factors

From Stage 1 it should be clear to you that these factors are connected to each other. Let’s investigate these
connections.
a) Make six simple cards with just the factor heading.
b) Display your cards on a large sheet of paper and draw lines connecting them together. Some links are already mentioned
on the cards on page 75 but you may be able to think of many more.
c) Write an explanation along each link. For example, between ‘the policy of Appeasement’ and ‘The Nazi–Soviet Pact’ you
might write:
‘The policy of Appeasement helped cause the Nazi–Soviet Pact. It alarmed Stalin so that he felt he had to make his own deal
with Hitler thinking that France and Britain would just give him whatever he wanted.’
d) Take a photo of your finished chart.
Stage 3: Rank the factors
Which of these factors is most important? In Stage 2 you will already have started to draw your own conclusions about
this. It will be really helpful when you come to answering questions about relative importance if you have already
decided what you think! Remember there is no right answer to which is most important, but whatever your view you
must be able to support it with key points and with evidence. So:
a) Take your cards and put them in a rank order of importance.
b) To justify your order, in the space between each card you need to be able to complete this sentence: ‘X was more important
than Y because…’
Stage 4: Compare two factors
Back to the question we started with:
‘The Nazi–Soviet Pact of 1939 was more important than the policy of Appeasement in causing the Second World War.’
How far do you agree with this statement?
With all the thinking that you have done you should have already made up your mind on what you think, but to help you
structure and support your argument you could complete a chart like this. NB If you can include the killer source in
your written answer, all the better.

Reasons more important Reasons less important

Policy of Appeasement

Nazi–Soviet Pact

Killer sources and quotations

SOURCE 1 SOURCE 3
When war came in 1939, it was a result of twenty years of If new accounts by historians show that statesmen were able to
decisions taken or not taken, not of arrangements made in use the League to ease tensions and win time in the 1920s, no
1919. such case appears possible for the 1930s. Indeed, the League’s
Historian Margaret Macmillan writing in 2001. processes may have played a role in that deterioration.
Diplomacy requires leaders who can speak for their states; it
SOURCE 2 requires secrecy; and it requires the ability to make credible
threats. The Covenant’s security arrangements met none of
The failure of the World Disarmament Conference not only those criteria.
crushed the hopes of many supporters of the League of Nations
Historian Susan Pedersen writing in 2007.
and the disarmament movements but also strengthened the
ranks of those who opted for appeasement or some form of
SOURCE 4
pacifism. Pressures for collective action gave way to policies
of self-defence, neutrality and isolation. Against such a We turn our eyes towards the lands of the east … When we
background, the balance of power shifted steadily away from speak of new territory in Europe today, we must principally think of
the status quo nations in the direction of those who favoured Russia and the border states subject to her. Destiny itself seems to
its destruction. The reconstruction of the 1920s was not wish to point out the way for us here. Colonisation of the eastern
inevitably doomed to collapse by the start of the 1930s. Rather, frontiers is of extreme importance. It will be the duty of Germany’s
the demise of the Weimar Republic and the triumph of Hitler foreign policy to provide large spaces for the nourishment and
proved the motor force of destructive systemic change. settlement of the growing population of Germany.
Historian Zara Steiner writing in 2011. Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, 1925.

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5 SOURCE 6

3 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in Europe in 1939?
SOURCE
The vindictiveness of British and French peace terms helped By repeatedly surrendering to force, Chamberlain has
to pave the way for Nazism in Germany and a renewal of encouraged aggression … our central contention, therefore, is
hostilities. World War 2 resulted from the very silly and that Mr Chamberlain’s policy has throughout been based on a
humiliating punitive peace imposed on Germany after World fatal misunderstanding of the psychology of dictatorship.
War 1.
Historian George Kennan writing in 1984. The Yorkshire Post, December 1938.

SOURCE 7
The effects of the depression encouraged not only the emergence of authoritarian and interventionist governments but led to the
shattering of the global financial system. Most European states followed ‘beggar-thy-neighbour’ tactics [protecting a country’s
economy at the expense of other countries]. Germany, Hungary, and most of the East European states embarked on defensive
economic policies – often at cost to their neighbours.
Historian Zara Steiner writing in 2011.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1 (a) What was the policy of Appeasement? [4]
(b) Why was the Munich Agreement of 1938 important to Hitler? [6]
(c) ‘Appeasement was a wise policy that delayed war until Britain was ready.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer. [10]
See pages 148–54 for advice on the different types of questions.

Keywords Chapter Summary

Make sure you know these terms, How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in
people or events and are able Europe in 1939?
to use them or describe them 1 The late 1920s had been a time of hope for international relations with
confidently. a series of agreements that seemed to make the world a more peaceful
• Anschluss place with countries co-operating and trading with each other.
• Anti-Comintern Pact 2 The Great Depression of the 1930s led to political turmoil in many
• Appeasement countries and the rise of the dictators such as Hitler in Germany. Hitler
• Blitzkrieg formed alliances with other right-wing regimes in Italy and Japan.
• Bolshevism 3 Germany was still unhappy about its treatment under the Treaty of Versailles
• Communism and Hitler set out to challenge the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, first of
• Conscription all by rearming Germany (secretly from 1933, then publicly from 1935).
• Lebensraum 4 He also challenged the Treaty, for example by sending troops into the
• Mein Kampf DEMILITARISED ZONE of the Rhineland in 1936.
• Mobilised 5 The League of Nations and Britain and France did not try to stop Hitler
• Munich Agreement doing these things. This policy was called Appeasement – giving Hitler
• Nazi–Soviet Pact what he wanted in the hope he would not ask for more.
• November Criminals 6 The most famous act of Appeasement was over the Sudetenland – an area
• Polish Corridor of Czechoslovakia that Hitler wanted to take over.
• Radical 7 In the Munich Agreement (October 1938) Britain and France let Hitler
• Rearmament have the Sudetenland as long as he did not try to take over the rest of
• Remilitarisation Czechoslovakia. When Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in early
• Spanish Civil War 1939 it marked the end of the policy of Appeasement and they told Hitler
• Sudetenland that any further expansion would lead to war.
8 Although Hitler was very anticommunist and saw Stalin and the USSR as
his enemy, he signed a Pact with Stalin in 1939 to not attack each other but
to divide Poland between them.
9 When Hitler invaded Poland in September 1939 Britain declared war.
10 Hitler’s foreign policy played a major role in causing the Second World War but
historians argue that there were other very important factors that contributed
as well, particularly the economic Depression, the failures of the League of
Nations and the unfairness of the Treaty of Versailles.

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The Cold War,

PART 2
1945–75
A photo of the Big Three – Churchill, Roosevelt and
Stalin – at the Yalta Conference in February 1945.

1950 1960

1940s 1950s 1960s

1950–1953 October 1962

1962–1975
US attempts at The The
containment Korean Cuban American military
(Chapter 5) War missile involvement
crisis in Vietnam

US president Truman Eisenhower Kennedy Johnson

Cold War Post-war disagreements Tense relations and the arms race
atmosphere

Soviet leader Stalin Khrushchev Brezhnev

1956 1961 1968

Soviet attempts
to control
Hungarian Berlin Wall The Prague
uprising built Spring:
eastern Europe
Czechoslovakia
(Chapter 6)

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Focus
The Second World War led to a decisive change in the communism, how it tried to contain it and helps you
balance of power around the world. The countries that to judge how successful it was.
had dominated European affairs from 1919 to 1939 such ■ While the USA was trying to contain communism,
as France, Britain and Germany were now much poorer the Soviet Union was trying to shore it up in its
or less powerful. World history was much more affected eastern European neighbours. This was no easy
by what the leaders of the new ‘superpowers’ (the USA task. It faced frequent protests and problems. In
and the USSR) believed and did. So the big story of Chapter 6 you will consider how it did this, how far
Part 2 is how the superpowers became enemies, how it succeeded and why in the end it all came crashing
they clashed (directly or indirectly) during the Cold War down with the demolition of the BERLIN WALL and the
and how they tried to influence the affairs of other collapse of the Soviet Union itself.
countries.
The events in these chapters overlap. The timeline
■ In Chapter 4 you will examine the short-term
below gives you an overview of the main events you
causes of the Cold War. Why did the USA and the
will be studying. It would be helpful if you made your
USSR, who had fought together as allies against
own copy and added your own notes to it as you study.
Hitler, fall out and enter a 40-year period of tension
and distrust?
■ One of the USA’s obsessions in this Cold War
period was to hold back the spread of communism.
Chapter 5 examines why it so feared the spread of

1970 1980 1990

1970s 1980s 1990s

Nixon Ford Carter Reagan Bush Clinton

Relaxation of tension – Détente Increased tension End of the Cold War

Andropov Chernenko Gorbachev

1980–1981 1989 1991

Solidarity Collapse of Collapse
in communism of
Poland in eastern Soviet
Europe Union

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4 Who was to blame for the

Cold War?
FOCUS POINTS
Why did the US–Soviet alliance begin to break down in 1945?
How had the USSR gained control of eastern Europe by 1948?
How did the United States react to Soviet expansionism?
What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?
Who was the more to blame for starting the Cold War:
the United States or the USSR?

In May 1945 American troops entered Berlin from the west, as Russian
troops moved in from the east. They met and celebrated victory together.
Yet three years later these former allies were arguing over Berlin and war
between them seemed a real possibility.
What had gone wrong?
In this chapter you will consider:
■ how the wartime ALLIANCE between the USA and the USSR broke down
■ how the SOVIET UNION gained control over eastern Europe and how the
USA responded
■ the consequences of the BERLIN BLOCKADE in 1948.
The key question you will be returning to at the end is who is most to
blame for this increasing tension (which became known as the ‘COLD WAR’).
■ Was it the USSR and STALIN with his insistence on taking over and
controlling eastern Europe?
■ Or was it the USA and President Truman with the TRUMAN DOCTRINE and
MARSHALL AID?
■ Or should they share the blame? In the post-war chaos in Europe they
It is not just cartoons both saw it as their role to extend their influence, to proclaim the
that can have messages. benefits of their own political system and denounce the other side.
Photos can too. This photo ■ Or was the Cold War inevitable – beyond the control of either country?
shows American and Is ‘blame’ the wrong word to use?
Soviet soldiers shaking
Here are some of the factors that you will study in this chapter. At the end
hands in April 1945. It was you will be asked to become an expert in one of them so you could help
a staged photograph. The yourself by making notes about each one as you read the chapter.
US commander General
Bradley knew the Soviet The situation The personal The conflicting The war damage
and US troops would meet before the relationships beliefs of the suffered by the
on 25 April and ordered the Second World between various superpowers USSR
War leaders
poster to be erected. US
Army photographers set up
the scene.
1 What is the message of
the photo? Stalin’s take- Marshall Aid for The Berlin
over of eastern Europe Blockade
2 How far do you trust it to Europe
show relations between
the USA and the USSR in
1945?

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Why did the US–Soviet alliance begin to

PART 2 THE COLD WAR, 1945–75

ACTIVITY
break down in 1945?
Create your own version of the
central blue row of the timeline
on pages 78–79. You will be
adding events and comments to it
throughout the chapter to help you Allies against Hitler
in your final Focus Task.
The USA, USSR and Britain fought together as allies during the Second
Use the information on these World War. However, it was a strategic wartime alliance not a bond of
two pages to mark any events or brotherhood. The USSR had been a communist country for more than 30
developments that might affect years. The majority of politicians and business leaders in Britain and the
relationships between the USA and USA hated and feared communist ideas (see the Factfile on page 83). In the
the Soviet Union. past they had helped the enemies of the communists. This made the USSR
wary of Britain and the USA. So in many ways the surprising thing is that
these old rivals managed a war-time alliance at all. But they did and by
1945 they had defeated Germany.
SOURCE 1

Source Analysis
Cartoons often criticise particular
people or their actions. Sometimes
they praise. Sometimes they simply
comment on a situation. Would you
say Source 1 is criticising, praising or
commenting? Explain what features
of the cartoon helped you to decide.

SOURCE 2
For Americans, private property was
sacred and formed the basis for the
rule of law, while for the Soviets private
property was the source of all evil and
inequality, preventing the development
of all humanity to a bright and fair
future. While in the West people were
taught that if you work harder you
better yourself, in the East people were A British cartoon from 1941, with the caption ‘Love conquers all’. The figure in the
taught that if they work harder, society centre of the bench is Stalin and he is being charmed by US President Roosevelt (on
the left) and British leader Winston Churchill. The small figure is Hitler. Hitler is shown
gets richer and they would share in that.
as Cupid, whose arrows cause people to fall in love.
Both systems advocated freedom and
democracy, but their understanding of
these terms was totally different. Both
sides believed that government should
Rivals with differing world views
be for the benefit of the majority of To understand how the alliance broke down we need to understand the
the population. For the USA, this was beliefs of the two sides.
ensured by free choice through the There was a clash of ideologies between communist and CAPITALIST beliefs as
ballot box. For Communists, there was the Factfile (page 83) explains, but this was tied up with strong national
no need for free choice because the pride and a sense of identity as well (see Source 2).
Communist party understood the hopes ■ Most Americans believed passionately that their way of life was best and
and needs of the people even better they were justifiably proud of the leading role the USA took in defeating
than the people themselves. NAZISM.
Historian Eleanor Hore of the ■ At the same time most Soviet people were equally proud of their
University of Essex, UK. country’s critical role in defeating Germany (which came at a
devastating cost). They too believed their way of life was superior.

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4 Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Factfile
A clash of ideologies
The USA The USSR
The USA was capitalist. Business and property were The USSR was communist. All industry was owned and
privately owned. run by the state.
It was a DEMOCRACY. Its government was chosen in free It was a one-party DICTATORSHIP. Elections were held, but
democratic elections. all candidates belonged to the Communist Party.
It was the world’s wealthiest country. But as in most It was an economic superpower because its industry had
capitalist countries, there were extremes – some people grown rapidly in the 1920s and 1930s, but the general
were very wealthy while others were very poor. standard of living in the USSR was much lower than in
the USA. Even so, unemployment was rare and extreme
poverty was rarer than in the USA.
For Americans, being free of control by the government For communists, the rights of individuals were seen as
was more important than everyone being equal. less important than the good of society as a whole. So
individuals’ lives were tightly controlled.
Most Americans firmly believed that other countries Most Soviet people believed that other countries should
should be run in the American way. be run in the communist way.
People in the USA were alarmed by communist theory, COMMUNISM taught that the role of a communist state
which talked of spreading revolution. was to encourage communist revolutions worldwide.
In practice, the USSR’s leaders tended to take practical
decisions rather than be led by this ideology.
Americans generally saw their policies as ‘doing the Many in the USSR saw the USA’s actions as selfishly
right thing’ rather than serving the interests of the USA. building its economic empire and political influence.

ACTIVITY
You need to know the information in
the Factfile. Make your own copies of the
diagrams on the right and then use the
Factfile to make notes around them
summarising the two systems.

Superpowers
The USA and the USSR had emerged from the war as the two world ‘SUPERPOWERS’.
After the Second World War former world-leading powers like Britain and
France were effectively relegated to a second division. US leaders felt there
was a responsibility attached to being a superpower. In the 1930s, the USA
had followed a policy of isolation – keeping out of European and world
affairs. The Americans might have disapproved of Soviet communism, but
they tried not to get involved. However, by the 1940s the US attitude had
changed. Roosevelt had set the Americans firmly against a policy of isolation
and this effectively meant opposing communism. There would be no more
appeasement of DICTATORS. From now on, every communist action would meet an
American reaction.
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The Yalta Conference, February 1945

PART 2 THE COLD WAR, 1945–75

Revision Tip In February 1945 it was clear that Germany was losing the European war, so
the Allied leaders met at Yalta in the Ukraine to plan what would happen to
Make sure you can remember at
least two examples of agreement
Europe after Germany’s defeat. The YALTA CONFERENCE went well. Despite their
at Yalta and one (the main!) differences, the BIG THREE – Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill – agreed on some
disagreement. important matters. These are summarised in the tables below.
It seemed that, although they could not all agree, they were still able to
negotiate and do business with one another.
ACTIVITY
The photo on page 78 of this book Agreements at Yalta
shows the Big Three at the Yalta
Conference. In 1945 radio was the ✔ Japan ✔ Germany
main medium for news. Imagine Stalin agreed to enter the war They agreed that Germany would be
you were describing the scene in against Japan once Germany had divided into four zones: American,
this photo for a radio audience. surrendered. French, British and Soviet.
Describe for the listeners: ✔ Elections ✔ United Nations
■ the obvious points (such as
They agreed that as countries were The Big Three all agreed to join the
people you can see) liberated from occupation by the new UNITED N ATIONS organisation,
■ the less obvious points (such as
German army, they would be allowed which would aim to keep peace after
the mood of the scene) to hold free elections to choose the the war.
■ the agreements and
government they wanted.
disagreements the Big Three
had come to. ✔ War criminals ✔ Eastern Europe
As Allied soldiers advanced through The Soviet Union had suffered terribly
Germany, they were revealing the in the war. An estimated 20 million
horrors of the Nazi CONCENTRATION Soviet people had died. Stalin was
SOURCE 3 CAMPS. The Big Three agreed to hunt therefore concerned about the future
down and punish war criminals who security of the USSR and specifically
We argued freely and frankly across the were responsible for the genocide. the risk of another invasion from
table. But at the end, on every point, Europe. The Big Three agreed that
unanimous agreement was reached … eastern Europe should be seen as a
We know, of course, that it was Hitler’s ‘S OVIET SPHERE OF INFLUENCE’.
hope and the German war lords’ hope
that we would not agree – that some
slight crack might appear in the solid Disagreements at Yalta
wall of allied unity … But Hitler has ✗ Poland
failed. Never before have the major The only real disagreement was about Poland.
allies been more closely united – not • Stalin wanted the border of the USSR to move westwards into Poland.
only in their war aims but also in their Stalin argued that Poland, in turn, could move its border westwards into
peace aims. German territory.
• Churchill did not approve of Stalin’s plans for Poland, but he also
Extract from President Roosevelt’s
knew that there was not very much he could do about it because Stalin’s
report to the US Congress on the Yalta
RED A RMY was in total control of both Poland and eastern Germany.
Conference.
• Roosevelt was also unhappy about Stalin’s plan, but Churchill persuaded
Roosevelt to accept it, as long as the USSR agreed not to interfere in
Greece where the British were attempting to prevent the communists
taking over. Stalin accepted this.

SOURCE 4
I want to drink to our alliance, that it should not lose its … intimacy, its free
expression of views … I know of no such close alliance of three Great Powers as this
… May it be strong and stable, may we be as frank as possible.
Stalin, proposing a toast at a dinner at the Yalta Conference, 1945.

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4 Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Source Analysis
Behind the scenes at Yalta
The war against Hitler had united Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill and at the Yalta Conference they appeared to get on
well. But what was going on behind the scenes? Sources 5–9 will help you decide.

SOURCE 5 SOURCE 6
In the hallway [at Yalta] we stopped I have always worked for friendship with Russia but, like you, I feel deep anxiety
before a map of the world on which because of their misinterpretation of the Yalta decisions, their attitude towards
the Soviet Union was coloured in red. Poland, their overwhelming influence in the Balkans excepting Greece, the
Stalin waved his hand over the Soviet difficulties they make about Vienna, the combination of Russian power and the
Union and exclaimed, ‘They [Roosevelt territories under their control or occupied, coupled with the Communist technique in
and Churchill] will never accept the so many other countries, and above all their power to maintain very large Armies in
idea that so great a space should be the field for a long time. What will be the position in a year or two?
red, never, never!’ Extract from a telegram sent by Prime Minister Churchill to President Truman
Milovan Djilas writing about Yalta in in May 1945.
1948.

SOURCE 7 SOURCE 8
Perhaps you think that just because The Soviet Union has become a danger to the free world. A new front must be
we are the allies of the English we created against her onward sweep. This front should be as far east as possible. A
have forgotten who they are and who settlement must be reached on all major issues between West and East in Europe
Churchill is. There’s nothing they like before the armies of democracy melt.
better than to trick their allies. During
Churchill writing to Roosevelt shortly after the Yalta Conference.
the First World War they constantly Churchill ordered his army leader Montgomery to keep German arms intact in case
tricked the Russians and the French. they had to be used against the Russians.
And Churchill? Churchill is the kind
of man who will pick your pocket of a
kopeck! [A kopeck is a low value Soviet SOURCE 9
coin.] And Roosevelt? Roosevelt is not
like that. He dips in his hand only for Once, Churchill asked Stalin to send him the music of the new Soviet Russian
bigger coins. But Churchill? He will do anthem so that it could be broadcast before the summary of the news from the
it for a kopeck. Soviet German front. Stalin sent the words [as well] and expressed the hope that
Stalin speaking to a fellow communist,
Churchill would set about learning the new tune and whistling it to members of the
Milovan Djilas, in 1945. Djilas was a Conservative Party. While Stalin behaved with relative discretion with Roosevelt, he
supporter of Stalin. continually teased Churchill throughout the war.
Written by Soviet historian Sergei Kudryashov after the war.

1 Draw a simple diagram like this and use Sources 5–9

to summarise what each of the leaders thought of the
other.
2 How do Sources 5–9 affect your impression of the
Yalta Conference?
3 How far do you trust these sources to tell you what the
Stalin leaders actually thought of each other?

Churchill Roosevelt

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The Potsdam Conference, July 1945

PART 2 THE COLD WAR, 1945–75

In May 1945, three months after the Yalta Conference, Allied troops reached
Berlin. Hitler committed suicide. Germany surrendered. The war in Europe
was won.
A second conference of the Allied leaders was arranged for July 1945 in the
Berlin suburb of Potsdam. However, in the five months since Yalta a number
of changes had taken place which would greatly affect relationships
between the leaders.

Changes since Yalta

1 Stalin’s armies were occupying most of eastern Europe
Soviet troops had liberated country after country in eastern Europe, but
instead of withdrawing his troops Stalin had left them there. Refugees were
fleeing out of these countries fearing a communist take-over. Stalin had set
up a communist government in Poland, ignoring the wishes of the majority
of Poles. He insisted that his control of eastern Europe was a defensive
measure against possible future attacks.
2 America had a new president
On 12 April 1945, President Roosevelt died. He was replaced by his vice-
president, Harry Truman. Truman was a very different man from Roosevelt.
He was much more anticommunist than Roosevelt and was very suspicious
Think! of Stalin. Truman and his advisers saw Soviet actions in eastern Europe as
1 At Yalta, Churchill and Roosevelt preparations for a Soviet take-over of the rest of Europe.
had agreed with Stalin that 3 The Allies had tested an atomic bomb
eastern Europe would be a
Soviet ‘sphere of influence’. Do On 16 July 1945 the Americans successfully tested an A TO MIC B O MB at a desert
you think Source 10 is what they site in the USA. At the start of the PO TS D A M CO N FE RE N CE , Truman informed
had in mind? Stalin about it.
2 Explain how each of the three
changes since Yalta described
in the text might affect
relationships at Potsdam. SOURCE 10 SOURCE 11
3 What is your overall impression
of Source 11:
This war is not as in the past; whoever Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist
a) a reasonable assessment of occupies a territory also imposes on it and strong language another war is
Stalin based on the facts his own social system. Everyone imposes in the making. Only one language do
b) an overreaction to Stalin his own system as far as his army has they understand – ‘how many [army]
based on fear and prejudice power to do so. It cannot be otherwise. divisions have you got?’ … I’m tired of
against the USSR? babying the Soviets.
Stalin speaking soon after the end of the
Use extracts from the source to
Second World War about the take-over of President Truman, writing to his
support your view.
eastern Europe. Secretary of State in January 1946.

Stalin v. Truman
The Potsdam Conference finally got under way on 17 July 1945. Not
surprisingly, it did not go as smoothly as Yalta.
To change the situation further still, in July there was an election in
Britain. Winston Churchill was defeated, so half way through the conference
he was replaced by a new prime minister, Clement Attlee. In the absence of
Churchill, the conference was dominated by rivalry and suspicion between
Stalin and Truman. A number of issues arose on which neither side seemed
able to appreciate the other’s point of view (see table on page 87).

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SOURCE 12

4 Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Think!
Compare Source 12 with the photo
of the Yalta Conference on page 78
(which you analysed in the Activity
on page 84).
1 How is this picture similar or
different?
2 How accurately do you think this
picture represents relations at
the Potsdam Conference?

An official publicity photograph of the leaders of the Big Three at the Potsdam
Conference. The new British prime minister Clement Atlee is on the left, new US
president Harry Truman is in the centre and Stalin is on the right.

Disagreements at Potsdam
✗ Germany ✗ Reparations ✗ Eastern Europe
Stalin wanted to Twenty million At Yalta, Stalin had
incapacitate Germany Russians had died won agreement from
completely to protect in the war and the the Allies that he
the USSR against future Soviet Union had been could set up pro-
threats. Truman did devastated. Stalin Soviet governments
not want to repeat the wanted compensation in eastern Europe.
mistake of the TRE A TY O F from Germany. Truman, He said, ‘If the Slav
VE RS A ILLE S . however, was once [the majority of east
again determined not European] people are
to repeat the mistakes united, no one will dare
at the end of the First move a finger against
World War and resisted them’. Truman became
this demand. very unhappy about
Russian intentions and
soon adopted a ‘get
tough’ attitude towards
Stalin.

FOCUS TASK 4.1

Why did the US–Soviet alliance begin to break down in 1945?
Under the following headings, make notes to summarise why the Allies
Revision Tip began to fall out in 1945:
Your notes from the Focus Task will ■ Personalities
be useful for revision. Make sure ■ Actions by the United States
you can remember one example of ■ Actions by the USSR
each reason for the falling out. ■ Misunderstandings

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How did the USSR gain control of eastern

PART 2 THE COLD WAR, 1945–75

Source Analysis
1 How do Sources 13 and 14 differ
in their interpretation of Stalin’s Europe by 1948?
actions?
2 Explain why they see things so
differently. The ‘iron curtain’
3 How do Sources 15 and 16
The Potsdam Conference ended without complete agreement on any of
differ in their interpretation of
Churchill? the disagreements on the previous page. Over the next nine months,
4 Explain why there are Stalin achieved the domination of eastern Europe that he was seeking. By
differences. 1946 Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania all had communist
governments which owed their loyalty to Stalin. Churchill described the
border between Soviet-controlled countries and the West as an ‘IRON CURTAIN’
(see Source 13). The name stuck.

SOURCE 13 SOURCE 14
A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied The following circumstances should not be forgotten. The
victory. From Stettin on the Baltic to Trieste on the Adriatic, an iron Germans made their invasion of the USSR through Finland,
curtain has descended. Behind that line lie all the states of central Poland and Romania. The Germans were able to make
and eastern Europe. The Communist parties have been raised to their invasion through these countries because, at the time,
power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to governments hostile to the Soviet Union existed in these
obtain totalitarian control. This is certainly not the liberated Europe countries. What can there be surprising about the fact that
we fought to build. Nor is it one which allows permanent peace. the Soviet Union, anxious for its future safety, is trying to see to
Winston Churchill speaking in the USA, in the presence of it that governments loyal in their attitude to the Soviet Union
President Truman, March 1946. Letters and telegrams between should exist in these countries?
Truman and Churchill suggest that Truman was aware of what Stalin, replying to Churchill’s speech (Source 13).
Churchill planned to say and approved.

SOURCE 15 SOURCE 16

A Soviet cartoon. Churchill is shown with two flags, the first

A British cartoon commenting on Churchill’s ‘iron curtain’
proclaiming that ‘Anglo-Saxons must rule the world’ and the other
speech, in the Daily Mail, 6 March 1946.
threatening an ‘iron curtain’. Notice who is formed by his shadow!

Source Analysis Think!

What is the message of the Some historians say that Churchill is as much to blame for the post-war distrust
cartoonist? between the Soviet Union and the West as Roosevelt, Truman or Stalin. What
evidence is there on pages 84–88 to support or challenge this view?

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Stalin strengthens his grip

4 Who was to blame for the Cold War?

FOCUS TASK 4.2
How had the USSR gained control Figure 17 shows how Stalin extended Soviet power across eastern Europe.
of eastern Europe by 1948? With communist governments established throughout eastern Europe, Stalin
‘The only important factor in the gradually tightened his control in each country. The SECRET POLICE imprisoned
communist take-over of eastern anyone who opposed communist rule.
Europe was armed force.’ How far
do you agree with this statement? Cominform
1 List events which support it. In October 1947, Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau, or
2 List other methods the COMINFORM, to co-ordinate the work of the communist parties of eastern
communists used.
Europe. Cominform regularly brought the leaders of each communist party
3 Decide how far you agree
with the statement on a scale
to Moscow to be briefed by Stalin and his ministers. This also allowed
of 1–5. Explain your score Stalin to keep a close eye on them. He spotted independent-minded leaders
carefully. and replaced them with people who were completely loyal to him. The only
communist leader who escaped this close control was Tito in Yugoslavia. He
resented being controlled by Cominform and was expelled for his hostility
Revision Tip in 1948.
Make sure you
can remember FIGURE 17
two examples
Key
of methods that After the war the Communists joined
Communist-controlled The Allies had given the USSR
the USSR and governments control of the eastern sector of a coalition government, then became N
outright leaders in 1947 when they
the communist Germany. It was run by the USSR
forced the non-communist leader into
Countries which were effectively under Red Army control
parties used to enemies of the USSR until the creation of the German exile.
take power in during the Second World Democratic Republic in 1949.
War Communists became the largest
eastern Europe. single party in the 1947 elections.
They imprisoned opposition
politicians, and attacked Church
GREAT leaders.
BRITAIN

USSR

EAST POLAND
GERMANY In 1945 a communist
was elected Prime
Minister within a
A left-wing coalition won elections in WEST
left-wing coalition. In
1945. In 1946 Communists became GERMANY 1947 the Communists
the largest single party, but still in a CZECHOSLOVAKIA also abolished the
coalition. In 1948, when their position monarchy.
was threatened, they banned other
parties and made Czechoslovakia a
communist, one-party state. AUSTRIA
SWITZERLAND HUNGARY

FRANCE ROMANI A

Black Sea
YUGOSLAVIA

ITALY BULGARIA

SPAIN

ALBANIA
A left-wing coalition won
Both France and Italy had strong elections in 1945. The
communist parties which communist members of the
belonged to Cominform. coalition then executed the
GREECE
leaders of the other parties.

TURKEY

Sicily
Britain and the USA supported
Communists gained power immediately after the war. the royalist side in a civil war
Marshal Tito had led war-time
There was little opposition as during the war communist which defeated the communist
resistance to the Nazis. He was
and nationalist resistance movements had opposed the opposition.
elected President in 1945. However,
The communists he was determined to apply Italian and later German occupation forces. As the war
in eastern Europe, communism in his own way and was ended, the strong communist movement had the backing 0 400 km
expelled from Cominform in 1948. of communist Yugoslavia and the USSR.
1945–48. Scale

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How did the USA react to Soviet expansion?

PART 2 THE COLD WAR, 1945–75

Source Analysis
1 Do Sources 18 and 19 have the
same message? The WESTERN POWERS were alarmed by Stalin’s take-over of eastern Europe.
2 Source 18 is a British source.
Roosevelt, Churchill and their successors had accepted that Soviet security
Does it seem likely that similar
needed friendly governments in eastern Europe. They had agreed that
documents were being produced
by the American Government? eastern Europe would be a Soviet ‘sphere of influence’ and that Stalin
Give reasons. would heavily influence this region. However, they had not expected such
complete communist domination. They felt it should have been possible
to have governments in eastern Europe that were both democratic and
friendly to the USSR. Stalin saw his policy in eastern Europe as making
himself secure, but Truman could only see the spread of communism.
SOURCE 18 SOURCE 19
After all the efforts that have been
made and the appeasement that we
followed to try and get a real friendly
settlement, not only is the Soviet
government not prepared to co-operate
with any non-Communist government
in eastern Europe, but it is actively
preparing to extend its hold over the
remaining part of continental Europe
and, subsequently, over the Middle East
and no doubt the Far East as well. In
other words, physical control of Europe
and Asia and eventual control of the
whole world is what Stalin is aiming
at – no less a thing than that. The
immensity of the aim should not betray An American cartoon commenting on
us into thinking that it cannot be Stalin’s take-over of eastern Europe. The
achieved. bear represents the USSR.
Extract from a report by the British As you can see from Figure 17 on page 89, by 1948 Greece and
Foreign Secretary to the British Cabinet Czechoslovakia were the only eastern European countries not controlled by
in March 1948. The title of the report
communist governments. It seemed to the Americans that not only Greece
was ‘The Threat to Civilisation’.
and Czechoslovakia but even Italy and France were vulnerable to communist
take-over. Events in two of these countries were to have a decisive effect
on America’s policy towards Europe.

Greece, 1947
When the Germans retreated from Greece in 1944, there were two rival
groups – the monarchists and the communists – who wanted to rule the
country. Both had been involved in resistance against the Nazis. The
communists wanted Greece to be a SOVIET REPUBLIC. The monarchists wanted
the return of the king of Greece. Churchill sent British troops to Greece in
1945 supposedly to help restore order and supervise free elections. In fact,
the British supported the monarchists and the king was returned to power.
In 1946, the USSR protested to the United Nations that British troops were a
threat to peace in Greece. The United Nations took no action and so the
communists tried to take control of Greece by force. A CIVIL WAR quickly
developed. The British could not afford the cost of such a war and announced
on 24 February 1947 that they were withdrawing their troops. Truman stepped
in. Paid for by the Americans, some British troops stayed in Greece. They tried
to prop up the king’s government. By 1950 the royalists were in control of
Greece, although they were a very weak government, always in crisis.

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SOURCE 20 The Truman Doctrine

4 Who was to blame for the Cold War?

I believe that it must be the policy American intervention in Greece marked a new era in the USA’s attitude to
of the United States to support free world politics, which became known as ‘the Truman Doctrine’ (see Source 20).
peoples who are resisting attempted Under the Truman Doctrine, the USA was prepared to send money,
subjugation by armed minorities or by equipment and advice to any country which was, in the American view,
outside pressures … The free peoples threatened by a communist take-over. Truman accepted that eastern Europe
of the world look to us for support in was now communist. His aim was to stop communism from spreading any
maintaining those freedoms. further. This policy became known as CONTAINMENT.
If we falter in our leadership, we may
endanger the peace of the world. The Marshall Plan
President Truman speaking on Truman believed that communism succeeded when people faced poverty and
12 March 1947, explaining his decision hardship. He sent the Secretary of State and former US Army general George
to help Greece. Marshall to assess the economic state of Europe. What he found was a ruined
economy (see Figure 21). The countries of Europe owed $11.5 billion to the
USA. There were extreme shortages of all goods. Most countries were still
rationing bread. There was such a coal shortage in the hard winter of 1947
that in Britain all electricity was turned off for a period each day. Churchill
had described Europe as ‘a rubble heap, a breeding ground of hate’.
FIGURE 21
Homeless people Refugees
PROBLEMS IN
POST-WAR EUROPE
Shortage of food
and clothing

Cost of rebuilding
damaged homes

Damage caused by
war to infrastructure
(roads, bridges, etc.)
Shortage of fuel

Debts from cost

of war effort

Marshall suggested that about $17 billion would be needed to rebuild

Europe’s prosperity. ‘Our policy’, he said, ‘is directed against hunger,
poverty, desperation and chaos.’
In December 1947, Truman put his plan to Congress. For a short time, the American
Congress refused to grant this money. Many Americans were becoming concerned
by Truman’s involvement in foreign affairs. Besides, $17 billion was a lot of money!

Czechoslovakia, 1948
Americans’ attitude changed when the communists took over the government
Think! of Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia had been ruled by a coalition government
Explain in just 120 characters how which, although it included communists, had been trying to pursue policies
events in independent of Moscow. The communists came down hard in March 1948.
a) Greece Anti-Soviet leaders were purged. One pro-American minister, Jan Masaryk,
b) Czechoslovakia
was found dead below his open window. The communists said he had jumped.
affected American policy in Europe. The Americans suspected he’d been pushed. Immediately, Congress accepted
the MARSHALL PLAN and made $17 billion available over a period of four years.
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Marshall Aid
PART 2 THE COLD WAR, 1945–75

Think!
1 Draw a diagram to summarise On the one hand, Marshall Aid was an extremely generous act by the American
the aims of Marshall Aid. Put people. On the other hand, it was also motivated by American self-interest.
political aims on one side and ■ The USA wanted to create new markets for American goods. The Americans
economic aims on the other.
remembered the disastrous effects of the DEPRESSION of the 1930s and Truman
Draw arrows and labels to show
how the two are connected.
wanted to do all he could to prevent another worldwide slump.
2 Which of the problems in post- ■ Many in the US Government argued that Aid should only be given to
war Europe shown in Figure states which embraced democracy and free markets – in other words,
21 do you think would be the a government and economy the USA would approve of. They wanted an
most urgent for Marshall Aid to ‘Open Door’ to these countries as the policy was called, with no trade
tackle? Explain your choice. TARIFFS or other restrictions to stop US companies.

Stalin viewed Marshall Aid with suspicion. After expressing some initial
interest, he refused to have anything more to do with it. He also forbade
any of the eastern European states to apply for Marshall Aid. Stalin’s view
was that the anticommunist aims behind Marshall Aid would weaken his
hold on eastern Europe. He also felt that the USA was trying to dominate
as many states as possible by making them dependent on dollars.

SOURCE 22 SOURCE 23

A Soviet cartoon commenting on Marshall Aid. Marshall’s rope spells out the
An American cartoon, 1949. words ‘Marshall Plan’ and the lifebelt magnet is labelled ‘Aid to Europe’.

Source Analysis FOCUS TASK 4.3

1 Do Sources 22 and 23 support or How did the USA react to Soviet expansionism?
criticise Marshall Aid? 1 Work in pairs to write two accounts of US policy in Europe. One of you
2 Do you think the sources give a should write from the point of view of the Americans; the other should
fair impression of Marshall Aid? write from the point of view of the Soviets. The sources and text on pages
Explain your answer. 90–92 will help you.
You should include reference to:
a) US actions in the Greek Civil War in 1947
b) the Truman Doctrine
c) Soviet action in Czechoslovakia in 1948
d) the Marshall Plan and Marshall Aid.
Revision Tip
As you consider each event, try to use it to make one side look reasonable
Stalin and Truman saw Marshall Aid or the other side unreasonable – or both!
differently. Try to sum up each view 2 Was the distrust between the USA and the USSR a problem of action (what
in a sentence. each side is actually doing) or interpretation (how things are seen)?

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The Berlin Blockade: causes and

4 Who was to blame for the Cold War?

consequences
By 1948 the distrust between the USA and the USSR was alarming. The
two sides actually increased their stocks of weapons. A propaganda war
developed. Each side took every opportunity to denounce the policies or
the plans of the other. Truman and Stalin were anxious to show each other
and their own people that they would not be pushed around. Despite all
the threatening talk, the two sides had never actually fired on one another.
But in 1948 it looked like they might. The clash came over Germany.
FIGURE 24
The problem of Germany
N French Berlin After the war, Germany was divided
Sector into four zones (see Figure 24). At first
British Soviet the US plan, known as the Morgenthau
Sector Sector Plan, was to remove all German
US Sector industry and make it an agricultural
Berlin
country so it could never again wage a
British modern war. However, as Truman grew
Soviet
Zone
Zone more concerned about the USSR, he
POLAND
decided that a strong Germany might
be a useful ally. It was also clear that if
0 200 km
German industries were not allowed to
Scale
French
CZECHOSLOVAKIA
recover then millions of Germans would
US simply starve. In 1946, Britain, France
Zone
and the USA combined their zones. This
FRANCE Zone Key
Main airports region became known as West Germany
controlled by the in 1949.
Western Allies

The four zones of Germany in 1948.

SOURCE 25

Source Analysis
Explain what Source 25 is saying
about the actions of the USA, A Soviet cartoon from 1947. It shows (from left to right) the USA, Britain and France.
Britain and France in Germany The three sticks tied together are labelled ‘American zone’, ‘British zone’ and
in 1947. ‘French zone’. The building is labelled ‘Yalta and Potsdam Agreements’.

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Stalin blockades Berlin

PART 2 THE COLD WAR, 1945–75

Stalin felt he had to show Western leaders that he would fight back if
they encroached on the Soviet ‘sphere of influence’. Although Berlin was
also divided into four zones, the city itself lay deep in the Soviet zone
and was linked to the western areas by roads, railways and canals. In
June 1948, Stalin blocked these supply lines, stopping the Western Powers
reaching their zones of Berlin. If the USA tried to ram the roadblocks or
railway blocks, it could be seen as an act of war. Stalin expected Truman
to announce a humiliating withdrawal from Berlin, which would give the
Soviets control of Berlin and a propaganda victory.

The Berlin airlift

The Americans believed that the situation in West Berlin was an important
test case. If they gave in to Stalin on this issue and withdrew, the western
zones of Germany might be next to fall to the communist USSR. Truman
ordered that aircraft should fly supplies into Berlin. This was known as the
BERLIN AIRLIFT. As the first planes took off from their bases in West Germany,
everyone feared that the Soviets might shoot them down – an undeniable
act of war. People waited anxiously as the planes flew over Soviet territory,
but no shots were fired. For the next ten months, West Berlin received all
the supplies it needed in this way – everything from food and clothing to
building materials and oil. Stalin eventually lifted the BLOCKADE in May 1949.

Source Analysis SOURCE 26

Explain why Source 26 is a useful We refused to be forced out of the city of Berlin. We demonstrated to the people of
source to historians investigating Europe that we would act and act resolutely, when their freedom was threatened.
US policy on Berlin. Politically it brought the people of Western Europe closer to us. The Berlin blockade
was a move to test our ability and our will to resist.
President Truman, speaking in 1949.

Consequences of the Berlin Blockade

The end of the Berlin Blockade did not end Cold War tensions. But it had
several important consequences for Cold War relationships.
■ A powerful symbol: Berlin became a powerful symbol of Cold War
rivalry. From the US point of view, it was an oasis of democratic
freedom in the middle of communist repression; from the Soviet point of
view, it was a cancer growing in the workers’ paradise of East Germany.
■ Cold War flashpoint: Berlin was also a Cold War flashpoint. It was one
of the few places where US and Soviet troops faced each other directly
(and on a daily basis), and it would be vulnerable if the Soviets chose to
act. Later in the Cold War, Berlin would become even more significant.
■ Cold War patterns of thinking and acting: Despite the mistrust shown
by the superpowers, the crisis in Berlin suggested that there would not
be a direct war between them. There would be other types of conflict.
Each side would never trust the other and would never accept that the
other had a valid case or was acting responsibly or morally and would
use propaganda to criticise the other side. They would fight ‘proxy wars’
– helping any state, group or individual opposed to the other side, no
matter what that state, group or individual was like. There were also
more formal alliances (see below).

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SOURCE 27 NATO and the Warsaw Pact

4 Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Article 3: To achieve the aims of this During the blockade, war between the USSR and the USA seemed a
Treaty, the Parties will keep up their real possibility. At the height of the crisis, the Western Powers met in
individual and collective capacity to Washington DC and signed an agreement to work together. The new
resist armed attack. organisation, formed in April 1949, was known as NATO (North Atlantic
Article 5: The Parties agree that an Treaty Organization). Source 27 shows the main terms of the NATO charter.
armed attack against one or more Although the USSR was critical of NATO, Stalin took no further action .
of them in Europe or North America However, when West Germany was allowed to join NATO in 1955, the new
shall be considered an attack against Soviet leader, Khrushchev, created a defensive alliance called the Warsaw
them all. Pact. This pact included the USSR and the main communist states in
eastern Europe. Its members promised to defend each other if any one of
Extracts from the NATO Charter.
them was attacked.

Source Analysis FIGURE 28

What evidence is there in Source 27
and Figure 28 to indicate that NATO
was a purely defensive alliance?

USA

Factfile USSR

The Warsaw Pact and

NATO membership in 1955
Warsaw Pact: Soviet Union;
Albania; Bulgaria; Czechoslovakia; Key
East Germany; Hungary; Poland;
USSR and its allies
Romania
NATO: USA; Belgium; Canada; Members of NATO
Denmark; France; West Germany;
Greece; Iceland; Italy; Luxembourg; NATO and the Soviet satellites of eastern Europe. With the establishment of NATO,
Netherlands; Norway; Portugal; Europe was once again home to two hostile armed camps, just as it had been in 1914.
Turkey; UK

FOCUS TASK 4.4

What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?
Here are some consequences of the Berlin Blockade.
■ The Soviet Union and the West both claimed a victory.
■ The Western Allies set up a military alliance called NATO.
■ Many Westerners left Berlin for good.
■ The airlift showed the West’s commitment to Berlin.
■ The airlift kept Berlin working.
■ Berlin became a symbol of Cold War tension.
■ It ended the four-power administration of Germany and Berlin and split
Revision Tip Germany into two blocs. Germany remained a divided country for 40 years.
■ There was no fighting – the dispute ended peacefully.
For the topic of the Berlin Blockade,
■ It heightened fear of the Soviet Union in the West.
aim to be able to explain (with
■ The airlift improved relations between Germans and the Allies (who had so
examples):
recently been at war).
■ how the Allies started to rebuild
Germany Write each consequence on a card. Then:
■ one reason this alarmed Stalin a) divide the cards into short-term and long-term consequences
■ two important consequences of b) choose two which you think are the most significant consequences and
the blockade. explain your choice.

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PART 2 THE COLD WAR, 1945–75

FOCUS TASK 4.5

Who was more to blame for starting the Cold War: the United States or the USSR?
This is a highly controversial question which is still being debated today (as you can see from Interpretations A and
B)!

Interpretation A: US historian Lynne Viola, writing in 2002. Interpretation B: British historian Joseph Smith,
The orthodox view of the Cold War greatly simplified the summarising the Soviet view, 2001.
study of history for American audiences. There were Soviet writers agreed on the importance of the Truman
enemies (them) and us and our friends. There were truth Doctrine in contributing to the conflict between East and
tellers (American historians) and there were liars (Soviet West. In their opinion, American imperialism was the cause
falsifiers). Best of all, there were no sources because no of the Cold War. After the Truman Doctrine was enunciated,
American historian could use a Soviet archive so it was very Soviet news agencies criticised it as part of a calculated
hard to challenge the view with evidence. As a consequence strategy to expand the capitalist system throughout
– and often because many American historians were either Europe. The Marshall Plan was similarly condemned as
former politicians or wanted to become politicians – a an American plot to encircle the Soviet Union with hostile
great American success story unfolded as Americans and capitalist states. In addition, the United States was accused
democracy were made to look very good indeed by their of endangering Soviet security by creating NATO and
actions towards an unreasonable enemy. proceeding to remilitarise West Germany.

Work in small groups. Five people per group would be ideal.

You are going to investigate who was to blame for the – the war damage suffered by the USSR
Cold War. The possible verdicts you might reach are: (pages 84 and 87)
A The USA was most to blame. – Stalin’s take-over of eastern Europe
B The USSR was most to blame. (pages 88–89)
C Both sides were equally to blame. – Marshall Aid for Europe (pages 91–92)
D No one was to blame. The Cold War was inevitable. – the Berlin Blockade (pages 93–95).
You can start with the page numbers given. You
This is our suggested way of working.
can introduce your own research from other books
1 Start by discussing the verdicts together. Is one more
or the internet if you wish.
popular than another in your group? You will probably
b) Present your evidence to your group and explain which,
find it helpful to consider Interpretations A and B as
if any, of the verdicts A–D your evidence most supports.
well.
3 As a group, discuss which of the verdicts now seems
2 a) Each member of the group should research how
most sensible.
one of the following factors helped to lead to the
4 Write a balanced essay on who was to blame,
Cold War:
explaining why each verdict is a possibility but reaching
– the situation before the end of the Second
your own conclusion about which is best. The verdicts
World War (pages 82–83)
A–D give you a possible structure for your essay.
– the personal relationships between the various
Write a paragraph on each verdict, selecting relevant
leaders (pages 85–87)
evidence for your group discussion. A final paragraph
– the conflicting beliefs of the superpowers
can explain your overall conclusion.
(pages 82–83)

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4 Who was to blame for the Cold War?

Revision Tip Chapter Summary
It is useful to think about big
questions like ‘who was most to Who was to blame for the Cold War?
blame…’ but it is also useful to think 1 The USSR was a communist country with a ONE-PARTY STATE; the USA
about the role of specific factors so was a capitalist democracy. They had very different ideas about how
turn your research for question 2 of a country should be run and had been enemies throughout the 1930s.
Focus Task 4.5 into revision cards However, because they had a shared enemy (Hitler) they were allies
and share them with your fellow during the Second World War.
students. 2 When it was clear that Germany was going to be defeated their leaders
met together at Yalta (in the USSR) to plan what would happen after
the war. The US and Soviet leaders, Roosevelt and Stalin, appeared
to get on well, although behind the scenes there were tensions and
Keywords disagreements.
Make sure you know these terms, 3 They agreed that after the war Germany (and its capital Berlin) would be
people or events and are able divided into four sectors run by Britain, the USA, France and the USSR,
to use them or describe them and that eastern Europe would be a Soviet ‘sphere of influence’.
confidently. 4 After the war ended the countries met again at Potsdam in Germany
• Atomic bomb but by this time much had changed: Roosevelt had been replaced as
• Alliance president by Truman; Stalin’s troops were occupying most of eastern
• Appeasement Europe; and the Americans had dropped an atomic bomb.
• Berlin airlift 5 Relations between the USA and USSR quickly deteriorated and a Cold
• Berlin Blockade War started (a Cold War is the threat of war and deep mistrust but no
• Capitalism outright fighting).
• Cominform 6 All the countries of eastern Europe elected or had forced on them
• Communism a communist government that was allied to the USSR. The division
• Democracy between communist east and capitalist west became known as the iron
• Dictatorship curtain.
• Iron curtain 7 The USA wanted to stop communism spreading – the Truman Doctrine
• Isolationism said that America would help any country that was resisting outside
• Marshall Aid pressure (by which Truman meant communism). This marked a decisive
• Marshall Plan end to US isolationism.
• NATO 8 The USA offered financial help (Marshall Aid) to countries in western
• Potsdam Conference Europe to rebuild.
• Soviet sphere of influence 9 The USSR saw Marshall Aid and the Truman Doctrine as a threat to the
• Soviet Union USSR, which might lead to an attack on the USSR itself.
• Superpower 10 Berlin became the first focus of Cold War tension when it was blockaded
• Truman Doctrine by Stalin to prevent supplies getting into the US/British/French sectors.
• West/The Western Powers The Western allies responded with the Berlin airlift.
• Yalta Conference

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1 (a) What agreements were made at the Yalta Conference? [4]
(b) Why was the Truman Doctrine important? [6]
(c) ‘The USA was more responsible than the USSR in causing the Cold
War in the late 1940s.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer [10]
See pages 148–54 for advice on the different types of questions.

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PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

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5 How effectively did the

United States contain the
spread of communism?
FOCUS POINTS
This key question will be explored through case studies of the following:
The United States and events in Korea, 1950–53
The United States and events in Cuba, 1959–62
American involvement in Vietnam, 1955–75

Although the USA was the world’s most powerful nation, in 1950 it seemed
to President Truman that events were not going America’s way, particularly
with regard to COMMUNISM.
■ As you have seen in Chapter 4 most of eastern Europe had fallen under
the influence of the communist USSR 1945–48.
■ China became communist in 1949. The Americans had always regarded
China as their strongest ally in the Far East. Between 1946 and 1949
they gave billions of dollars of aid to the Nationalist Government
in China, largely to prevent a communist take-over. That had failed.
Suddenly a massive new communist state had appeared on the map.
■ Also in 1949 the Soviet leader STALIN announced that the USSR had
developed its own ATOMIC BOMB. The USA was no longer the world’s only
nuclear power.
■ Furthermore, American spies reported to President Truman that Stalin
was using his network (Cominform) to help communists win power in
Malaya, Indonesia, Burma, the Philippines and Korea. The USA had
visions of the communists overrunning all of Asia, with country after
country being toppled like a row of dominoes.
There was already strong anticommunist feeling in the USA. These
developments made it stronger. There was no doubt in the minds of
American leaders (indeed most American people) that this spread should
be resisted. If they could have done, they would have liked to turn back
the communist advances but that was unrealistic. So from 1947 onwards
This is the cover of a comic the USA followed the policy of CONTAINMENT – holding back communism so
book published in the USA it did not spread any further. But as the 1950s dawned this looked like a
in 1947. serious challenge.
1 What impression does In this chapter you will investigate:
this comic cover give ■ the different methods the USA used to try to contain the spread of
you of: communism
a) the USA? ■ how successful these methods were during the Korean War, the Cuban
b) communism? Missile Crisis and the Vietnam War – using the case studies to make up
2 What is the message of your own mind.
this picture?

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Case study 1: The Korean War

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Think!
The situation in Korea has

Origins
sometimes been compared to the
situation in Germany in 1945 (which
you studied in Chapter 4). Explain:
a) how these situations were
similar Outbreak of the Korean War
b) how they were different. Korea had been ruled by Japan until 1945. At the end of the Second World
War the northern half was liberated by Soviet troops and the southern half
by Americans. When the war ended:
■ the North remained communist-controlled, with a communist leader who
had been trained in the USSR, and with a Soviet-style one-party system
■ the South was anticommunist. It was not very democratic, but the fact
that it was anticommunist was enough to win it the support of the USA.
There was bitter hostility between the North’s communist leader, Kim Il Sung,
and Syngman Rhee, president of South Korea. REUNIFICATION did not seem likely.
In 1950 this hostility spilled over into open warfare. North Korean troops
overwhelmed the South’s forces. By September 1950 all except a small corner
of south-east Korea was under communist control (see Figure 5, map 1).
SOURCE 1 The US response
Korea is a symbol to the watching world. As you have already seen in Chapter 4, US President Truman was determined
If we allow Korea to fall within the Soviet to contain communism – to stop it spreading further. In his view, Korea was
orbit, the world will feel we have lost a glaring example of how communism would spread if the USA did nothing
another round in our match with the (see Source 1). Containment was the aim, but there were different ways to
Soviet Union, and our prestige and the achieve this aim. Truman’s attitude was that the USA would do anything
hopes of those who place their faith in us (short of all-out war) to stop the spread of communism.
will suffer accordingly. President Truman immediately sent advisers, supplies and warships to the
The US State Department, 1950. seas around Korea. However, he was aware that if he was going to take
military action it would look better to the rest of the world if he had the
support of other countries, especially if he had the support of the UNITED
NATIONS. In fact, the ideal situation would be a UN intervention in the
Korean War rather than an American one.

SOURCE 2 United Nations Resolution 84

The UN will render such assistance Truman put enormous pressure on the UN Security Council to condemn the
actions of the North Koreans and to call on them to withdraw their troops.
to the republic of Korea as may be
The USA was the biggest single contributor to the UN BUDGET and was
necessary to restore international peace
therefore in a powerful position to influence its decisions. However, this
and security to the area.
did not mean the USA always got its own way and it would probably have
Resolution 84 passed by the failed this time except for some unusual circumstances.
United Nations in 1950.
In the Cold War atmosphere of 1950, each SUPERPOWER always denounced and
opposed the other. Normally, in a dispute such as this, the SOVIET UNION would
have used its right of veto to block the call for action by the UN. However,
the USSR was BOYCOTTING the UN at this time over another issue (whether
SOURCE 3 communist China should be allowed to join the UN). So when the resolution
If the UN is ever going to do anything, was passed, the USSR was not even at the meeting so could not use its veto.
this is the time, and if the UN cannot So Truman was able to claim that this was a UN-sponsored operation, even if
bring the crisis in Korea to an end Soviet newspapers and other media claimed that the decision was not valid.
then we might as well just wash up the Under the resolution (see Source 2) the UN committed itself to using its
United Nations and forget it. members’ armies to drive North Korean troops out of South Korea. Eighteen
American Senator Tom Connally speaking states provided troops or support of some kind. These were mostly allies
in 1950. He was a Republican and of the USA and included Britain. However, by far the largest part of the UN
strongly anticommunist. force was American. The commander, General MacArthur, was also American.

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Development

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
September 1950 – the UN force advances
United Nations forces stormed ashore at Inchon in September 1950 (see
Figure 5, map 2). At the same time, other UN forces and South Korean
troops advanced from Pusan. The North Koreans were driven back beyond
their original border (the 38th parallel) within weeks.
SOURCE 4

Source Analysis
Source 4 makes a comparison with
earlier events you may have studied
in this book – see Chapter 2. Use
that knowledge to write a 100-word
explanation of the message of this
cartoon for someone who does not
know anything about the League of
Nations.

A cartoon by David Low, 1950.

FIGURE 5
Map 1: September 1950 Map 2: October 1950 Map 3: January 1951 Map 4: July 1953

C H I N A C H I N A C H I N A C H I N A

u
lu alu Yal alu
r Ya rY ve
r rY
ve ve Ri ve
Ri Ri Ri

38th 38th 38th Panmunjom 38th

parallel parallel parallel parallel
Seoul Inchon
(Capital of S. Korea)

Pusan

Key
Land controlled by North Land controlled by South Communist UN advances
Koreans and Chinese Koreans, Americans and advances
UN forces
The 38th parallel was the border between North and South Korea from 1945 to June 1950.

The Korean War, 1950–53.

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SOURCE 6 October 1950 – the UN force presses on

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Had they [the Chinese] intervened in MacArthur had quickly achieved the original UN aim of removing North
the first or second months it would have Korean troops from South Korea. But the Americans did not stop. Despite
been decisive, [but] we are no longer warnings from China’s leader, Mao Tse-tung, that if they pressed on China
would join the war, the UN approved a plan to advance into North Korea.
fearful of their intervention. Now that we
have bases for our Air Force in Korea, By October, US forces had reached the Yalu River and the border with China
there would be the greatest slaughter. (see Figure 5, map 2). The nature of the war had now changed. It was clear
that MacArthur and Truman were after a bigger prize, one which went beyond
General MacArthur speaking in
containment. As the UN forces advanced and secured their positions (see
October 1950.
Source 6), Truman and MacArthur saw an opportunity to remove communism
from Korea entirely. Even Mao’s warnings were not going to put them off.
Profile November 1950 – the UN force retreats
General Douglas MacArthur MacArthur underestimated the power of the Chinese. Late in October 1950,
(1880–1964) 200,000 Chinese troops (calling themselves ‘People’s Volunteers’) joined the
North Koreans. They launched a blistering attack. They had soldiers who
were strongly committed to communism and had been taught by their leader
to hate the Americans. They had modern tanks and planes supplied by the
Soviet Union. The United Nations forces were pushed back into South Korea.
Conditions were some of the worst the American forces had known, with
treacherous cold and blinding snowstorms in the winter of 1950–51. The Chinese
forces were more familiar with fighting in the jagged mountains, forested ravines
and treacherous swamps – as the landscape was similar to many areas of China.
April 1951 – MacArthur is sacked
■ Born 1880. His father was a At this point, Truman and MacArthur fell out. MacArthur wanted to carry on the
successful army leader. war. He was ready to invade China and even use nuclear weapons if necessary.
■ Trained at West Point, the top Truman, on the other hand, felt that saving South Korea was good enough.
American military academy.
Communism had been contained. The risks of starting a war that might bring in
■ Fought in the First World War.
Became the youngest commander
the USSR were too great, and so an attack on China was ruled out.
in the American army in France. However, in March 1951 MacArthur blatantly ignored the UN instruction and
Received 13 medals for bravery. openly threatened an attack on China. In April Truman removed MacArthur from
■ During the Second World War he his position as commander and brought him back home. He rejected MacArthur’s
was the commander of the war aggressive policy towards communism. Containment was underlined as the
against the Japanese. He devised
American policy. One of the American army leaders, General Omar Bradley, said
the ‘island-hopping’ strategy that
allowed the Americans to defeat
that MacArthur’s approach would have ‘involved America in the wrong war, in
the Japanese. the wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong enemy’. Truman agreed
■ In 1945 he personally accepted with Bradley and was effectively returning to the policy of containment and
the Japanese surrender, and from accepting that he could not drive the communists out of North Korea.
1945 to 1951 he virtually controlled
Japan, helping the shattered June 1951 – peace talks begin
country get back on its feet. The fighting finally reached stalemate around the 38th parallel (see Figure
■ He was aged 70 when he was
5, map 4) in the middle of 1951. Peace talks between North and South Korea
given command of the UN forces in
Korea.
began in June 1951, although bitter fighting continued for two more years.
He tried unsuccessfully to run for
■
US president in 1952.
July 1953 – armistice
In 1952 Truman was replaced by President Eisenhower, who wanted to end the
war. Stalin’s death in March 1953 made the Chinese and North Koreans less
confident. An ARMISTICE was finally signed in July 1953. The border between North
SOURCE 7 and South Korea was much the same as it had been before war started in 1950.

Even the reports to the UN were Think!

censored by [American] state and defence Use the text on pages 100–02 to write some extra bullet points for the Profile
departments. I had no connection with describing:
the United Nations whatsoever. a) MacArthur’s personality and beliefs
From General MacArthur’s memoirs. b) his actions in Korea.

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Consequences of the Korean War

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
The casualties on all sides were enormous – but particularly among
civilians (see Figure 8 and Source 9).
FIGURE 8 SOURCE 9
30,000 American
soldiers 4,500 other
70,000 UN soldiers
South Korean
soldiers

780,000
500,000 North Korean
South Korean and Chinese
civilians soldiers
and civilians

Civilian casualty in the early stages

Total killed: 1.4 million of the Korean War as South Koreans
fled from the advancing
Civilian and military deaths in the North Koreans.
Korean War. American military deaths
per year of conflict were actually higher
than the Vietnam War.
A success for containment?
In one sense the Korean War was a success for the USA. The cost and the
casualties were high but it showed that the USA had the will and the means
to contain communism. South Korea remained out of communist hands.
On the other hand it showed the limits of the policy. The USA had to accept that
North Korea remained communist. It also highlighted tensions among American
leaders. Hardline anticommunist politicians and military leaders wanted to go
beyond containment – to push back communism. They thought that Truman had
shown weakness in not going for outright victory. More moderate politicians
and commanders argued that this would not be worth the risk.
These tensions would affect US policy over the coming decades, and North
Korea would continue to trouble the USA long after the Cold War ended.
With support from China, North Korea developed into a hardline communist
DICTATORSHIP and eventually became a nuclear power, threatening the USA’s
allies Japan and South Korea.

FOCUS TASK 5.1

Was the Korean War a success for containment?
Draw up your own copy of this table. You will use it to compare the three case studies. At this stage, just focus on the
Korean War. You are going to revisit this task at the end of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Vietnam War as well. We
have started it off for you. Your completed chart will be a useful revision tool.

Case Why were the What methods did What What was the Success or failure (out
study Americans worried? the Americans use to problems did outcome? of 10) with reasons
contain communism? they face? supported by evidence
Korea Communist North
Korea invaded
capitalist South Korea

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SOURCE 10
Methods of containment
PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

We shall never have a secure peace

and a happy world so long as Soviet There was no doubt at all in the minds of American leaders that communism
Communism dominates one-third of all had to be resisted. The question was how to do it. The Korean War showed the
the world’s people and is in the process Americans that they could not just send their soldiers to fight a war whenever
of trying to extend its rule to many they saw a problem (see Source 10). It was too expensive and it did not really
others. Therefore we must have in mind work very well. Instead American policy focused on two other methods of
the liberation of these captive peoples. containment: building ALLIANCES and developing ever more powerful weapons.
Now liberation does not mean war.
Liberation can be achieved by processes
Alliances with anticommunist countries
short of war. The USA created a network of anticommunist alliances around the world:
SEATO in South East Asia and CENTO in Central Asia and the Middle East. The
J.F. Dulles, US Secretary of State,
speaking on his appointment in 1952.
USA gave money, advice and arms to these allies. In return, the leaders of
these countries suppressed communist influence in their own countries.
The USSR saw these alliances as aggressive. They accused the USA of trying
to encircle the communist world. In 1955 the Soviet Union set up the Warsaw
Treaty Organisation, better known as the WARSAW PACT. This included the USSR and
all the communist east European countries except Yugoslavia (see Figure 11).
FIGURE 11

USA

USSR

Key
Members of Warsaw Pact: Members of SEATO
USSR and allies
Members of CENTO
Members of NATO

Membership of the organisations allied to the USA and USSR in 1955.

Building more powerful nuclear weapons

The Americans had developed their first atomic bomb in 1945. They did not
share the secret of their bomb with the USSR, even while they were still
allies. When the USA dropped the first bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
Revision Tip in August 1945, 70,000 people were killed instantly. The awesome power of
Make sure you can remember: the explosions and the incredible destruction caused by the bombs made
■ one example of the USA Japan surrender within a week. It was clear to the USA that atomic bombs
creating an alliance to contain were the weapons of the future. Just threatening to use such weapons
communism
could help contain communism.
■ one example of it using the
threat of nuclear weapons to try The same was clear to the USSR! The result was an ARMS RACE to build ever more
to contain communism. powerful weapons and to place them where they could best threaten your enemy.
This was to prove a key factor in our next case study: the Cuban Missile Crisis.
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Case study 2: The Cuban Missile

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
Crisis
For many historians – and people at the time – the Cuban Missile Crisis was
the most serious incident in the Cold War. To understand why, we need to look
closely at Cold War tensions at the time and particularly the nuclear ‘arms race’.

Origins of the Cuban Missile Crisis

The arms race and nuclear deterrence
Through the 1960s the USA and the USSR were locked in a nuclear arms
race. Each side developed ever bigger, more deadly and more flexible
weapons. They both spent vast amounts of money on new weapons.
They spied on one another to steal technological secrets. The USSR tended
to use spies. The USA favoured hi-tech spying such as the U2 plane – a plane
which flew so high it could not be shot down but took incredibly detailed
photos of the ground.
Each side perfected nuclear bombs that could be launched from submarines
or planes. The USA placed short-range nuclear weapons in Turkey (one of
their CENTO allies). Both sides developed ICBMS, which could travel from
continent to continent in half an hour.
By the early 1960s both sides had enough nuclear weapons to destroy the
other side. The USA had more than the USSR, but the advantage did not
really matter because both sides had enough to destroy each other many
times over. On each side the theory was that such weapons made them
more secure. The ‘NUCLEAR DETERRENT ’ meant the enemy would not dare attack
first, because it knew that, if it did, the other would strike back before
its bombs had even landed and it too would be destroyed. This policy also
became known as MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction). Surely no side would
dare strike first when it knew the attack would destroy itself too.

The Cuban Revolution

Cuba is a large island just 160 km from Florida in the southern USA. It
had long been an American ally. Americans owned most of the businesses
on the island and they had a huge naval base there (see Figure 18 on
page 108). The Americans also provided the Cuban ruler, General Batista,
with economic and military support. Batista was a DICTATOR. His rule was
corrupt and unpopular. The Americans supported Batista primarily because
he was just as opposed to communism as they were.

Source Anal ysis SOURCE 12 SOURCE 13

How far do Sources 12 and 13 agree We considered it part of the United I believe there is no country in the
about Cuba’s relationship with the States practically, just a wonderful world … whose economic colonisation,
USA before the revolution? little country over there that was of humiliation and exploitation were worse
no danger to anybody, as a matter than in Cuba, partly as a consequence
of fact it was a rather important of US policy during the Batista regime. I
economic asset to the United believe that, without being aware of it,
States. we conceived and created the Castro
American TV reporter Walter movement, starting from scratch.
Cronkite. President Kennedy speaking in 1963.

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Enter Fidel Castro

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

There was plenty of opposition to Batista in Cuba itself. In 1959, after a

three-year campaign, Fidel Castro overthrew Batista. Castro was charming,
clever and also ruthless. He quickly killed, arrested or exiled many political
opponents. Castro was also a clever propagandist. He was very charismatic
and he had a vision for a better Cuba, which won over the majority of Cubans.
The USA was taken by surprise at first and decided to recognise Castro as
the new leader of Cuba. However, within a short period of time relations
between the two countries grew worse. There were two important reasons:
■ There were thousands of Cuban exiles in the USA who had fled from
Castro’s rule. They formed powerful pressure groups demanding action
against Castro.
■ Castro took over some American-owned businesses in Cuba, particularly
agricultural businesses. He took their land and distributed it to his
supporters among Cuba’s PEASANT farmer population.

The USA responds

Source Analysis As early as June 1960, US President Eisenhower authorised the US Central
1 Apart from the caption in Intelligence Agency (CIA) to investigate ways of overthrowing Castro.
Russian, how else can you tell The CIA provided support and funds to Cuban exiles. It also investigated
that the cartoon in Source 14 is a ways to disrupt the Cuban economy, such as damaging sugar plantations.
Soviet cartoon? American companies working in Cuba refused to co-operate with any
2 What is the cartoonist’s view of
Cuban businesses that used oil or other materials which had been imported
the situation?
from the USSR. The American media also broadcast a relentless stream of
criticism of Castro and his regime (see Source 15 for example).
SOURCE 14 Castro responded to US hostility
with a mixed approach. He
assured Americans living in
Cuba that they were safe and he
allowed the USA to keep its naval
base. He said he simply wanted
to run Cuba without interference.
However, by the summer of
1960 he had allied Cuba with
the Soviet Union. Soviet leader
Khrushchev signed a trade
agreement giving Cuba $100
million in economic aid. Castro
also began receiving arms from
the Soviet Union and American
spies knew this.

A 1960 Soviet cartoon. The notice held by the US Secretary of State says to Castro in Cuba:
‘I forbid you to make friends with the Soviet Union.’

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‘The Bay of Pigs’ invasion

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
Factfile
In January 1961 the USA’s new president, John F Kennedy, broke off DIPLOMATIC
Bay of Pigs invasion RELATIONS with Cuba. Castro thought that the USA was preparing to invade his

■ Cuban exiles were funded and country. He was right. Kennedy was no longer prepared to tolerate a Soviet
trained by the CIA and supported satellite in the USA’s ‘sphere of influence’. However, the Americans did not want
by US air power. to invade directly. Instead President Kennedy put into action a plan that had
■ The plan was originally devised been devised under Eisenhower. He supplied arms, equipment and transport for
by President Eisenhower’s 1400 anti-Castro exiles to invade Cuba intending to overthrow Castro.
Government but Kennedy
approved it when he became In April 1961 the exiles landed at the BAY OF PIGS (see Factfile). The invasion
president. Training began in April failed disastrously. They were met by 20,000 Cuban troops, armed with
1960. The invasion took place on tanks and modern weapons. Castro captured or killed them all within days.
17 April 1961.
■ Cuban security services knew
that the invasion was coming. The impact of the invasion
■ The invasion was a complete The half-hearted invasion suggested to Cuba and the Soviet Union that,
failure. US INTELLIGENCE, which stated despite its opposition to communism in Cuba, the USA was unwilling to
that Cuban people would rebel get directly involved in Cuba. The Soviet leader Khrushchev was scornful of
against Castro, proved to be wrong.
Kennedy’s pathetic attempt to oust communism from Cuba.
Kennedy ordered extensive
investigations into the disaster. Key
Historians too argue that the Bay of Pigs fiasco further strengthened Castro’s
failings were identified: position in Cuba. It suggested to the USSR that Kennedy was weak (see Source 16).
■ lack of secrecy so that USA could It also made Castro and Khrushchev very suspicious of US policy.
not deny its involvement
■ poor links between various US SOURCE 15 SOURCE 16
departments
By October 1962 the historic friendship I think he [Khrushchev] did it [was so
■ failure to organise resistance
inside Cuba between Cuba and the USA was gone. aggressive in the meeting] because of the
■ insufficient Spanish-speaking staff. Behind this change was the story of the Bay of Pigs. He thought that anyone who
betrayal of the Cuban people. It began with was so young and inexperienced as to get
Fidel Castro triumphantly entering Havana into that mess could be beaten; and anyone
in 1959. Castro promised democracy and who got into it and didn’t see it through had
freedom and for a time it appeared to most no guts. So he just beat the hell out of me.
Cubans that they were liberated. But it soon If he thinks I’m inexperienced and have no
became apparent that Castro had sold out guts, until we remove those ideas we won’t
to Premier Khrushchev of the Communists. get anywhere with him.
Source Analysis Commentary from an American TV Kennedy speaking after a meeting with
How reliable is this source? programme made in 1962. Khrushchev in 1961.

FOCUS TASK 5.2

How did the USA react to the Cuban revolution?
1 The President has asked his advisers how he should deal with Cuba. Here
are some suggestions they might have made:

Invade! Influence! Ignore! Pressurise!

Destabilise! Send aid! Disrupt! Discredit!

Revision Tip Record examples you can find of the USA doing any of these things. If you find
From these two pages you should examples of American actions that are not covered by these words record
make sure you remember: them too.
■ one reason why the USA disliked 2 Place these actions on a ‘containment continuum’ like this:
Castro’s Government
Friendly Neutral Hostile
■ how the USA initially tried to
contain communism on Cuba.

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SOURCE 17
The October crisis
PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

[Estimates were that the] missiles had

an atomic warhead [power] of about
half the current missile capacity of the
Khrushchev arms Castro
entire Soviet Union. The photographs After the Bay of Pigs fiasco, Soviet arms flooded into Cuba. In May
indicated that missiles were directed at 1962 the Soviet Union announced publicly for the first time that it was
supplying Cuba with arms. By July 1962 Cuba had the best-equipped
certain American cities. The estimate
army in Latin America. By September it had thousands of Soviet
was that within a few minutes of their
missiles, plus patrol boats, tanks, radar vans, missile erectors, jet
being fired 80 million Americans would
bombers, jet fighters and 5000 Soviet technicians to help maintain the
be dead. weapons.
President Kennedy’s brother, Robert
Kennedy, describing events on Thursday The Americans watched all this with great alarm. They seemed ready to
18 October in the book he wrote about tolerate conventional arms being supplied to Cuba, but the big question
the crisis, 13 Days. was whether the Soviet Union would dare to put nuclear missiles on Cuba.
In September Kennedy’s own Intelligence Department said that it did not
believe the USSR would send nuclear weapons to Cuba. The USSR had not
taken this step with any of its SATELLITE STATES before and the US Intelligence
Department believed that the USSR would consider it too risky to do it in
Cuba. On 11 September, Kennedy warned the USSR that he would prevent
‘by whatever means might be necessary’ Cuba becoming an offensive
military base – by which, everyone knew, he meant a base for nuclear
missiles. The same day the USSR assured the USA that it had no need to put
nuclear missiles on Cuba and no intention of doing so.
FIGURE 18 The US discovers
N nuclear sites
On Sunday, 14 October 1962,
es
mil es an American spy plane flew
00 issil
20
n gem over Cuba. It took amazingly
-ra
ng utes detailed photographs of missile
of lo min
e 20 sites in Cuba. Despite the USSR’s
ng
Ra
reassurances that they did not
intend to provide nuclear missiles
Salt Lake City Chicago New York to Cuba, to the military experts
San
Francisco Denver Washington two things were obvious: these
Los le s were nuclear missile sites, and they
mi e mis
siles
Angeles 0 ang
00 t-r were being built by the USSR.
1 or es
sh inut
USA
of 0 m Soviet missile More photo reconnaissance
1
e

ships
ng

followed over the next two days.

Ra

This confirmed that some sites were

Cape Canaveral
New (space research)
nearly finished but others were
Orleans still being built. Some were already
Havana supplied with missiles, others
CUBA Guantanámo were awaiting them. The experts
(US base)
said that the most developed
Bay of
Pigs
of the sites could be ready to
launch missiles in just seven
days. American spy planes also
reported that twenty Soviet ships
Map showing the location of Cuba and the range of the Cuban missiles. were currently on the way to Cuba
carrying missiles.

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5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
ACTIVITY
How should President Kennedy deal with the Cuban crisis?
On Tuesday 16 October, President Kennedy was informed of Option 2 Surgical air attack?
the discovery. He formed a special team of advisers called
An immediate selected air attack to destroy the nuclear
Ex Comm. They came up with several choices.
bases themselves.
Work in groups. You are advisers to the President. You For: It would destroy the missiles before they were
have to reduce Ex Comm’s five options to just two for the ready to use.
President to choose between. When you have made your
Against: 1 Destruction of all sites could not be
decision explain why you have rejected the three you have.
guaranteed. Even one left undamaged could
launch a counter-attack against the USA.
Option 1 Do nothing?
2 The attack would inevitably kill Soviet
For: The Americans still had a vastly greater soldiers. The Soviet Union might retaliate at
nuclear power than the Soviet Union. once.
The USA could still destroy the Soviet 3 To attack without advance warning was seen
Union, so – the argument went – the as immoral.
USSR would never use these missiles.
The biggest danger to world peace would
be to overreact to this discovery.
Against: The USSR had lied about Cuban missiles.
Kennedy had already issued his solemn Option 3 Invasion?
warning to the USSR. To do nothing
would be another sign of weakness. All-out invasion of Cuba by air and sea.
For: An invasion would not only get rid of the
missiles but Castro as well. The American forces
were already trained and available to do it.
Against: It would almost certainly guarantee an
equivalent Soviet response, either to protect
Cuba, or within the SOVIET SPHERE OF INFLUENCE –
for example, a take-over of Berlin.

Option 5 Blockade?
A ban on the Soviet Union bringing in any further military supplies to
Cuba, enforced by the US navy who would stop and search Soviet ships.
Option 4 Diplomatic pressures? And a call for the Soviet Union to withdraw what was already there.
To get the United Nations or other body to For: It would show that the USA was serious, but it would not be
intervene and negotiate. a direct act of war. It would put the burden on Khrushchev
For: It would avoid conflict. to decide what to do next. The USA had a strong navy and
could still take the other options if this one did not work.
Against: If the USA was forced to back
down, it would be a sign of Against: It would not solve the main problem – the missiles were
weakness. already on Cuba. They could be used within one week. The
Soviet Union might retaliate by blockading Berlin as it had
done in 1948.

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What happened next?

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Tue 16 October ................ President Kennedy was informed of the missile build-up. Ex Comm
formed.
Sat 20 October ................ Kennedy decided on a BLOCKADE of Cuba.
Mon 22 October .............. Kennedy announced the blockade and called on the Soviet Union to
withdraw its missiles. He addressed the American people:
SOURCE 19
Source Analysis
1 What words and phrases in Good Evening, My Fellow Citizens:
Source 19 reveal how serious Within the past week, unmistakable evidence has established the fact that a series of
Kennedy believed the situation offensive missile sites is now in preparation on Cuba.
was in October 1962?
2 Kennedy was renowned as a … Acting, therefore, in the defence of our own security and of the entire Western
skilled communicator. How did Hemisphere, and under the authority entrusted to me by the Constitution, I have
he convince his audience that he directed that the following initial steps be taken immediately:
was in the right?
First: a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba
… Second: continued and increased close SURVEILLANCE of Cuba ... Third: we will
regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western
Hemisphere as an attack on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response
upon the Soviet Union.
Extract from President Kennedy’s TV broadcast to the American people on
22 October 1962.

Tue 23 October ................ Kennedy received a letter from Khrushchev saying that Soviet ships
would not observe the blockade. Khrushchev did not admit the presence of
nuclear missiles on Cuba.
Wed 24 October ............... The blockade began. The first missile-carrying ships, accompanied by a
Soviet submarine, approached the 500-mile (800-km) blockade zone. Then
suddenly, at 10.32 a.m., the twenty Soviet ships which were closest to the
zone stopped or turned around.
SOURCE 20
Source Analysis
1 Source 20 is a British cartoon.
Pretend you did not know this.
Explain why it is unlikely to be an
American or Soviet cartoon.
2 What is its attitude to the two
sides in the crisis?

A cartoon by Vicky (Victor Weisz) from the London Evening Standard, 24 October 1962.

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5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
Thu 25 October ................ Despite the Soviet ships turning around, intensive aerial photography
revealed that work on the missile bases in Cuba was proceeding rapidly.
Fri 26 October ................. Kennedy received a long personal letter from Khrushchev. The letter
claimed that the missiles on Cuba were purely defensive, but went on: ‘If
assurances were given that the USA would not participate in an attack on
Cuba and the blockade was lifted, then the question of the removal or the
destruction of the missile sites would be an entirely different question.’
This was the first time Khrushchev had admitted the presence of the
missiles.
Sat 27 October a.m. ........ Khrushchev sent a second letter – revising his proposals – saying that the
condition for removing the missiles from Cuba was that the USA withdraw
its missiles from Turkey.
An American U-2 plane was shot down over Cuba. The pilot was killed.
The President was advised to launch an immediate reprisal attack on Cuba.
Sat 27 October p.m. ........ Kennedy decided to delay an attack. He also decided to ignore the second
Khrushchev letter, but accepted the terms suggested by Khrushchev on 26 October.
He said that if the Soviet Union did not withdraw, an attack would follow.
SOURCE 21
It was a beautiful autumn evening, the height of the crisis, and I went up to the open
air to smell it, because I thought it was the last Saturday I would ever see.
Robert McNamara talking about the evening of 27 October 1962. McNamara was
one of Kennedy’s closest advisers during the Cuban Crisis.

Sun 28 October................ Khrushchev replied to Kennedy: ‘In order to eliminate as rapidly as

possible the conflict which endangers the cause of peace … the Soviet
Government has given a new order to dismantle the arms which you
described as offensive and to crate and return them to the Soviet Union.’
SOURCE 22
Source Analysis
1 Does Source 22 give the
impression that either
Khrushchev or Kennedy has the
upper hand?
2 Explain whether you think the
events of the crisis on these
pages support that view.

A cartoon from the British newspaper, the Daily Mail.

Think!
Kennedy described Wednesday 24 October and Saturday 27 October as the
darkest days of the crisis. Use the information on these pages to explain why.

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Why did the Soviet Union place nuclear

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

missiles on Cuba?
It was an incredibly risky strategy. The USSR had supplied many of its allies
with CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS but this was the first time that any Soviet leader
had placed nuclear weapons outside Soviet territory. Why did Khrushchev
take such an unusual step? He must have known that it would cause a
crisis. What’s more, the Soviets and Cubans made no attempt at all to
camouflage the sites, and even allowed the missiles to travel on open
deck. This has caused much debate as to what Khrushchev was really doing.
Historians have suggested various possible explanations.

To bargain with the USA To test the USA To trap the USA
If Khrushchev had missiles on Cuba, he In the strained atmosphere of Cold War Khrushchev wanted the Americans to find
could agree to remove them in return for politics the missiles were designed to see them and be drawn into a nuclear war. He
some American concessions. how strong the Americans really were – did not even try to hide them.
whether they would back off or face up.

To defend Cuba
Cuba was the only communist state in the
To close the missile gap Western Hemisphere, and it had willingly
Khrushchev was so concerned about the
become communist rather than having To strengthen his own position in
MISSILE GAP between the USSR and the USA
become communist as a result of invasion the USSR
that he would seize any opportunity he
by the USSR. In addition, Cuba was in The superiority of the USA in nuclear
could to close it. With missiles on Cuba
‘Uncle Sam’s backyard’. As Castro himself missiles undermined Khrushchev’s
it was less likely that the USA would ever
put it: ‘The imperialist cannot forgive credibility inside the USSR. His critics
launch a ‘first strike’ against the USSR.
that we have made a socialist revolution pointed out that he was the one who
under the nose of the United States.’ Just had urged the USSR to rely on nuclear
by existing, Castro’s Cuba was excellent missiles. Now, could he show that the
PROPAGANDA for the USSR.
USSR really was a nuclear power?
Think! SOURCE 23
1 Which of the explanations above
From the territory of the Soviet Union, the medium-range missiles couldn’t possibly
do Sources 23 and 24 support?
2 Talking in private Khrushchev
reach the territory of the USA, but deployed on Cuba they would become strategic
called the missiles ‘a hedgehog nuclear weapons. That meant in practical terms we had a chance to narrow the
in Uncle Sam’s pants’. Which differences between our forces.
of the explanations does this General Anatoly Gribkov, commander, Soviet forces, Cuba.
statement support?
3 Which explanation do you think
Khrushchev’s actions on 26 and SOURCE 24
27 October support (see In addition to protecting Cuba, our missiles would have equalized what the West
page 111)?
likes to call the ‘balance of power’. The Americans had surrounded our country with
4 Choose the explanation(s) that
you think best fits what you military bases and threatened us with nuclear weapons, and now they would learn
have found out about the crisis. just what it feels like to have enemy missiles pointing at you …
Explain your choice. Khrushchev writing in his memoirs in 1971.

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Outcomes of the Cuban Missile Crisis…

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
…for Kennedy and the USA …for Khrushchev and the USSR
■ Kennedy came out of the crisis with a ■ In public Khrushchev was able to highlight his role as a
greatly improved reputation in his own responsible peacemaker, willing to make the first move towards
country and throughout the West. He had compromise.
stood up to Khrushchev and made him back ■ There was no question that keeping Cuba safe from American
down. attack was a major achievement for the USSR. Cuba was a valuable
■ Kennedy had also resisted the hardliners ally and proved a useful base from which to support communists
in his own Government. They had in South America.
wanted the USA to invade Cuba – to turn ■ Khrushchev did also get the USA to withdraw its nuclear missiles
back communism. However, the crisis from Turkey. However, Khrushchev promised to keep this secret so
highlighted the weakness of their case. he was unable to use it for propaganda purposes.
Such intervention was not worth the ■ The USA was criticised by some of its own allies. Newspaper
high risk. articles in Britain, for example, commented that the USA was
■ On the other hand, he did secretly agree unreasonable to have missiles in Turkey and yet object to Soviet
to remove the missiles from Turkey. This missiles in Cuba.
was awkward for him as the decision to ■ On the other hand, Khrushchev had been forced to back down
remove them should have been a decision and remove the missiles. Soviet military leaders were particularly
for NATO. His NATO allies were unhappy upset at the terms of the withdrawal. They were forced to put
that Kennedy had traded them during the missiles on the decks of their ships so the Americans could count
crisis but accepted this was better than a them. They felt this was a humiliation.
nuclear war. ■ The USSR still lagged behind the USA in the arms race. The USSR
■ Kennedy also had to accept that Castro’s developed its stockpile of ICBMs at a huge financial cost, but it
Cuba would remain a communist state in never caught up with the USA.
America’s backyard. ■ In 1964 Khrushchev himself was forced from power by his enemies
inside the USSR. Many commentators believe that the Cuban
Missile Crisis contributed to this.

…for the Cold War …for Castro’s Cuba

■ The crisis helped thaw Cold War relations between the USA and ■ Castro was very upset by Khrushchev’s deal
the USSR. Both leaders had seen how their brinkmanship had with America but he had to accept it. He
nearly ended in nuclear war. They were now more prepared to take needed the support of the USSR.
steps to reduce the risk of nuclear war. For example: ■ Cuba stayed communist and highly armed.
■ A permanent ‘hot line’ phone link was set up direct from the The nuclear missiles were removed but Cuba
White House to the Kremlin. remained an important base for communist
■ In 1963, they signed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. It did not stop operations in South America and for a
the development of weapons, but it limited tests and was an CIVIL WAR in Angola in the 1970s.
important step forward. ■ Castro kept control of the American
■ Although it was clear the USSR could not match US technology or companies and economic resources he
numbers of weapons, it was also clear this was not necessary. The nationalised during his revolution.
Soviet nuclear arsenal was enough of a threat to make the USA
respect the USSR. It is significant that for the rest of the Cold War
the superpowers avoided direct confrontation and fought through
their allies where possible.

Think! FOCUS TASK 5.3 Revision Tip

1 Use the information on this page Was the Cuban Missile Crisis a Make sure you can remember from this
to fill out a table of positive and success for containment? case study:
negative outcomes for the USA ■ one reason that the Cuban Crisis
and the USSR. Look back at your table from might be seen as a success for
2 Who do you think gained the page 103. Complete a second containment
most from the Cuban Missile row for the Cuban Missile ■ one reason it might be seen as a
Crisis? Crisis. failure.

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Case study 3: The Vietnam War

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Although Americans were relieved at the outcome of the Cuban Crisis it

did not reduce their fear of communism. Very soon they found themselves
locked in a costly war in Vietnam, which put a massive question mark over
the very policy of containment.

Origins of the Vietnam War

Vietnam had a long history of fighting outsiders.

Fighting the Japanese

Before the Second World War, Vietnam (or INDOCHINA as it was called then)
had been ruled by France. During the war the region was conquered by
the Japanese. They treated the Vietnamese people savagely. As a result, a
SOURCE 25 strong anti-Japanese resistance movement (the Viet Minh) emerged under
the leadership of communist Ho Chi Minh.
It was generally agreed that had an
Ho inspired the Vietnamese people to fight the Japanese. When the Second
election been held, Ho Chi Minh would
World War ended, the Viet Minh entered the northern city of Hanoi in 1945
have been elected Premier … at the
and declared Vietnam independent.
time of the fighting, possibly 80 per cent
of the population would have voted for
the communist Ho Chi Minh as their Fighting the French
leader. The French had other ideas. In 1945 they came back wanting to rule
President Eisenhower writing after Vietnam again, but Ho was not prepared to let this happen. Another nine
the Vietnam War. years of war followed between the Viet Minh, who controlled the north of
the country, and the French, who controlled much of the south.

SOURCE 26 From 1949 Ho was supported by China, which had become a communist
state in 1949. As we have seen in the Cold War, the USA responded by
helping those who opposed the communists. It poured $500 million a year
into the French war effort. Despite this the French were unable to hold on
to the country and pulled out of Vietnam in 1954.
A peace conference was held in Geneva and the country was divided into
North and South Vietnam until elections could be held to decide its future
(see Source 25).

The USA responds

Under the terms of the ceasefire, elections were to be held within two
years to reunite the country. You will remember how the USA criticised
Stalin for not holding free elections in Soviet-controlled eastern Europe
after the war (see pages 89–92). In Vietnam in 1954 the USA applied a
different rule. It prevented the elections from taking place.
Why did the Americans do this? Their policy was a strange combination
of determination and ignorance. President Eisenhower and his Secretary
of State JF Dulles were convinced that China and the USSR were planning
to spread communism throughout Asia. The idea was often referred to
as the DOMINO THEORY. If Vietnam fell to communism, then Laos, Cambodia,
Quang Duc, a 73-year-old Buddhist Thailand, Burma and possibly even India might also fall – just like a
priest, is about to be set on fire row of dominoes. The Americans were determined to resist the spread
in protest against the attacks on of communism in Vietnam, which they saw as the first domino in the
Buddhist shrines by the government
row. However, their methods and policies showed their ignorance of the
of South Vietnam in 1963.
Vietnamese people and the region.

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Financial support for Diem’s regime

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
Think!
1 Many neutral observers in In 1955 the Americans helped Ngo Dinh Diem to set up the Republic of
Vietnam were critical of US South Vietnam. They supported him because he was bitterly anticommunist.
policy towards Diem’s regime.
However, Diem’s regime was very unpopular with the Vietnamese people.
Explain why.
■ He belonged to the LANDLORD class, which treated the Vietnamese PEASANTS
2 Explain how US politicians
would have defended their with contempt.
policies. ■ He was a Christian and showed little respect for the Buddhist religion of
most Vietnamese peasants (see Source 26).
■ Diem’s regime was also extremely corrupt.
The Americans were concerned and frustrated by his actions, but as Dulles
said, ‘We knew of no one better.’ The USA supported Diem’s regime with
around $1.6 billion in the 1950s. Diem was overthrown by his own army
leaders in November 1963, but the governments that followed were equally
corrupt. Even so, they also received massive US support.

The emergence of the Viet Cong

The actions of these anticommunist governments increased support
among the ordinary peasants for the communist-led National Front for the
Liberation of South Vietnam, which was set up in December 1960. This
movement was usually called the VIET CONG. It included South Vietnamese
opponents of the Government, but also large numbers of communist North
FIGURE 27 Vietnamese taking their orders from Ho Chi Minh. Peasants who did not
support the Viet Cong faced intimidation and violence from them.
CHINA N
The Viet Cong started a guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese
NORTH
VIETNAM
Government. Using the HO CHI MINH TRAIL (see Figure 27), the Viet Cong sent
Dien Bien Phu reinforcements and ferried supplies to guerrilla fighters. These fighters
Haiphong
Hanoi attacked South Vietnamese Government forces, officials and buildings.
Gulf of
Tonkin
They also attacked American air force and supply bases.
In response the South Vietnamese Government launched their ‘strategic
17th parallel – border
between North and
hamlet’ programme, which involved moving peasant villages from Viet
LAOS
South Vietnam agreed Cong-controlled areas to areas controlled by the South Vietnamese
1954
Government. The Americans helped by supplying building materials, money,
food and equipment for the villagers to build improved farms and houses.
Me

Hue
In practice this policy backfired as the peasants resented it – and corrupt
kon

Da Nang
gR

officials pocketed money meant to buy supplies for the villagers.

ive

THAILAND
r

US involvement escalates
By 1962 President Kennedy was sending military personnel (he always
SOUTH
VIETNAM
called them ‘advisers’) to help the South Vietnamese army fight the Viet
CAMBODIA Cong. However, Kennedy said he was determined that the USA would not
‘blunder into war, unclear about aims or how to get out again’. He was
Saigon a keen historian himself and had studied the USA’s past successes and
failures. He was well aware from the Korean War ten years earlier what
Mekong Delta could and could not be achieved by military intervention.
0 200 km However, President Kennedy was assassinated in 1963. His successor,
Scale Lyndon Johnson, was more prepared than Kennedy to commit the USA to a
Key full-scale conflict in Vietnam to prevent the spread of communism.
Communist-controlled areas in
the mid–1960s
The Tonkin Gulf Resolution
Ho Chi Minh trail
In August 1964, North Vietnamese patrol boats opened fire on US ships in
Vietnam in the mid-1960s showing the the Gulf of Tonkin. In a furious reaction, the US Congress passed the Tonkin
Ho Chi Minh Trail. Gulf Resolution, which gave the President power to ‘take all necessary
measures to prevent further aggression and achieve peace and security’.

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It effectively meant that Johnson could take the USA into a full-scale war
PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Source Analysis if he felt it was necessary, and very soon he did.

Compare Source 28 with Source ■ In February 1965 the US started OPERATION ROLLING THUNDER – a gigantic
1 on page 100. How similar are
bombing campaign against North Vietnamese cities, factories, army
the arguments used in 1964 about
Vietnam to those used in 1950 about
bases and the Ho Chi Minh Trail, which continued for three years.
Korea? ■ On 8 March 1965, 3500 US marines, combat troops rather than advisers,
came ashore at Da Nang.
The USA was now officially at war in Vietnam.
SOURCE 28 FIGURE 29
First is the simple fact that South 600 Mainly Mainly
Vietnam, a member of the free advisers combat troops
world family, is striving to preserve its
US troops and advisers in Vietnam (thousands)
independence from Communist attack. 500

Second, South East Asia has great

significance in the forward defence of
400
the USA. For Hanoi, the immediate
object is limited: conquest of the south
and national unification. For Peking, 300
however, Hanoi’s victory would only be
a first step towards eventual Chinese
dominance of the two Vietnams 200 15

US dead (thousands)
and South East Asia and towards
exploitation of the new strategy in other 10
parts of the world. 100
5
Robert McNamara, US Defence Secretary,
explaining in 1964 why he supported the
0 0
policy of sending US troops to Vietnam.
1960 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74
Kennedy Johnson Nixon

Graph showing escalating US involvement in Vietnam, 1960–74. The blue line shows US
personnel. The red line shows US deaths. US troops were not the only foreign soldiers
fighting in Vietnam. About 46,000 Australian and New Zealand troops fought too.

FOCUS TASK 5.4 Why did the US send troops to Vietnam?

Why did the USA get increasingly The answer to this question may seem obvious! It was because of the policy
involved in Vietnam?
of containment and the ‘domino theory’. That is certainly how the President
1 Draw a timeline of the period
1945–65.
and his advisers explained it (see Source 28 for example). However, there
2 Mark on it increasing American is a more controversial view held by some historians that powerful groups
involvement using the following within the USA wanted a war.
headings: In 1961 President Eisenhower himself warned that America had developed a
■ No direct American
powerful ‘military–industrial complex’. The Government gave huge budgets
involvement
■ Financial support
to the military commanders. These budgets were spent on weapons made
■ Political involvement
by some of America’s biggest companies. Thus, both the armed forces
■ Military involvement and business actually gained from conflict. Eisenhower did not accuse
3 Write annotations to show the business and military leaders of anything, but in his last speech as
date on which each of these president he warned the American people not to let these groups become
phases started and what too influential. Some historians believe that this was a factor in American
events triggered the increasing involvement in Vietnam, but it is hotly disputed by others.
involvement.
4 Choose two events that you Revision Tip
think were critical in increasing Make sure you can recall:
the USA’s involvement in the war ■ two reasons why communism was becoming stronger in Vietnam
in Vietnam. Explain your choice. ■ two measures taken by the USA to resist the spread of communism.

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Tactics and strategy in the Vietnam War

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
With HINDSIGHT it is easy to see that the American decision to get fully involved
in the war was a huge gamble. But political leaders did not have the benefit
of hindsight. They made their decision on the basis of what they knew and
believed at the time. They knew their technology and firepower was superior
to the Viet Cong and they believed that would allow them to win the war.
However, they were soon proved wrong. As time wore on it became clear
that the USA needed more than money and technology to win this kind of
war. On the next two pages you will find out why by comparing Viet Cong
and US tactics. Focus Task 5.5 will direct your reading.

FOCUS TASK 5.5

Why couldn’t the Americans win?
Stage 1: Understand the tactics
1 Work in pairs. Take either the Viet Cong or the Americans. Use page 118 or 119 to find out about your side’s tactics.
Create a diagram by drawing two concentric circles (one inside the other) on a large piece of paper.
■ In the inner circle record the tactics.
■ In the outer circle the reason for using those tactics.
■ Draw lines to show how the tactics and reasons are connected.
Compare your diagram with your partner’s.
Stage 2: Thinking it through
2 Make your own table like this, then using your research from stage 1 record in columns 2 and 4 how far each side
had these qualities. You can add further rows if you think of other important qualities.

Qualities The US army Viet Cong

or
Well-trained soldiers

The right technology

Reliable supplies and equipment

Effective tactics

Support from the Vietnamese population

Motivated and committed soldiers
Intelligence

3 Next, in each row of column 3, draw some scales to show which way the balance falls for this quality. Did the USA
or the Viet Cong have the advantage?
4 Now think about the overall picture – how the strengths and weaknesses work together.
a) Were the armies finely balanced? Or was the balance strongly weighted to one side or the other?
b) Which quality was most important in determining who won the war? Was one so important that being ahead in
that area meant that other advantages or disadvantages did not matter?
Stage 3: Explaining your conclusions
5 Now write up your answer. You could use this structure:
a) Describe how the failure of the US army was a combination of its own weaknesses and Viet Cong strengths.
b) Give balanced examples of US successes and failures.
c) Give balanced examples of Viet Cong successes and failures.
d) Choose one American weakness and one Viet Cong strength that you think were absolutely vital in preventing
the USA from beating the Viet Cong and explain the significance of the points you have chosen.

Revision Tip
Find five reasons why the USA could not defeat the Viet Cong. Make sure you
can recall:
■ two or three strengths of the Viet Cong (with examples)
■ two or three weaknesses of the USA (with examples).

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PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Viet Cong tactics and troops to the Vietnamese peasants. They helped them in the fields
during busy periods. However, they were quite prepared to kill
In early 1965 the Viet Cong had about 170,000 soldiers. peasants who opposed them or who co-operated with their
They were heavily outnumbered and outgunned. They enemies. They also conducted a campaign of terror against
were no match for the US and South Vietnamese forces in the police, tax collectors, teachers and any other employees
open warfare. In November 1965 in the La Dreng Valley, of the South Vietnamese Government. Between 1966 and 1971
US forces killed 2000 Viet Cong for the loss of 300 troops. the Viet Cong killed an estimated 27,000 civilians.
However, this did not daunt Ho Chi Minh.
Supplies
Guerilla warfare The Viet Cong depended on supplies from North Vietnam
Ho used GUERRILLA WARFARE. Guerrilla is a Spanish word that came along the Ho Chi Minh Trail. US and South
which literally means ‘little war’. Guerrilla warfare meant Vietnamese planes bombed this constantly, but 40,000
avoiding big battles and using hit-and-run raids. Guerrillas Vietnamese worked to keep it open whatever the cost.
did not wear uniform. They were hard to tell apart from the
peasants in the villages. They had no known base camp or Commitment
headquarters. They worked in small groups. They attacked
The total of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese dead in the
then disappeared into the jungle, into the villages or into
war has been estimated at 1 million – far higher than US
tunnels (see Figure 31).
losses. However, this was a price that Ho Chi Minh was
Guerrilla attacks aimed to wear down enemy soldiers and prepared to pay. Whatever the casualties, there were
wreck their morale. US soldiers lived in constant fear of replacement troops available. The greatest strength of the
ambushes or booby traps such as pits filled with sharpened Viet Cong fighters was that they simply refused to give in.
bamboo stakes – 11 per cent of US casualties were caused
by booby traps. Another 51 per cent were from ambushes or Think!
hand-to-hand combat. The Viet Cong favoured close-quarter 1 One Viet Cong leader said: ‘The people are the
fighting because it knew that the Americans would not use water. Our armies are the fish.’ What do you think
their air power for fear of hitting their own troops. he meant?
2 Find evidence on pages 118–22 to support the
Civilians view that:
Ho knew how important it was to keep the population on his ■ the Viet Cong had the support of the people
side. The Viet Cong fighters were courteous and respectful ■ the US and South Vietnam forces did not.

SOURCE 30 FIGURE 31
I remember sitting at this wretched
Concrete
little outpost one day with a couple trapdoors
of my sergeants. We’d been manning
this thing for three weeks and running
patrols off it. We were grungy and
sore with jungle rot and we’d suffered
Kitchen
about nine or ten casualties on a Tripwire
recent patrol. This one sergeant of Smoke Sleeping
mine

mine said, ‘You know, Lieutenant, I outlets Booby quarters

trap
don’t see how we’re ever going to win Ventilation
shaft
this.’ And I said, ‘Well, Sarge, I’m not
supposed to say this to you as your Rest of
tunnel
officer – but I don’t either.’ So there complex
was this sense that we just couldn’t Tunnel hospital
Booby trap
for seriously
see what could be done to defeat wounded Water-filled U-bend Well
to stop spread of
these people. gas leaks
Philip Caputo, a lieutenant in the
Storage cache for food,
Marine Corps in Vietnam in 1965–66, weapons and explosives
speaking in 1997.
A Viet Cong tunnel complex. To avoid the worst effects of American air power, the Viet
Cong built a vast network of underground tunnels, probably around 240 km of them.

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5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
US tactics and troops Conscription and morale
In the early stages of the war most US troops were
Bombing professional soldiers. Morale was good and they performed
The main US tactic was bombing. For seven years from well. However, as the war intensified the US needed more
1965–72 the USA bombed military, industrial and civilian soldiers so they introduced the DRAFT (CONSCRIPTION). As
targets in North Vietnam; they bombed the Ho Chi soon as young men left school or college they could be
Minh Trail; they bombed Vietnam’s neighbours Laos and called up into the US army. So from 1967:
Cambodia (who were sympathetic to the Viet Cong). ■ Many soldiers were young men who had never been

To some extent bombing worked. It damaged North Vietnam’s in the army before. The average age of US troops was
war effort and it disrupted supply routes. From 1970 to 1972, only 19.
■ The conscripts knew little about Vietnam – and some
intense bombing of North Vietnam forced it to negotiate for
peace. However, air power could not defeat the communists. cared little about DEMOCRACY or communism. They just
Even after major air raids on North Vietnam in 1972, the wanted to get home alive. In contrast the Viet Cong
communists were still able to launch a major assault on the were fighting for their own country, and a cause many
South. Even more important, civilian casualties helped turn of them believed in.
■ Morale among the US conscripts was often very low. To
the Vietnamese people against the Americans.
tackle this problem the generals introduced a policy
Search and destroy of giving troops just a one-year term of service. This
To combat guerrilla warfare the US commander General backfired because as soon as the soldiers gained
Westmoreland developed a policy OF SEARCH AND DESTROY. He experience they were sent home.
set up heavily defended US bases in South Vietnam near to
the coasts. From here helicopters full of troops would descend
on a village and search out and destroy any Viet Cong forces SOURCE 33
they found. Soldiers had to send back reports of body counts.
Search-and-destroy missions did kill Viet Cong soldiers, but
there were problems.
■ The raids were often based on inadequate information.
■ Inexperienced US troops often walked into traps.
■ Innocent villages were mistaken for Viet Cong
strongholds. For every Viet Cong weapon captured by
search and destroy, there was a body count of six. Many
of these were innocent civilians.
■ Search-and-destroy tactics made the US and South
Vietnamese forces very unpopular with the peasants. It
pushed them towards supporting the Viet Cong.

SOURCE 32
You would go out, you would secure a piece of terrain during
the daylight hours, [but at night] you’d surrender that – and
I mean literally surrender … you’d give it up, because … the
helicopters would come in and pick you up at night and fly
you back to the security of your base camp. Napalm bombs exploding in a village in the Mekong Delta, that
Lieutenant Colonel George Forrest, US Army. was believed to be a Viet Cong position, March 1965.

Chemical weapons
The USA also used CHEMICAL WEAPONS to combat the Viet Cong. SOURCE 34
■ AGENT ORANGE was a highly toxic ‘weedkiller’ sprayed from In the end anybody who was still in that country was the
planes to destroy the jungle where the Viet Cong hid. enemy. The same village you’d gone in to give them medical
The Americans used 82 million litres of Agent Orange to treatment … you could go through that village later and
spray thousands of square kilometres of jungle.
get shot at by a sniper. Go back in and you would not find
■ NAPALM was another widely used chemical weapon. It
anybody. Nobody knew anything. We were trying to work
destroyed jungles where guerrillas might hide. It also
burned through skin to the bone. with these people, they were basically doing a number on us.
■ Many civilians and soldiers were also killed or harmed You didn’t trust them anymore. You didn’t trust anybody.
by these chemical weapons. Fred Widmer, an American soldier, speaking in 1969.

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The Tet Offensive

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Despite these problems the official American view of the war from 1965 to
1967 was that it was going reasonably well. The US and South Vietnamese
forces were killing large numbers of Viet Cong. Although they were
struggling against guerrilla tactics they were confident that the enemy was
being worn down. The press reports reflected this positive view.
This confidence was shattered early in 1968. During the New Year holiday, Viet
Cong fighters attacked over 100 cities and other military targets. One Viet
Cong commando unit tried to capture the US embassy in Saigon. US forces had
to fight to regain control room by room. Around 4500 Viet Cong fighters tied
down a much larger US and South Vietnamese force in Saigon for two days.

A turning point
In many ways the TET OFFENSIVE was a disaster for the communists. They had
hoped that the people of South Vietnam would rise up and join them. They
didn’t. The Viet Cong lost around 10,000 experienced fighters and were
badly weakened by it.
However, the Tet Offensive proved to be a turning point in the war because
it raised hard questions in the USA about the war.
■ There were nearly 500,000 troops in Vietnam and the USA was spending
$20 billion a year on the war. So why had the communists been able to
launch a major offensive that took US forces completely by surprise?
■ US and South Vietnamese forces quickly retook the towns captured
in the offensive, but in the process they used enormous amounts of
artillery and air power. Many civilians were killed. The ancient city of
Hue was destroyed. Was this right?

SOURCE 35 Media reaction

Until this point media coverage of the war was
generally positive, although some journalists
were beginning to ask difficult questions in 1967.
During the Tet Offensive the gloves came off. CBS
journalist Walter Cronkite (see Source 35) asked
‘What the hell is going on? I thought we were
winning this war’. Don Oberdorfer of The Washington
Post later wrote (in 1971) that as a result of the Tet
Offensive ‘the American people and most of their
leaders reached the conclusion that the Vietnam
War would require greater effort over a far longer
period of time than it was worth’.
SOURCE 36
The Tet Offensive was the decisive battle of the Vietnam
War because of its profound impact on American
attitudes about involvement in Southeast Asia. In the
aftermath of Tet, many Americans became disillusioned
… To the American public and even to members of
the administration, the offensive demonstrated that US
intervention … had produced a negligible effect on the will
and capability of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese.
CBS News journalist Walter Cronkite reporting in Vietnam in Extract from The Tet Offensive: Intelligence Failure in War
February 1968. He was regarded as the most trusted man in America. by James Wirtz.

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SOURCE 37
The peace movement in the USA

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
One does not use napalm on villages
and hamlets sheltering civilians if one is For a war on such a scale the Government had to have the support of the
attempting to persuade these people of American people. With deaths and injuries to so many young Americans,
the rightness of one’s cause. One does PUBLIC OPINION had been turning against the war even before the Tet

not defoliate [destroy the vegetation Offensive. After it the trickle of antiwar feeling became a flood:
of] the country and deform its people ■ Cost: The war was draining money that could be used to better purposes
with chemicals if one is attempting to at home (see Sources 38 and 39). Yet despite all that spending the USA
persuade them of the foe’s evil nature. did not seem to be any closer to winning the war.
■ Inequality: The draft exposed racial inequality in the USA: 30 per cent
Richard Hamer, an American journalist,
comments on US policy failure in
of African Americans were drafted compared to only 19 per cent of
Vietnam, 1970. white Americans; 22 per cent of US casualties were black Americans,
even though this group made up only 11 per cent of the total US force.
World champion boxer Muhammad Ali refused to join the army on the
grounds of his Muslim faith. He was stripped of his world title and his
passport was removed. Ali was a follower of the RADICAL Black Power
group called Nation of Islam. They argued: How could they fight for a
country which discriminated against them at home? As Muhammed Ali
pointed out, 'I ain't go no quarrel with them Viet Cong!'
■ Purpose: Most damaging of all, an increasing number of Americans felt
deeply uncomfortable about what was going on in Vietnam.

‘What are we fighting for?’

The Vietnam War was a media war. Thousands of television, radio and
Source Analysis newspaper reporters, and a vast army of photographers sent back to the
1 Who or what is the cartoonist USA and Europe reports and pictures of the fighting. The newspapers
criticising in Source 38? showed crying children burned by American napalm bombs (see Source
2 Which do you think is more
33). Television showed prisoners being tortured or executed, or women
effective as a criticism of the
and children watching with horror as their house was set on fire. To
Vietnam War – Source 37, 38 or
39? Give reasons based on the see such casual violence beamed into the living rooms of the USA was
source and your knowledge of deeply shocking to the average American. Was this why 900,000 young
the USA at this time. Americans had been drafted? Instead of Vietnam being a symbol of a US
crusade against communism, Vietnam had become a symbol of defeat,
confusion and moral corruption. The most powerful illustration of this
was the My Lai massacre (see page 122).
SOURCE 38
Protest
The antiwar protests, led by students and civil rights campaigners, reached
their height during 1968–70.
■ In the first half of 1968, there were over 100 demonstrations against the
Vietnam War involving 40,000 students. Frequently, the protest would
involve burning the American flag – a criminal offence in the USA and a
powerful symbol of the students’ rejection of American values. Students
taunted the American President Lyndon B Johnson with the chant ‘Hey,
Hey LBJ; how many kids did you kill today?’
■ In November 1969, almost 700,000 antiwar protesters demonstrated in
Washington DC. It was the largest political protest in American history.
SOURCE 39
The promises of the Great Society have been shot down on the battlefields of Vietnam
… The war has put us in the position of protecting a corrupt government. We are
spending $500,000 to kill every Viet Cong soldier while we spend only $53 for every
person considered to be in poverty in the USA.
Civil rights leader Martin Luther King speaking in the USA in April 1968. The Great
An American cartoon from 1967. Society was President Johnson’s plan for reforms to help the poorest in the USA.

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SOURCE 40
The My Lai massacre
PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Most of the soldiers had never been

away from home before they went into In March 1968, a unit of young American soldiers called Charlie Company started
service. They thought they were going a search-and-destroy mission. They had been told that in My Lai there was a Viet
to do something courageous on behalf Cong headquarters, and 200 Viet Cong guerrillas. They had been ordered to destroy
of their country, something which they all houses, dwellings and livestock. They had been told that all the villagers would
thought was in the American ideal. have left for market because it was a Saturday. Most of them were under the
impression that they had been ordered to kill everyone they found in the village.
But it didn’t mean slaughtering whole
villages of women and children. One of Early in the morning of 16 March, Charlie Company arrived in My Lai. In the next
four hours, between 300 and 400 civilians were killed. They were mostly women,
my friends, when he told me about it,
children and old men. Some were killed as they worked in their fields; others in
said: ‘You know it was a Nazi kind of
their homes. Many were mown down by machine-gun fire as they were herded into
thing.’ We didn’t go there to be Nazis. an irrigation ditch. No Viet Cong were found. Only three weapons were recovered.
At least none of the people I knew went
there to be Nazis. ‘Something dark and bloody’
Written by Ronald Ridenhour, a US At the time, the army treated the operation as a success. The commanding
soldier in Vietnam. He was not at My officer’s report said that twenty non-combatants had been killed by accident
Lai, but interviewed many witnesses and in the attack, but the rest of the dead were recorded as being Viet Cong.
started a campaign to pressure the US
authorities to investigate properly. However, twelve months later, a letter arrived in the offices of 30 leading
politicians and government officials in Washington. It was written by Ronald
Ridenhour, an American soldier who had served in Vietnam and who personally
knew many of the soldiers who took part in the massacre. He had evidence,
he said, of ‘something rather dark and bloody’ that had occurred in My Lai – or
Pinkville as the American soldiers called it. He recounted in detail the stories he
had been told about what had taken place and asked Congress to investigate.

Investigation
Soon after, Life magazine, one of the most influential magazines in the
USA, published photographs of the massacre at My Lai that had been taken
by an official army photographer. This triggered an investigation that
ended in the trial for mass murder of Lieutenant William Calley. He was an
officer in Charlie Company. He had personally shot many of the people in
the irrigation ditch at My Lai. In September 1969 he was formally charged
with murdering 109 people. Ten other members of the company and the
commanding officers were also charged.

Aftermath
Think! The revelations were deeply shocking to the American people. The charges
1 Why do you think it took twelve
were also too much for the army. They placed responsibility on Calley. They
months for anyone to do denied that Calley was acting under orders. His senior officers were acquitted.
anything about the massacre? After a long court case surrounded by massive media attention and publicity,
2 Why was the massacre so Calley was found guilty of the murder of 22 civilians. In August 1971 he was
shocking to the American sentenced to twenty years’ hard labour. In November 1974 he was released.
public?
SOURCE 41
I think I was in a kind of daze from seeing all these shootings and not seeing any returning
fire. The Americans were rounding up the people and shooting them, not taking any
prisoners … I was part of it, everyone who was there was part of it and that includes the
General and the Colonel flying above in their helicopters … I did not pay any attention to
who did it. By that time I knew what the score was. It was an atrocity … I notice this one
small boy had been shot in the foot … he was walking toward the group of bodies looking
Source Analysis for his mother … then suddenly I heard a crack and … I saw this child flip on top of the
Source 41 was written by someone pile of bodies. The GI just stood and walked away. No remorse. Nothing.
who worked for the US army. Does Ron Haeberle, the US army official photographer. His black and white pictures for the army
that make it a trustworthy source? and his colour photographs taken with his own private camera had a dramatic public impact.

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The withdrawal from Vietnam

5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
After the Tet Offensive President Johnson concluded that the war could not be
won militarily. He reduced the bombing campaign against North Vietnam and
instructed his officials to begin negotiating for peace with the communists.
Johnson also announced that he would not be seeking re-election as president.
It was an admission of failure. In the election campaign both candidates
campaigned to end US involvement in Vietnam. The antiwar feeling was so strong
that if they had supported continuing the war they would have had no chance
of being elected anyway. It was no longer a question of ‘could the USA win the
war?’ but ‘how can the USA get out of Vietnam without it looking like a defeat?’
A new president
In November 1968 Richard Nixon was elected president. From 1969 to 1973
he and his National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger worked to end US
involvement in Vietnam. This was not easy because the bigger question
of how to contain world communism – the one that had got the USA into
Vietnam in the first place – had not gone away. They did not want to appear
simply to hand Vietnam to the communists. They used a range of strategies.

Improved ‘Vietnamisation’ Increased bombing

relations with of the war effort Peace negotiations
At the same time Nixon
USSR and China with North Vietnam bombing campaigns aga
increased
In Vietnam Nixon began inst Nor th
na fell handing ger had
In 1969 the USSR and Chi responsibilit y for the war
to From ear ly 1969, Kissin Vietnam to show he was
not
t the re chief weak. US and Sou
out. It seemed pos sib le tha South Vietnamese forces
and regular meetings with the th Vietnamese
n ato r,
would even be a war bet
wee withdr awing US troops
(a process Vietnamese peace negoti troops also invaded Vie
t Cong
munist bases in Cambodia, cau
these two powerf ul com they called VIETNAMISATI
ON). Le Duc Tho. sing
h the out rage across the wor
countr ies. As a result, bot Bet ween Apr il 1969 and
the end ld, and
improve of 1971 almost even in the USA.
USSR and China tried to 400,000 US troops
relations with the USA. left Vietnam.

‘Peace with honour’

In Paris in January 1973 all parties signed a peace agreement. Nixon
described it as ‘peace with honour’. Others disagreed (see Source 42), but
the door was now open for Nixon to pull out all US troops. By 29 March
1973 the last American forces had left Vietnam.
It is not clear whether Nixon really believed he had secured a lasting peace
settlement. But within two years, without the support of the USA, South
Vietnam had fallen to the communists. One of the bleakest symbols of
Source Analysis American failure in Vietnam was the televised news images of desperate
1 Describe the attitude of Source 42 Vietnamese men, women and children trying to clamber aboard American
to the agreement of January 1973. helicopters taking off from the US embassy. All around them communist forces
2 Are you surprised by this source? swarmed through Saigon. After 30 years of constant conflict, the struggle for
control of Vietnam had finally been settled and the communists had won.
SOURCE 42
FOR WHOM THE BELL TOLLS … but its more grievous toll was paid at home – a wound to the
… the nation began at last to extricate itself from a quicksandy spirit so sore that news of peace stirred only the relief that comes
war that had plagued four Presidents and driven one from with an end to pain. A war that produced no famous victories,
office, that had sundered the country more deeply than any no national heroes and no strong patriotic songs, produced no
event since the Civil War, that in the end came to be seen by a memorable armistice day celebrations either. America was too
great majority of Americans as having been a tragic mistake. exhausted by the war and too chary of peace to celebrate.
Reaction to the agreement of January 1973 in the influential
American news magazine Newsweek, 5 February 1973.

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How did the Vietnam War affect the policy

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

of containment?
The American policy of containment was in tatters.
■ It had failed militarily. The war had shown that even the USA’s vast
military strength could not stem the spread of communism.
■ It had also failed strategically. Not only did the USA fail to stop
South Vietnam going communist, but the heavy bombing of Vietnam’s
neighbours, Laos and Cambodia, actually helped the communist forces
in those countries to win support. By 1975 both Laos and Cambodia had
communist governments. Instead of slowing down the domino effect in
the region, American policies actually speeded it up.
■ It was also a propaganda disaster. The Americans had always presented
their campaign against communism as a moral crusade. But atrocities
committed by American soldiers and the use of chemical weapons
damaged the USA’s reputation. In terms of a crusade for ‘democracy’ the
Americans were seen to be propping up a government that did not have
the support of its own people.
Revision Tip Theses failures greatly affected the USA’s future policies towards communist
You can use the cards from Focus states. After the war, the Americans tried to improve their relations with China.
Task 5.6 below for your revision. They ended their block on China’s membership of the UN. The President made
Take a photo of your completed visits to China. The USA also entered into a period of greater understanding
layout showing and annotating the with the Soviet Union. In fact, during the 1970s both the Soviet Union and
connections. This will be a good China got on better with the USA than they did with each other.
essay plan if you have to write on
this topic for an assignment. Make The Americans also became very suspicious of involving their troops in any
sure you can remember one piece other conflict that they could not easily and overwhelmingly win. This was an
of evidence to go with each point. attitude that continued to affect American foreign policy into the twenty-
first century.

FOCUS TASK 5.6

Why did the US policy of containment fail in Vietnam?
Despite all the money it spent and the effort they put in, the USA failed to contain the spread of communism to South
Vietnam. You are now going to consider the reasons for this.
1 Make cards like these. On each card write an explanation or paste a source which shows the importance of the
reason, i.e. how it damaged the policy of containment. Add other cards if you think there are reasons you should
consider.
2 Lay your cards out on a large sheet of paper and add lines to show connections between the reasons. Write an
explanation of the connection.

US military tactics The unpopularity of The experience of the Opposition in Other countries’
in Vietnam the South Vietnamese Viet Cong and the the USA support for the
regime inexperience of the Viet Cong
American soldiers

Revision Tip
All these case studies (Korea, Cuba, FOCUS TASK 5.7
Vietnam) are important because How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
they each show different aspects 1 Look back at your chart from page 103. Complete it for the Vietnam War.
of containment in action. Make 2 You have now looked at three very different case studies of the USA’s
sure you are equally confident attempts to contain communism. Using the work you have done for Focus
about each one and can explain in Tasks 5.1, 5.3 and 5.6 on pages 103, 113 and this page, explain:
your own words whether it was a ■ how far the policy of containment succeeded
success or failure for containment. ■ the main reasons for its success or failure.

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5 How effectively did the United States contain the spread of communism?
Keywords Chapter Summary
Make sure you know these terms, Containment
people or events and are able 1 The USA was anticommunist and wanted to limit the spread of
to use them or describe them communism around the world – this policy was called containment.
confidently.
• Agent Orange Korea
• Armistice 2 When a communist government tried to take over in Korea in 1950 the USA
• Arms race sent troops to help prevent Korea falling to the communists.
• Atomic bomb/H bomb 3 The result was a stalemate and in 1953 Korea was divided into a
• Bay of Pigs communist north (friendly towards China) and a capitalist south (friendly
• Blockade towards the USA).
• Capitalism Cuba
• CENTO 4 Cuba turned communist in 1959. Cuba is a large island very close to the
• CIA USA.
• Cold War 5 In the 1960s there was a nuclear arms race between the USA and USSR
• Cominform with ever more dangerous nuclear weapons being developed and tested
• Communism by both sides.
• Containment 6 The Soviet leader Khrushchev sent nuclear weapons to Cuba. The USA
• Conventional weapons and much of the world were worried that this might lead to the first
• Democracy nuclear war with dreadful consequences.
• Dictator 7 The US President Kennedy ordered a blockade of Cuba to prevent the
• Diplomatic relations weapons arriving and the crisis was averted. Better relations between the
• Domino theory two leaders followed.
• Draft
• Guerrilla warfare Vietnam
• Ho Chi Minh Trail 8 The next area of worry was South-east Asia where communism was very
• ICBM strong. The USA believed in the domino theory – if one country turned
• Indochina communist then the neighbouring countries would follow so they wanted
• Intelligence (as in CIA) to stop any country turning communist.
• Landlord/peasant 9 In 1954 following a civil war Vietnam was divided into a communist north
• MAD and a capitalist south but the north, with the help of communist China,
• Missile gap tried to take over the south too.
• Napalm 10 The USA decided to help the south to resist the threat of the communist
• Nuclear deterrent north by first sending money and advisers then combat troops.
• Operation Rolling Thunder 11 They got more and more involved, to the point where hundreds of
• Satellite state thousands of US troops were fighting in Vietnam (the USA introduced
• Search and destroy conscription to provide enough soldiers), and thousands were being killed
• SEATO each year.
• Surveillance 12 Despite all this investment the USA was not winning this war. The war lost
• Tet Offensive support at home and the USA decided to withdraw from Vietnam and leave
• United Nations South Vietnam to its fate. It finally fell to the communists in 1975.
• US sphere of influence
• Viet Cong
• Viet Minh PRACTICE QUESTIONS
• Vietnamisation
1 (a) Describe the Bay of Pigs incident of 1961. [4]
• Warsaw Pact
(b) Why did Khrushchev put nuclear missiles on Cuba in 1962? [6]
(c) ‘The Cuban Missile Crisis was a victory for the USA.’ How far do you
agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
See pages 148–54 for advice on the different types of questions.

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Before

After

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6
How secure was the USSR’s
control over eastern Europe,
1948–c.1989?
FOCUS POINTS
Why was there opposition to Soviet control in Hungary in 1956
and Czechoslovakia in 1968, and how did the USSR react to this
opposition?
How similar were events in Hungary in 1956 and in Czechoslovakia
in 1968?
Why was the Berlin Wall built in 1961?
What was the significance of Solidarity in Poland for the decline
of Soviet influence in eastern Europe?
How far was Gorbachev personally responsible for the collapse
of Soviet control over eastern Europe?

In Chapter 4 you saw how the SOVIET UNION took control of eastern Europe.
You are now going to return to that story and see how far the Soviet Union
was able to maintain that control.
You will investigate:
■ how the Soviet Union took control in eastern Europe and how it tried to
maintain control
■ why and how some people challenged Soviet control and what happened
to them when they did
■ how, finally, changes in the Soviet Union led to the collapse of all the
communist regimes in eastern Europe and indeed the collapse of the
Soviet Union itself.
The key question you will consider is ‘how secure’ was this control.
Here are two versions The Soviet Union almost certainly did not feel it was secure. It kept up
of the same photo. The constant pressure on the governments and people of eastern Europe. It was
first shows the leader of really only the threat of sending in the RED ARMY that propped up some of the
communist regimes in the region long after their people had lost faith in their
Czechoslovakia, Alexander
government. In the end it was Mikhail Gorbachev’s unwillingness to prop them
Dubček. The second is the up any longer with Soviet troops that signalled the end of Soviet domination.
same photo used by the
communist-controlled So which of these graphs do you think is likely to be the best
media after Dubček had representation of Soviet control through this period? This is your
'hypothesis'. You will decide later if you were right.
been ousted from power by
Soviet troops in 1968.
1 How has the photo been
changed?
2 Why might the photo
have been changed?
3 What does this
tell you about
communist control of
Czechoslovakia in 1968? 1948 1989 1948 1989 1948 1989

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How did the Soviet Union control eastern

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Europe?
As you saw in Chapter 4, after the Second World War the communists
quickly gained control of eastern Europe with the help of the Soviet Union
and the Red Army (see Figure 17 on page 89).
Soviet leader STALIN was determined that eastern Europe would be a SOVIET
SPHERE OF INFLUENCE. This meant that eastern Europe would be dominated
politically and economically by the USSR. The eastern European countries
were controlled by their communist governments, but Stalin kept tight
control of them, particularly through the Cominform (see Factfile). For
Stalin, eastern Europe would serve as a buffer against a future attack on
the USSR. He also wanted the resources of eastern Europe to help rebuild
the USSR’s industries and economy after the terrible damage caused by the
war against Germany. He used COMECON to ensure this.

Factfile
Cominform Comecon
■ Cominform stands for the Communist Information ■ Comecon stands for the Council for Mutual Economic
Bureau. Assistance.
■ Stalin set up the Cominform in 1947 as an organisation ■ It was set up in 1949 to co-ordinate the industries and
to co-ordinate the various communist governments in trade of the eastern European countries.
eastern Europe. ■ The idea was that members of Comecon traded mostly
■ The office was originally based in Belgrade in Yugoslavia with one another rather than trading with the West.
but moved to Bucharest in Romania in 1948 after ■ Comecon favoured the USSR far more than any of its
Yugoslavia was expelled by Stalin because it would not do other members. It provided the USSR with a market to
what the Soviet Union told it to do. sell its goods. It also guaranteed it a cheap supply of raw
■ Cominform ran meetings and sent out instructions to materials. For example, Poland was forced to sell its coal
communist governments about what the Soviet Union to the USSR at one-tenth of the price that it could have
wanted them to do. got selling it on the open market.
■ It set up a bank for socialist countries in 1964.

Revision Tip The impact on ordinary people

Make sure you can explain in your For some people of eastern Europe the communists initially brought hope.
own words: The Soviet Union had achieved amazing industrial growth before the
■ the role of Cominform and Second World War. Maybe, by following Soviet methods, they could do the
Comecon same. However, the reality of Soviet control of eastern Europe was very
■ the role of the Red Army different from what people had hoped for.
in keeping control of eastern ■ Freedom Countries that had a long tradition of free speech and
Europe.
democratic government suddenly lost the right to criticise the
government. Newspapers were censored. Non-communists were put in
prison for criticising the government. People were forbidden to travel to
countries in western Europe. Protests, such as those in East Germany in
1953, were crushed by security forces.
■ Wealth Between 1945 and 1955 eastern European economies did
recover, but soon wages in eastern Europe fell behind the wages in
other countries. People in eastern Europe were short of coal to heat
their houses. Clothing and shoes were very expensive.
■ Consumer goods People could not get consumer goods like radios,
electric kettles or televisions, which were becoming common in the
West. The economies of Eastern Europe were geared towards helping the
Soviet Union. Factories produced items such as machinery or electric
cables, not what ordinary people wanted.

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Stalin to Khrushchev: a new era?

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
When Stalin died in 1953 many people in eastern Europe hoped for a more
relaxed form of rule. After some power struggles in the USSR the new
leader who emerged in 1955 was Nikita Khrushchev. He appeared to be
very different from Stalin. He talked of peaceful CO-EXISTENCE with the West.
He talked of improving the lives of ordinary citizens. He closed down
Cominform and released thousands of political prisoners. In an astonishing
speech in 1956 he openly denounced Stalin for his harsh rule.
This new approach from the Soviet leader encouraged some critics of communist
rule. In the summer of 1956 large demonstrations broke out in Poland.
Protestors demanded reforms and the appointment of the Polish war-time
resistance leader Wladyslaw Gomulka as the new Polish leader. There were
violent clashes between protesters and Polish police. Gomulka was not the loyal
ally Khrushchev would have wanted, but he compromised and accepted Gomulka
as the new Polish leader. At the same time he moved Soviet tanks and troops to
the Polish border just to make it clear that he would only compromise so far.
The world watched with interest. Who was the real Khrushchev – the
Revision Tip compromiser with new ideas or the Soviet leader who moved tanks to
Make sure you know two ways in the Polish border? In October 1956 the answer would become clear as
which Khrushchev appeared to be Khrushchev faced a crisis in Hungary. You will investigate his response in
different from Stalin in 1955.
the Case Study on pages 130–31.
SOURCE 1

ACTIVITY
Look at Source 1.
1 Make a list of the features
of the cartoon that show
Khrushchev as a new type of
leader.
2 Design another cartoon that
shows him relaxing the Soviet
grip on eastern Europe. Think
about:
■ how you would show
Khrushchev
■ how you would represent
the states of eastern
Europe (as maps? as
people?)
■ how you would represent
Soviet control (as a rope?
getting looser? tighter?).
A 1959 Soviet cartoon. The writing on the snowman’s hat reads ‘Cold War’. Khrushchev
You could either draw the cartoon
is drilling through the Cold War using what the caption calls ‘miners’ methods’. The
or write instructions for an artist
cartoon uses very strong visual images like Khrushchev’s modern style of clothing to
to do so.
emphasise his new ideas. And of course he is breaking up the Cold War!

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Case study 1: Hungary, 1956

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

From 1949 to 1956 Hungary was led by a hardline communist called

Mátyás Rákosi. Hungarians hated the restrictions imposed on them. Most
Hungarians felt bitter about losing their FREEDOM OF SPEECH. They lived in fear
of the SECRET POLICE. They resented the presence of thousands of Soviet troops
and officials in their country. Some areas of Hungary even had Russian
street signs, Russian schools and shops. Worst of all, Hungarians had to pay
for Soviet forces to be in Hungary.
SOURCE 2 SOURCE 3
Living standards were declining and yet … wearing clothes patterned after Western styles, showing interest in Jazz, expressing
the papers and radio kept saying that liberalism in the arts – was considered dangerous in the eyes of the people’s democracy.
we had never had it so good. Why? Why To cite a small example … My university colleague, John, showed up at lectures one day
these lies? Everybody knew the state several weeks before the revolution in a new suit and a striped shirt and necktie, which he
was spending the money on armaments. had received from an uncle in the United States through gift-parcel channels. His shoes
Why could they not admit that we were were smooth suede and would have cost one month’s wages in Hungary. After class John
worse off because of the war effort and was summoned by the party officer. He received a tongue-lashing and was expelled.
the need to build new factories? … I Written by László Beke, a student who helped lead the Hungarian uprising in 1956, in
finally arrived at the realisation that the A Student’s Diary: Budapest October 16–November 1, 1956.
system was wrong and stupid.
A Hungarian student describes the mood What happened?
in 1953.
■ Opposition: In June 1956 a group within the Communist Party in
Hungary opposed Rákosi. He appealed to Khrushchev for help. He
wanted to arrest 400 leading opponents. Moscow would not back him.
FOCUS TASK 6.1 Khrushchev ordered Rákosi to be retired ‘for health reasons’.
Why was there opposition to ■ Protest: The new leader, Ernö Gerö, was no more acceptable to the
Soviet control in Hungary in 1956? Hungarian people. Discontent came to a head with a huge student
1 Use the text and Sources 2 demonstration on 23 October, when the giant statue of Stalin in
and 3 to list reasons why some
Budapest was pulled down.
Hungarians were opposed
■ Reform: The USSR allowed a new government to be formed under the
to communist control – for
example, they resented the well-respected Imre Nagy. In October Soviet troops and tanks that
presence of Soviet troops. had been stationed in Hungary since the Second World War began to
2 List the changes proposed by withdraw. Hungarians created thousands of local councils to replace
Nagy’s Government. Soviet power. Several thousand Hungarian soldiers defected from the
3 Which of these proposed army to the rebel cause, taking their weapons with them.
changes do you think would be ■ Plans: Nagy’s Government began to make plans. It would hold free
most threatening to the USSR? elections, create impartial courts and restore farmland to private
Give reasons. ownership. It wanted the total withdrawal of the Soviet army from Hungary.
It also planned to leave the WARSAW PACT and declare Hungary neutral in the
Cold War struggle between East and West. There was widespread optimism
that the new American President Eisenhower, who had been the wartime
supreme commander of all Allied Forces in western Europe, would support
the new independent Hungary with armed troops if necessary.
Revision Tip How did the Soviet Union respond?
Test yourself to see if you can
Khrushchev at first seemed ready to accept some of the reforms. However,
remember:
he could not accept Hungary leaving the Warsaw Pact. In November 1956
■ two important reasons that the
Hungarians rebelled against
thousands of Soviet troops and tanks moved into Budapest. The Hungarians
Soviet control in 1956 did not give in. Two weeks of bitter fighting followed. Some estimates put the
■ two changes brought about by number of Hungarians killed at 30,000. However, the latest research suggests
Nagy about 3000 Hungarians and up to 1000 Russians were killed. Another 200,000
■ how Khrushchev reacted at first, Hungarians fled across the border into Austria to escape the communist forces.
then changed his mind, then
The WESTERN POWERS protested to the USSR but sent no help; they were too
changed it again.
preoccupied with a crisis of their own (the Suez crisis in the Middle East).

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SOURCE 4 SOURCE 5

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
In Hungary thousands of people have We have almost no weapons, no heavy guns of any kind. People are running up to the
obtained arms by disarming soldiers tanks, throwing in hand grenades and closing the drivers’ windows. The Hungarian
and militia men … Soldiers have been people are not afraid of death. It is only a pity that we cannot last longer. Now the
making friends with the embittered and firing is starting again. The tanks are coming nearer and nearer. You can’t let people
dissatisfied masses … The authorities attack tanks with their bare hands. What is the United Nations doing?
are paralysed, unable to stop the bloody A telex message sent by the Hungarian rebels fighting the communists.
events. Quoted in George Mikes, The Hungarian Revolution, 1957.
From a report in a Yugoslav newspaper.
Yugoslavia, although communist, SOURCE 6
did not approve of Soviet policies.
October 27, 1956. On my way home I saw a little girl propped up against the
doorway of a building with a machine gun clutched in her hands. When I tried to
Source Analysis move her, I saw she was dead. She couldn’t have been more than eleven or twelve
1 How do Sources 4 and 5 differ in years old. There was a neatly folded note in her pocket she had evidently meant to
the impression they give of the pass on through someone to her parents. In childish scrawl it read: ‘Dear Mama,
Hungarian uprising? Brother is dead. He asked me to take care of his gun. I am all right, and I’m going
2 Why do you think they differ? with friends now. I kiss you. Kati.’
3 Does the photo in Source 7 give
Written by László Beke, a Hungarian student.
the same impression as either
Source 4 or Source 5?
4 Work in pairs. Study Sources 4–7 SOURCE 7
and choose one source. Try to
convince your partner that your
source is the most useful source
for studying events in Hungary
in 1956.

Think!
1 Look back at Figure 17 in
Chapter 4 (page 89). Why do you
think Hungary’s membership
of the Warsaw Pact was so A photograph of Erika
important to the Soviet Union? Szeles, a fifteen-year-
2 Why do you think the Hungarians old rebel, taken by a
received no support from the news photographer from
West? Denmark in 1956. Erika
3 Explain which of these helped the rebels as a
statements you most agree with: nurse and then took up
a weapon and fought.
She was killed by Soviet
The speed at which the troops in a fire fight
in November 1956. The
Red Army crushed
photograph appeared
resistance in Hungary shows on the front cover of
how completely the Soviet several newspapers and
Union controlled Hungary. magazines in western
Europe and the USA.

The severity of the

Red Army in dealing with Outcomes
Hungary in 1956 shows how Khrushchev put János Kádár in place as leader. Kádár took several months
fragile the Soviet hold on to crush all resistance. Around 35,000 anticommunist activists were
Hungary really was. arrested and 300 were executed. Kádár cautiously introduced some of the
reforms demanded by the Hungarian people. However, he did not waver on
the central issue – membership of the Warsaw Pact.

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Case study 2: Czechoslovakia and the Prague Spring, 1968

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

SOURCE 8 Twelve years after the brutal suppression of the Hungarians, Czechoslovakia
posed a similar challenge to Soviet domination of eastern Europe.
In Czechoslovakia the people who were Khrushchev had by now been ousted from power in the USSR. A new leader,
trusted [by the Communist government] Leonid Brezhnev, had replaced him.
were the obedient ones, those who did
not cause any trouble, who didn’t ask What happened?
questions. It was the mediocre man who In the 1960s a new mood developed in Czechoslovakia.
came off best. ■ New leader: In 1967 the old Stalinist leader was replaced by Alexander
In twenty years not one human problem Dubček. He proposed a policy of ‘socialism with a human face’: less
has been solved in our country, from CENSORSHIP, more freedom of speech and a reduction in the activities of
primary needs like flats, schools, to the secret police. Dubček was a committed communist, but he believed
the more subtle needs such as fulfilling that COMMUNISM did not have to be as restrictive as it had been before he
oneself … the need for people to came to power. He had learned the lessons of the Hungarian uprising
trust one another … development of and reassured Brezhnev that Czechoslovakia had no plans to pull out of
education. the Warsaw Pact or Comecon.
■ New ideas: As censorship eased, opponents were able to criticise
I feel that our Republic has lost its good the failings of communist rule, expose corruption and ask awkward
reputation. questions about events in the country’s recent past. This period
From a speech given by Ludvik Vaculik, became known as ‘the PRAGUE SPRING’ because of all the new ideas that
a leading figure in the reform movement, seemed to be appearing everywhere. By the summer even more RADICAL
in March 1968.
ideas were emerging. There was even talk of allowing another political
party, the Social Democratic Party, to be set up as a rival to the
Communist Party.
SOURCE 9 SOURCE 10
The Director told them they would All the different kinds of state in which the Communist Party has taken power have
produce 400 locomotives a year. They gone through rigged trials … There must be a fault other than just the wrong people
are making seventy. were chosen. There must be a fault in the theory [of communism] itself.
And go look at the scrapyard, at all the Written by Lubos̆ Dubrovsky, a Czech writer, in May 1968.
work that has been thrown out. They
built a railway and then took it down
again. Who’s responsible for all this? The
How did the Soviet Union respond?
Communist Party set up the system. The Soviet Union was very suspicious of the changes taking place in
Czechoslovakia. So were the other communist leaders in eastern Europe.
We were robbed of our output, our They worried that the new ideas might spread. Brezhnev came under
wages … How can I believe that in five pressure from the East German and Polish leaders to clamp down on reform
years’ time it won’t be worse? in Czechoslovakia.
Ludvik Vaculik quotes from an interview
he had with the workers in a locomotive Through the summer the USSR tried various tactics to slow Dubček down.
factory run by the communists. ■ To intimidate the Czechs, Soviet, Polish and East German troops
performed public training exercises right on the Czech border.
■ It thought about imposing economic SANCTIONS – for example, cancelling
wheat exports to Czechoslovakia – but didn’t because it thought that
the Czechs would ask for help from the West.
■ In July the USSR held a summit conference with the Czechs. Dubček
agreed not to allow a new Social Democratic Party. However, he insisted
on keeping most of his reforms. The tension seemed to ease.
Then on 20 August 1968, to the stunned amazement of the Czechs and the
outside world, Soviet tanks moved into Czechoslovakia. There was little
violent resistance. Dubček was removed from power. Dubček’s experiment
in SOCIALISM with a human face had not failed; it had simply proved
unacceptable to the other communist countries.

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SOURCE 13

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
FOCUS TASK 6.2
Why was there opposition to Soviet control in Czechoslovakia
in 1968?
1 Use the text and Sources 8–10 to find evidence for
opposition to Soviet control in Czechoslovakia using the
following headings:
a) Social problems (e.g. living and working conditions,
education)
b) Economic problems (e.g. production, wages)
c) Communist control.
2 Draw a diagram to summarise Dubcˇek’s reforms.
3 Which reforms do you think would have threatened Soviet
control the most? Explain your answer.

SOURCE 11
Yesterday troops from the Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany,
Hungary and Bulgaria crossed the frontier of Czechoslovakia … The
Czechoslovak Communist Party Central Committee regard this act
as contrary to the basic principles of good relations between socialist Czechs demonstrating against the occupation in Prague,
states. August 1968.
A Prague radio report, 21 August 1968.

SOURCE 12 SOURCE 14

The party and government leaders of

the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
have asked the Soviet Union and other
allies to give the Czechoslovak people
urgent assistance, including assistance
with armed forces. This request was
brought about … by the threat from
counter revolutionary forces …working
with foreign forces hostile to socialism.
A Soviet news agency report,
21 August 1968.

A street cartoon in Prague.

Source Analysis
1 Explain how and why Sources
11 and 12 differ in their Outcomes
interpretation of the Soviet Unlike Nagy in Hungary, Dubček was not executed. But he was gradually
intervention. downgraded. First he was sent to be ambassador to Turkey, then expelled
2 What is the message of Source 14?
from the Communist Party altogether. Photographs showing him as leader
were ‘censored’ (see page 126).
SOURCE 15
It was clear that reforming ideas were regarded as a threat to communist
When internal and external forces rule by all of the communist leaders. We now know from a release of
hostile to socialism attempt to turn the documents from the Soviet archives that the suppression of Czechoslovakia
development of any socialist country in was driven just as much by other eastern European leaders (particularly
the direction of the capitalist system, Walter Ulbricht of East Germany) as it was by Brezhnev. These leaders
when a threat arises to the cause of feared that their own people would demand the same freedom that Dubček
socialism in that country, a threat to the had allowed in Czechoslovakia.
socialist commonwealth as a whole – it
becomes not only a problem for the The Brezhnev Doctrine
people of that country but also a general The Czechoslovak episode also gave rise to the BREZHNEV DOCTRINE. The
problem, the concern of all socialist essentials of communism were defined as:
countries. ■ a one-party system
The Brezhnev Doctrine. ■ to remain a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

FOCUS TASK 6.3

How similar were the uprisings of 1956 and 1968?
One question which historians often consider is how similar the uprisings of 1956 in Hungary and 1968 in
Czechoslovakia actually were. The table below gives you a number of ways to compare the two events. Work through
pages 130–31 and pages 132–33, make your own copy then complete the table.

Issue Hungary, 1956 Czechoslovakia, 1968 How similar? Give reasons

Aims of rebels
Attitude towards communism
Attitude towards democracy
Attitude towards the USSR
Attitude towards the West
Why the USSR intervened
How the USSR intervened
Response of the rebels
Casualties
Eventual outcome

Here are a few points to help you get the table started, but you will have to decide where they fit and add your own as well.
■ Abolish secret police
■ Around 200,000 fled the country Revision Tip
■ Because of the threat to leave the Warsaw Pact You don’t need to learn this whole
■ Dubc̆ek downgraded table but be sure you can explain:
■ Fear that other states would demand the same freedoms ■ two ways in which the Hungarian
■ Less censorship and Czech uprisings were
■ Pitched battles in the streets similar
■ Wanted a more human form of communism ■ two ways in which they were
■ Wanted free elections with more than one party different.
■ Withdraw Soviet troops

FOCUS TASK 6.4

How secure was Soviet control of Hungary and Czechoslovakia?
Here are various events from the two invasions. For each event decide where it should go on this line. Does it suggest
that Soviet control was weak, strong or somewhere in between?
Weak control Strong control
0 5 10

There may be some events that you think could be used to support either view. Whatever you decide you must include
notes to explain your decision.
Hungary Czechoslovakia
■ Imre Nagy forms new government ■ Censorship eased in Czechoslovakia
■ Khruschev sends in troops ■ Czech communist leaders were heavily criticised for corrupt and
■ Nagy imprisoned and executed incompetent rule
■ Nagy’s plans ■ Plans to set up Social Democratic Party
■ Opposition to Rákosi ■ USSR argued with Dubc̆ek to slow down the pace of reform
■ Rákosi not supported by Moscow ■ Troops carried out training exercises on the border of Czechoslovakia
■ Rákosi removed ■ The USSR considered sanctions against Czechoslovakia but feared
■ Rebellion they would not work
■ Soviet tanks move in and then withdraw ■ Tanks moved into Prague on 20 August 1968
■ Two weeks of fierce street fighting ■ There was little violent resistance in Czechoslovakia
■ Dubc̆ek was removed
■ The Brezhnev Doctrine

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Case study 3: The Berlin Wall

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
SOURCE 16 You have already seen how Berlin was a battleground
of the Cold War (see Source 17). In 1961 it also became
the focus of the Soviet Union’s latest attempt to
maintain control of its east European satellites.

The problem
The crushing of the Hungarian uprising (see pages 130–31)
had confirmed for many people in eastern Europe that
it was impossible to fight the communists. For many, it
seemed that the only way of escaping the repression was
to leave altogether. Some wished to leave eastern Europe
for political reasons – they hated the communists –
while many more wished to leave for economic reasons.
As standards of living in eastern Europe fell further and
further behind the West, the attraction of going to live
in a CAPITALIST state was very great.
The contrast was particularly great in the divided city
of Berlin. Living standards were tolerable in the East,
but just a few hundred metres away in West Berlin,
East Germans could see some of the prize exhibits of
capitalist West Germany – shops full of goods, great
freedom, great wealth and great variety. This had been
done deliberately by the WESTERN POWERS. They had poured
massive investment into Berlin. East Germans could
A 1959 Soviet cartoon – the caption was: ‘The socialist stallion also watch West German television.
far outclasses the capitalist donkey.’
In the 1950s East Germans were still able to travel freely
into West Berlin. From there they could travel on into West
Source Analysis Germany. It was very tempting to leave East Germany, with
1 Look at Source 16. What is the its harsh communist regime and its hardline leader, Walter
aim of this cartoon? Ulbricht. By the late 1950s thousands were leaving and
2 How might someone living in a never coming back (see Figure 18).
communist country react to it? FIGURE 18

SOURCE 17 300

West Berlin … has many roles. It is 250

Defectors (thousands)

more than a showcase of liberty, an

200
island of freedom in a Communist sea. It
is more than a link with the free world, a 150
beacon of hope behind the iron curtain,
an escape hatch for refugees. Above 100
all, it has become the resting place of
Western courage and will … We cannot 50
and will not permit the Communists to
0
drive us out of Berlin. 1950 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 1960 61 62 63 64
President Kennedy speaking in 1960,
before he became president. Number of people crossing from East to West Germany, 1950–64.

Those who were defecting were very often highly skilled workers or well-
qualified managers. The communist government could not afford to lose
these high-quality people. More importantly, from Khrushchev’s point of
view, the sight of thousands of Germans fleeing communist rule for a better
life under capitalism undermined communism generally.
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The solution
PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

In 1961 the USA had a new president, the young and inexperienced John
F Kennedy. Khrushchev thought he could bully Kennedy and chose to pick
a fight over Berlin. He insisted that Kennedy withdraw US troops from the
city. He was certain that Kennedy would back down. Kennedy refused.
However, all eyes were now on Berlin. What would happen next?
At two o’clock in the morning on Sunday 13 August 1961, East German
soldiers erected a barbed-wire barrier along the entire frontier between East
and West Berlin, ending all free movement from East to West. It was quickly
replaced by a concrete wall. All the crossing points from East to West Berlin
were sealed, except for one. This became known as CHECKPOINT CHARLIE.
Families were divided. Berliners were unable to go to work; chaos and
confusion followed. Border guards kept a constant look-out for anyone
trying to cross the wall. They had orders to shoot people trying to defect.
Hundreds were killed over the next three decades.
SOURCE 19
A B

A section of the Berlin Wall.

SOURCE 20 SOURCE 21
The Western powers in Berlin use it as a centre of subversive
activity against the GDR [the initial letters of the German
name for East Germany]. In no other part of the world are so
many espionage centres to be found. These centres smuggle
their agents into the GDR for all kinds of subversion: recruiting
spies; sabotage; provoking disturbances.
The government presents all working people of the GDR with
a proposal that will securely block subversive activity so that
reliable safeguards and effective control will be established
around West Berlin, including its border with democratic Berlin.
A Soviet explanation for the building of the wall, 1961.

People escape from East Berlin during a Sunday walk.

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Outcomes

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
For a while, the wall created a major crisis. Access to East Berlin had been
guaranteed to the Allies since 1945. In October 1961 US diplomats and troops
crossed regularly into East Berlin to find out how the Soviets would react.
On 27 October Soviet tanks pulled up to Checkpoint Charlie and refused to
allow any further access to the East. All day, US and Soviet tanks, fully armed,
faced each other in a tense stand-off. Then, after eighteen hours, one by one,
five metres at a time, the tanks pulled back. Another crisis, another retreat.
The international reaction was relief. Khrushchev ordered Ulbricht to avoid
any actions that would increase tension. Kennedy said, ‘It’s not a very nice
solution, but a wall is a hell of a lot better than a war.’ So the wall stayed,
and over the following years became the symbol of division – the division
of Germany, the division of Europe, the division of communist East and
democratic West. The communists presented the wall as a protective shell
around East Berlin. The West presented it as a prison wall.
SOURCE 22 SOURCE 23
There are some who say, in Europe
and elsewhere, we can work with the
Communists. Let them come to Berlin.
President Kennedy speaking in 1963 after
the building of the Berlin Wall.

Revision Tip
You need to be able to give:
■ two reasons that the Soviet
Union built the Berlin Wall A Soviet cartoon from the 1960s. The sign reads: ‘The border of the GDR (East Germany)
■ a full explanation of each reason. is closed to all enemies.’ Notice the shape of the dog’s tail.

FOCUS TASK 6.5

Why was the Berlin Wall built in 1961?
Stage 1
Work in pairs. Make a poster or notice to be stuck on the Berlin Wall explaining the purpose of the wall. One of you
make a poster for the East German side and the other make a poster for the West German side. You can use pictures
and quotations from the sources in this chapter or use your own research.
Make sure you explain in your poster the reasons why the wall was built and what the results of building the wall
will be.
Stage 2
Do you think the building of the Berlin Wall shows that communist control of East Germany was weak or that it was
strong?
In pairs, one of you will argue communist control was weak and the other that is was strong. Choose evidence from
pages 135–37 to write a short speech supporting your viewpoint.
When you have heard all of the speeches, take a class vote.

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Case study 4: Solidarity in Poland, 1980–81

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

SOURCE 24 Throughout the years of communist control of Poland there were regular
protests. However, they were generally more about living standards and
■ More pay
prices than attempts to overthrow communist government. During the
■ End to censorship
first half of the 1970s Polish industry performed well so the country was
■ Same welfare benefits as police and
relatively calm. But in the late 1970s the Polish economy hit a crisis and
party workers 1979 was the worst year for Polish industry since communism had been
■ Broadcasting of Catholic church introduced. This is what happened next.
services
■ Election of factory managers July 1980 The Government announced increases in the price of meat.
Some of Solidarity’s 21 demands. August 1980 Workers at the Gdansk shipyard, led by Lech Walesa, put
forward 21 demands to the Government, including free TRADE
UNIONS and the right to strike (see Source 24). They also started
Profile a free trade union called SOLIDARITY. Poland had trade unions
but they were ineffective in challenging government policies.
Lech Walesa
30 August 1980 The Government agreed to all 21 of Solidarity’s demands.
September 1980 Solidarity’s membership grew to 3.5 million.
October 1980 Solidarity’s membership was 7 million. Solidarity was officially
recognised by the Government.
January 1981 Membership of Solidarity reached its peak at 9.4 million –
more than a third of all the workers in Poland.

Reasons for Solidarity’s success

You might be surprised that the Government gave in to Solidarity in 1980.
■ Pronounced Lek Fowensa.
There are many different reasons for this.
■ Born 1943. His father was a farmer. ■ The union was strongest in those industries that were most important
■ He went to work in the shipyards to the Government – shipbuilding and heavy industry. A GENERAL STRIKE in
at Gdansk. these industries would have devastated Poland’s economy.
■ In 1976 he was sacked from the ■ In the early stages the union was not seen by its members as an
shipyard for making ‘malicious’ alternative to the Communist Party. More than 1 million members (30
statements about the organisation per cent) of the Communist Party joined Solidarity.
and working climate.
■ Lech Walesa was very careful in his negotiations with the Government and
■ In 1978 he helped organise a union at
another factory. He was dismissed. worked to avoid provoking a dispute that might bring in the Soviet Union.
■ In 1979 he worked for ■ The union was immensely popular. Almost half of all workers belonged.
Eltromontage. He was said to be Lech Walesa was a kind of folk hero.
the best automotive electrician. ■ Solidarity had the support of the Catholic Church, which was still very
He was sacked. strong in Poland.
■ With others, he set up Solidarity ■ The Government was playing for time. It hoped Solidarity would break
in August 1980 and became its
leader.
into rival factions. Meanwhile the Government drew up plans for MARTIAL
■ He was a committed Catholic. LAW (rule by the army).
■ In 1989 he became the leader of ■ The Soviet Union also had half an eye on the West. Solidarity had gained
Poland’s first non-communist support in the West in a way that neither the Hungarian nor the Czech rising
government since the Second had. Walesa was well known in the Western media and people in the West
World War. bought Solidarity badges to show their support. The scale of the movement
ensured that the Soviet Union treated the Polish crisis cautiously.

Revision Tip
Make sure you know:
■ two demands made by Solidarity in 1980
■ one reason why Solidarity was crushed in 1981
■ one reason why you think the rise and fall of Solidarity is a significant event
in history.

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SOURCE 25 Martial law

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
Inequality and injustice are everywhere. In February 1981 the situation changed. The civilian prime minister ‘resigned’
There are hospitals that are so poorly and the leader of the army, General Jaruzelski, took over. From the moment
supplied that they do not even have he took office, people in Poland, and observers outside Poland, expected the
cotton, and our relatives die in the Soviet Union to ‘send in the tanks’ at any time, especially when the Solidarity
corridors; but other hospitals are equipped Congress produced an ‘open letter’ saying that they were campaigning not only
with private rooms and full medical care for their own rights but for the rights of workers throughout the COMMUNIST BLOC.
for each room. We pay fines for traffic It proclaimed that the Poles were fighting ‘For Your Freedom and For Ours’.
violations, but some people commit Jaruzelski and Walesa negotiated to form a government of national
highway manslaughter while drunk and understanding but when that broke down in December, after nine months
are let off … In some places there are of tense relationships, the communist Government acted. Brezhnev ordered
better shops and superior vacation the Red Army to carry out ‘training manoeuvres’ on the Polish border.
houses, with huge fenced-in grounds that Jaruzelski introduced martial law. He put Walesa and almost 10,000 other
ordinary people cannot enter. Solidarity leaders in prison. He suspended Solidarity.
Extract from ‘Experience and the Future’, a Reasons for the crushing of Solidarity
report drawn up in 1981 by Polish writers
Military DICTATORS are not required to give reasons for their actions. But if
and thinkers who were not members of the
Communist Party. They are describing the
they were, what might Jaruzelski have to say?
inequality in Poland between Communist ■ Solidarity was acting as a political party. The Government declared that
Party members and ordinary people. it had secret tapes of a Solidarity meeting setting up a new provisional
government – without the Communist Party.
■ Poland was sinking into chaos. Almost all Poles felt the impact of food
Think! shortages. Rationing had been introduced in April 1981. Wages had
Between August 1980 and increased by less than INFLATION. Unemployment was rising.
December 1981, Solidarity went ■ Solidarity itself was also tumbling into chaos. There were many different
through some rapid changes. Choose
factions. Some felt that the only way to make progress was to push the
two moments in this period that you
communists harder until they cracked under the pressure. Strikes were
think were particularly important
in the rise and fall of Solidarity and continuing long after the Solidarity leadership had ordered them to stop.
explain why they were important. The Soviet Union had seen enough. It thought the situation in Poland had
gone too far. If Poland’s leaders would not restore communist control in
FIGURE 26 Poland, then it would. This was something the Polish leaders wanted to avoid.

100 The significance of Solidarity

% of people with confidence in this institution

90 In the story of Soviet control of eastern Europe, Solidarity was significant

for a number of reasons:
80
■ It highlighted the failure of communism to provide good living
70 standards and this undermined communism’s claim to be a system which
60 benefited ordinary people.
■ It highlighted inefficiency and corruption (see Source 25 for example).
50
■ It showed that there were organisations which were capable of resisting
40 a communist government.
30 ■ It showed that communist governments could be threatened by ‘PEOPLE POWER’.

20 It also highlighted the nature of Soviet control. The only thing that kept
the communists in power was force or the threat of force backed by the
10
USSR. When Jaruzelski finally decided to use force, Solidarity was easily
0 crushed. The lesson was clear. If MILITARY FORCE was not used, then communist
control seemed very shaky indeed. If Soviet policy were to change,
y

ur lic

Pa nist
it

m
Ch tho
ar

ch

rty
Ar

communist control would not survive. What do you expect to happen next?
u
lid

m
Ca
So

m
Co

The results of an opinion poll in Poland, FOCUS TASK 6.6

November 1981. The people polled were What was the significance of Solidarity for the decline of Soviet influence in
asked whether they had confidence in eastern Europe?
key institutions in Poland. It is known ‘Solidarity died as quickly as it started, having achieved nothing.’
that 11 per cent of those polled were How far do you agree with this statement? Support your answer with evidence
Communist Party members. from page 138 and this page.

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Enter Mikhail Gorbachev

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Profile
Mikhail Gorbachev Gorbachev became leader of the Soviet Union in 1985. He was an unusual
mix of IDEALIST, optimist and REALIST.
■ The realist in him could see that the USSR was in a terrible state. Its
economy was very weak. It was spending far too much money on the
ARMS RACE. It was locked into an unwinnable war in Afghanistan.
■ The idealist in Gorbachev believed that communist rule should make life
better for the people of the USSR and other communist states. As a loyal
communist and a proud Russian, he was offended by the fact that goods
made in Soviet factories were shoddy, living standards were higher in the
West and that many Soviet citizens had no loyalty to the Government.
■ The optimist in Gorbachev believed that a reformed communist system
■ Born 1931. One grandfather of government could give people pride and belief in their country. He
was a KULAK – a landowning definitely did not intend to dismantle communism in the USSR and
peasant – who had been sent eastern Europe, but he did want to reform it radically.
to a prison camp by Stalin
because he resisted Stalin’s
policy of COLLECTIVISATION. The
Gorbachev’s policies in eastern Europe
other grandfather was a loyal Gorbachev also had a very different attitude to eastern Europe from
Communist Party member. Brezhnev. In March he called the leaders of the Warsaw Pact countries
■ His elder brother was killed in together. This meeting should have been a turning point in the history of
the Second World War. eastern Europe. He had two messages.
■ Studied law at Moscow University
in the 1950s. Became a
persuasive speaker.
‘We won’t intervene’
SOURCE 27
■ Worked as a local Communist
Party official in his home area.
By 1978 he was a member of the The time is ripe for abandoning views on foreign policy which are influenced by an imperial
Central Committee of the party
and in charge of agriculture.
standpoint. Neither the Soviet Union nor the USA is able to force its will on others. It is
■ In 1980 he joined the POLITBURO. possible to suppress, compel, bribe, break or blast, but only for a certain period. From the
■ He was a close friend of point of view of long-term big time politics, no one will be able to subordinate others. That
Andropov, who became Soviet is why only one thing – relations of equality – remains. All of us must realise this …
leader in 1983. He shared many
Gorbachev speaking in 1987.
of Andropov’s ideas about
reforming the USSR. When
Andropov was leader, he was Gorbachev made it very clear to the countries of eastern Europe that they
effectively second in command. were responsible for their own fates. However, most of the Warsaw Pact
■ In 1985 he became leader of the leaders were old-style, hardline communists. To them, Gorbachev’s ideas
USSR. were too radical and they simply did not believe he meant what he said.
■ In October 1990 he was awarded
the NOBEL PEACE PRIZE.
‘You have to reform’
Gorbachev also made it clear that they needed to reform their own
countries. He did not think communism was doomed. In fact, he felt the
opposite was true. Gorbachev believed the communist system could provide
better healthcare, education and transport. The task in the USSR and
eastern Europe was to renew communism so as to match capitalism in other
areas of public life. However, they did not believe him on this count either.
In the next few year these leaders would realise they had made a serious
error of judgement.

Revision Tip Think!

Identify two problems in the USSR Why do you think the Warsaw Pact leaders did not believe Gorbachev when he
that led to Gorbachev’s new policy told them the Soviet Union would no longer interfere in the internal affairs of
towards eastern Europe. other communist countries?

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SOURCE 28 Gorbachev’s reforms

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
Polish, Hungarian and Romanian
dogs get to talking. ‘What’s life like in He had to be cautious, because he faced great opposition from hardliners
your country?’ the Polish dog asks the in his own Government, but gradually he declared his policies. The two key
Hungarian dog. ideas were GLASNOST (openness) and PERESTROIKA (restructuring).
■ Glasnost: He called for open debate on government policy and honesty
‘Well, we have meat to eat but we can’t in facing up to problems. It was not a detailed set of policies but it did
bark. What are things like where you mean radical change.
are from?’ says the Hungarian dog to ■ In 1987 his perestroika programme allowed market forces to be
the Polish dog. introduced into the Soviet economy. For the first time in 60 years it was
‘With us, there’s no meat, but at least no longer illegal to buy and sell for profit.
we can bark,’ says the Polish dog. He then went on to:
‘What’s meat? What’s barking?’ asks ■ Reduce defence spending: The nuclear arms race was an enormous
the Romanian dog. drain on the Soviet economy at a time when it was in trouble anyway.
Example of anticommunist jokes After almost 50 years on a constant war footing, the Red Army
collected by researchers in eastern began to shrink.
Europe in the 1980s. ■ Improve international relations: Gorbachev brought a new attitude
to the USSR’s relations with the wider world. He withdrew Soviet
SOURCE 29 troops from Afghanistan, which had become such a costly yet
unwinnable war. In speech after speech, he talked about international
A trust and CO-OPERATION as the way forward for the USSR, rather than
The Soviet Union would remain a one confrontation.
party state even if the Communists
allowed an opposition party to exist. Gorbachev and President Reagan
Everyone would join the opposition party. Ronald Reagan became US president in January 1981. He was president
B until 1988. He had only one policy towards the USSR – get tough. He
criticised its control over eastern Europe and increased US military
When American college students are spending. In a way, Reagan’s toughness helped Gorbachev.
asked what they want to do after ■ It was clear by the late 1980s that the USSR could not compete with
graduation, they reply: ‘I don’t know, American military spending. This helped Gorbachev to push through his
I haven’t decided’. Russian students military spending cuts.
answer the same question by saying: ‘I ■ Reagan got on quite well with Gorbachev himself. As SUPERPOWER relations
don’t know, they haven’t told me’. improved, the USSR felt less threatened by the USA. This meant there
Anticommunist jokes told by US was less need for the USSR to control eastern Europe.
President Reagan to Mikhail Gorbachev at
their SUMMIT MEETINGS in the late 1980s. Implications for eastern Europe: ‘Listen to your people’
As Gorbachev introduced his reforms in the USSR the demand rose for
Source Analysis similar reforms in eastern European states as well. Most people in these
states were sick of the poor economic conditions and the harsh restrictions
1 Why do you think President
Reagan was so fond of jokes like
that communism imposed. Gorbachev’s policies gave people some hope for
those in Source 29A and B? reform.
2 Do you think it is strange that In July 1988 Gorbachev made a speech to the leaders of the Warsaw
Gorbachev was upset by these Pact countries. He planned to withdraw large numbers of troops,
jokes? Explain your answer.
tanks and aircraft from eastern Europe. Hungary was particularly eager
3 Can jokes really be useful
historical sources? Explain your
to get rid of Soviet troops and, when pressed, Gorbachev seemed to
answer. accept this. In March 1989 he made clear again that the Red Army
4 If you think jokes are useful would not intervene to prop up communist regimes in eastern Europe.
sources, do you think the joke in What followed was staggering.
Source 28 is more or less useful
than the jokes in Source 29?
Explain your answer.

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The collapse of communism in eastern Europe

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

June 2
1 In Poland, free elections are
May 1989 held for the first time since the
Hungarians begin dismantling the Second World War. Solidarity
barbed-wire fence between Hungary wins almost all the seats it
and non-communist Austria. contests. Eastern Europe gets
its first non-communist leader,
President Lech Walesa.

N
September 3
Thousands of East Germans on
FINLAND holiday in Hungary and
Czechoslovakia refuse to go
home. They escape through
NORWAY
Austria into West Germany.

SWEDEN October 4
There are enormous
Estonia demonstrations in East German
cities when Gorbachev visits
the country. He tells the East
German leader Erich Honecker
Latvia to reform. Honecker orders
10 troops to fire on demonstrators
but they refuse.
Lithuania Gorbachev makes it clear that
Soviet tanks will not move in to
U S S R ‘restore order’.
5
Berlin 2 November 5
4 Warsaw East Germans march in their
EAST thousands to the checkpoints
GERMANY POLAND at the Berlin Wall. The guards
throw down their weapons and
WEST join the crowds. The Berlin
GERMANY Wall is dismantled.
Prague CZEC 6
HOSL
OVAK
IA 6
November
FRANCE
There are huge demonstrations
3 Budapest in Czechoslovakia. The Czech
AUSTRIA government opens its borders
SWITZERLAND 1 HUNGARY 8 with the West, and allows the
ROMANIA formation of other parties.
7

Bucharest
Black December 7
Belgrade Sea In Romania there is a short but
very bloody revolution that
9 ends with the execution of the
YUGOSLAVIA BULGARIA
ITALY communist dictator Nicolae
Ceausescu.

Key
ALBANIA The Communist Party in 8
Territory taken over by
USSR at end of Hungary renames itself the
Second World War Socialist Party and declares that
TURKEY free elections will be held in 1990.

Soviet-dominated
communist In Bulgaria, there are huge 9
governments demonstrations against the
communist government.
0 200 km
Other communist
governments Scale March 1990 10
Latvia leads the Baltic republics
in declaring independence
from the USSR.

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People power

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
The western media came up with a phrase to explain the events on
page 142 – people power. Communist control was toppled because ordinary
people were not prepared to accept it any longer. They took control of
events. It was not political leaders guiding the future of eastern Europe in
1989 but ordinary people.

Source Analysis SOURCE 30

Study Source 30. We are going to
study the story in the source.
1 What is the man in the
foreground doing?
2 Would this have been possible at
an earlier date? Why?
3 Who are the men watching from
above? Why is it significant that
they are just watching?
4 How would you summarise this
scene: joyful? sad? powerful?
other words?
Now let’s think about the story of
the source:
5 What is significant about the fact
that the photographer was even
able to take this picture?
6 The photographer was probably
a freelance photographer who
hoped to sell this picture to as
many different newspapers as
he could. Do you think he would
have been successful? Why?
7 Which countries would have
been most likely to publish this
photograph? Why?

SOURCE 31
For most west Europeans now alive,
the world has always ended at the East
German border and the Wall; beyond
A demonstrator pounds away at the Berlin Wall as East German border guards look on
lay darkness … The opening of the
from above, 4 November 1989. The wall was dismantled five days later.
frontiers declares that the world has
no edge any more. Europe is becoming
once more round and whole. Reunification of Germany
The Independent, November 1989. With the Berlin Wall down, West German CHANCELLOR Helmut Kohl proposed
a speedy REUNIFICATION of Germany. Germans in both countries embraced the
idea enthusiastically.
Despite his idealism, Gorbachev was less enthusiastic. He expected that
a new united Germany would be friendlier to the West than to the East.
But after many months of hard negotiations, not all of them friendly,
Gorbachev accepted German reunification and even accepted that the new
Germany could become a member of NATO. This was no small thing for
Revision Tip Gorbachev to accept. Like all Russians, he lived with the memory that it
Remember two examples of ‘people was German aggression in the Second World War that had cost the lives of
power’ weakening communist 20 million Soviet citizens.
control of eastern Europe in 1989–90.
On 3 October 1990, Germany became a united country once again.

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The collapse of the USSR

PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

Even more dramatic events were to follow in the Soviet Union itself.
1990
MARCH ■ Gorbachev visited the Baltic state of Lithuania – part of the Soviet Union. Its leaders
put their views to him. They were very clear. They wanted independence. They did not
want to be part of the USSR. Gorbachev was for once uncompromising. He would not
allow this. But in March they did it anyway.
■ Almost as soon as he returned to Moscow from Lithuania, Gorbachev received a similar
demand from the Muslim Soviet Republic of Azerbaijan. What should Gorbachev do
now? He sent troops to Azerbaijan to end rioting there. He sent troops to Lithuania.
But as the summer approached, the crisis situation got worse.

MAY ■ The Russian Republic, the largest within the USSR, elected Boris Yeltsin as its
president. Yeltsin made it clear that he saw no future in a Soviet Union. He said that
the many REPUBLICS that made up the USSR should become independent states.

JULY ■ Ukraine declared its independence. Other republics followed.

■ By the end of 1990 nobody was quite sure what the USSR meant any longer. Meanwhile,
Gorbachev was an international superstar. In October 1990 Gorbachev received the
Nobel Peace Prize for his contribution to ending the Cold War.

1991

APRIL ■ The Republic of Georgia declared its independence.

AUGUST ■ The USSR was disintegrating. Reformers within the USSR itself demanded an end to
the Communist Party’s domination of government. Gorbachev was struggling to hold it
together, but members of the communist elite had had enough.
■ Hardline Communist Party members and leading military officers attempted a COUP to
take over the USSR. The plotters included Gorbachev’s prime minister, Pavlov, and the
head of the armed forces, Dimitry Yazov. They held Gorbachev prisoner in his holiday
home in the Crimea. They sent tanks and troops onto the streets of Moscow. This was
the old Soviet way to keep control. Would it work this time?
■ Huge crowds gathered in Moscow. They strongly opposed this military coup. The Russian
president, Boris Yeltsin, emerged as the leader of the popular opposition. Faced by this
resistance, the conspirators lost faith in themselves and the coup collapsed.
■ This last-ditch attempt by the Communist Party to save the USSR had failed. A few days
later, Gorbachev returned to Moscow.

DECEMBER ■ Gorbachev might have survived the coup, but it had not strengthened his position as
Soviet leader. He had to admit that the USSR was finished and he with it. In a televised
speech on 25 December 1991, Gorbachev announced his own resignation and the end of
the Soviet Union (see Source 32).

Think!
Think of a suitable headline for each of the six ‘episodes’ in the collapse of the
USSR (shown as yellow bands in the table above).

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The end of the Cold War

6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
Think! SOURCE 32
Read Source 32 carefully. Three A sense of failure and regret came through his [Gorbachev’s] Christmas Day
statements are in bold. abdication speech – especially in his sorrow over his people ‘ceasing to be citizens
Do you agree or disagree with each of a great power’. Certainly, if man-in-the-street interviews can be believed, the
statement? For each statement, former Soviet peoples consider him a failure.
write a short paragraph to: History will be kinder. The Nobel Prize he received for ending the Cold War
a) explain what it means, and
b) express your own view on it.
was well deserved. Every man, woman and child in this country should be eternally
grateful.
His statue should stand in the centre of every east European capital;
for it was Gorbachev who allowed them their independence. The same is true for the
newly independent countries further east and in Central Asia. No Russian has done
more to free his people from bondage since Alexander II who freed the serfs.
From a report on Gorbachev’s abdication speech, 25 December 1991,
SOURCE 33 in the US newspaper the Boston Globe.
He had no grand plan and no
predetermined policies; but if Gorbachev SOURCE 34
had not been Party General Secretary,
the decisions of the late 1980s would
have been different. The USSR’s long-
lasting order would have endured for
many more years, and almost certainly
the eventual collapse of the order
would have been much bloodier than it
was to be in 1991. The irony was that
Gorbachev, in trying to prevent the
descent of the system into general crisis,
proved instrumental in bringing forward
that crisis and destroying the USSR.
Extract from History of Modern Russia by
historian Robert Service, published 2003.
In this extract he is commenting on the
meeting in March 1985.
Mikhail Gorbachev giving a speech in Ottawa, Canada, 30 May 1990.
SOURCE 35

A cartoon by Doonesbury which appeared in the Guardian on 13 June 1988.

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PART 2 THE COLD WAR AND THE GULF, 1945–2000

FOCUS TASK 6.7

How far was Gorbachev personally responsible for the collapse of Soviet
control over eastern Europe?
You are making a documentary film called ‘The Collapse of the Red Empire’ to
explain the how and why of the collapse of Soviet control of eastern Europe.
The film will be 60 minutes long.
1 Decide what proportion of this time should concentrate on:
a) people power
b) problems in the USSR
c) actions by Western leaders such as Reagan
d) actions of political leaders in eastern Europe
e) Mikhail Gorbachev.
2 Choose one of these aspects and summarise the important points, stories,
pictures or sources that your film should cover under that heading.

Keywords
Make sure you know these terms,
people or events and are able FOCUS TASK 6.8
to use them or describe them
How secure was Soviet control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
confidently.
• Berlin Wall You now know a lot about Soviet control of eastern Europe:
• Brezhnev Doctrine ■ how and why communists seized control of each country in the 1940s
• Censorship (Chapter 4)
• Checkpoint Charlie ■ how the Soviet Union successfully crushed opposition and threats to
• Co-existence control from the 1950s to the 1980s
• Comecon ■ how the communist regimes of eastern Europe and the USSR collapsed so
• Cominform suddenly in 1989-90.
• Communism
• Communist bloc Here are the three graphs from page 127. Which do you think best represents the
• De-Stalinisation story of Soviet control of eastern Europe?
• Freedom of speech
• Glasnost A B C
• Iron curtain
• Martial law
• NATO
• Nobel Peace Prize
• One-party state
• People power
• Perestroika
• Politburo 1948 1989 1948 1989 1948 1989
• Prague Spring
• Red Army If you pick Graph A, you If you pick Graph B, If you pick Graph C,
• Reunification think Soviet control you think Soviet you think Soviet
• Secret police stayed steady for control gradually control fluctuated in
• Socialism years, then collapsed decreased over time. response to various
• Solidarity in 1989. crises.
• Soviet republics
• Summit meeting If you think none of them is right, draw your own instead. Explain your graph
• Superpower using evidence from this chapter. You could refer back to your work for Focus
• Trade union Tasks 6.3, 6.4 and 6.6 on pages 134 and 139.
• Warsaw Pact

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6 How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern Europe, 1948–c.1989?
Chapter Summary
How secure was the USSR’s control over eastern 7 In Czechoslovakia in 1968 after mass protests the
Europe, 1948–c.1989? communist Government tried to introduce more
1 After the Second World War, communist governments freedom for its people. Again, the Soviet Union sent
were elected or forced on most countries of eastern the Red Army to crush the protests.
Europe. 8 In 1980 a trade union in Poland called Solidarity led
2 They were not directly ruled by the USSR but their a protest movement against communist control that
communist governments did what the USSR wanted was tolerated to start with until the army took over in
and when they did not the USSR sent troops and tanks Poland and Solidarity was crushed.
(the Red Army) to force them to follow the USSR’s 9 In 1985 Gorbachev became leader of the USSR.
wishes. He believed the USSR needed to change and he
3 Life in these countries was tightly controlled with introduced two key ideas: glasnost (openness) and
censorship, a secret police and all industry directed perestroika (restructuring).
to meeting the needs of the Soviet Union rather than 10 He also told the communist governments of eastern
making goods for ordinary people. Europe that the USSR was no longer going to
4 The countries formed a military alliance called the intervene to prop them up. They were on their own. In
Warsaw Pact – the members would defend each other 1988 he began to withdraw Soviet troops from eastern
if any member was attacked. Europe.
5 In Hungary in 1956 the communist Government was 11 The impact of this was not immediately clear but by
very unpopular and the people resented the lack of 1989 people in eastern Europe began to test what this
freedom. There were demonstrations and protests. meant in practice. First of all Hungarians began to
A new leader was chosen (with Soviet approval) who dismantle the barbed-wire fence between Hungary
promised greater freedom but when he also decided and the West. Over the rest of the summer of 1989
to leave the Warsaw Pact the USSR changed its mind people acted similarly throughout eastern Europe,
and sent the Red Army to crush the rising. culminating with the dismantling of the Berlin Wall
6 In 1961 an increasing number of people in communist (while troops looked on) in November.
East Germany were leaving by crossing into capitalist 12 Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for
West Germany. The USSR responded by building the helping to end the Cold War between the USA and the
Berlin Wall – and stopping all movement from East USSR but he was not popular in the USSR. The USSR
to West Berlin. It stayed in place for 28 years and fragmented and he resigned as leader on Christmas
became a symbol of Cold War tension. Day 1991.

PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Structured questions
1 (a) What were glasnost and perestroika? [4]
(b) Why did Mikhail Gorbachev change Soviet policy towards eastern
Europe? [6]
(c) ‘Gorbachev almost singlehandedly ended communist control of
eastern Europe.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain
your answer. [10]
Document questions
1 Study Source 16 on page 135. What is the cartoonist's message? Explain
your answer using details of the source and your own knowledge. [7]
2 Study Source 17 and Figure 18 on page 135. Does Figure 18 prove Kennedy
was right in Source 17? Explain your answer using details of the sources
and your own knowledge. [8]
3 Study Sources 20 and 21 on page 136. How far do these two sources
disagree? Explain your answer using details of the sources and your
own knowledge. [8]
4 Study Source 23 on page 137. Why was this source published at this time?
Explain your answer using details of the source and your knowledge. [7]
5 Study Sources 16–23 on pages 135–37. How far do these sources provide
convincing evidence that the Berlin Wall was built to contain the West? Use
the sources to explain your answer. [9]
See pages 148–67 for advice on the different types of questions.

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Focus on: Structured Questions

FOCUS ON: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

The Core Content you have studied in Section A will be The information in this section is based on the Cambridge
examined in both Paper 1 Structured Questions and Paper 2 International syllabus. You should always refer to the
Document Questions. The main difference between the two appropriate syllabus document for the year of examination
papers is that the Document Questions paper is a source- to confirm the details and for more information. The syllabus
based paper while the Structured Questions paper is made document is available on the Cambridge International website
up of structured essay questions. at [Link].

Structure
Section A of the Structured Questions paper examines Think before you write
the Core Content and consists of structured essay
questions. It is a common mistake for students to launch straight
into writing as soon as they see the question, but our
Structured essay questions usually have a similar structure advice is that you spend some time thinking before you
and require you to describe, explain and reach a supported do so.
judgement.
Description means giving an account from your own 1 Choose your question carefully
knowledge. Read all questions carefully before you decide which to
Explanation means using your own knowledge to- answer. You should have revised enough to give you a
explain why or how something happened. choice of questions, but don’t immediately opt for your
favourite topic. Sometimes your less favoured topic
A supported judgement means your own opinion about might have a question which is easier to answer or
something based on relevant contextual knowledge. It which suits you better.
is important to be balanced – i.e. to examine different
points of view before reaching a judgement. 2 Read the questions carefully
The tasks in this book will have developed the skills This might sound obvious but there is a skill to it.
and knowledge for you to do all these things. ■ Look for command words such as ‘describe’ or
‘explain’ which let you know what type of skills you
Section A questions usually have a similar structure:
have to use.
■ You are given a simple statement – however,
■ Identify the topic and the sub-topic. Questions will
you are not asked questions on this; it is simply
often focus on an event, individual or historical
intended to focus your thinking.
issue.
Then there are three sub-questions testing different skills: ■ Look for dates. If dates are given they will be
a) A knowledge or description question. This will important.
often begin ‘describe’ or ‘what’.
b) An explanation question. This will begin with ‘why’. 3 Plan your answer
c) A judgement question. One common type of If you think through your answer first, then writing it
question gives you a statement to agree or disagree is easy. If you skip the thinking and just start writing,
with. You need to make a judgement and back up the risks are:
your judgement with evidence and argument. ■ Your writing will be muddled.
For example: ■ You will write in an illogical order.
■ Your points won’t lead to your conclusion.
a) What were Germany’s main territorial losses ■ Even more likely, you will keep thinking of
under the Treaty of Versailles? [4] something more to say and will run out of time.
b) Why did Clemenceau and Lloyd George disagree
about how to treat Germany at the Paris Peace 4 Plan your time
Conference? [6] Running out of time is not unlucky, it is a mistake!
c) ‘The Treaty of Versailles was a fair settlement.’ The marks for each sub-question guide you as to how
How far do you agree with this statement? long to spend.
Explain your answer. [10]

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Worked examples: The Inter-war Years,

Focus on: Structured Questions

1919–39
These first examples are based on the content of Chapters 1 to 3.
The questions, example answers
and comments that appear on
pages 148–54 were written by
How to approach description-style questions
the author. In an examination, Description questions may not use the word ‘describe’ but that is what you
the way marks would be awarded need to do. For example:
to answers like these may be
different. What were Germany’s main territorial losses under the Treaty of
Versailles? [4]

This will be straightforward if you have revised thoroughly. You simply have
to display accurate knowledge. However, bear in mind you still have to select
facts which are relevant to the question. Selection is a vital skill for a
historian. Questions like this have a strict content focus. Don’t waste time
giving information that is not relevant.

Under the Treaty of Versailles Germany lost 10 per cent of its land
and all of its overseas colonies, so many Germans ended up living
in other countries. Some German land was given to its European
Here is an example we have neighbours. Alsace-Lorraine was given to France and West Prussia
written of a good answer. It uses was given to Poland to ensure that Poland had a sea port.
plenty of relevant knowledge to
thoroughly describe the main
territorial losses under the Treaty
of Versailles. How to approach explanation-style questions
Here is an example of an explanation question.

Why did Clemenceau and Lloyd George disagree about how to

treat Germany at the Paris Peace Conference? [6]

Read the question carefully to see what you have to explain. The focus
is on:
■ Clemenceau and Lloyd George (not on Wilson)
■ how to treat Germany.
You need to select, from your knowledge of the Peace Conference,
examples of how and why these two people (Clemenceau and Lloyd George)
disagreed about this specific thing (how to treat Germany). You probably
know a lot more about the Peace Conference than this but once again it is
vital to remain focused and not give unnecessary information.
Use a paragraph structure to help you fully develop your answer. Many
teachers use Point, Evidence, Explain (PEE) to help students. You might
have another technique.
A common error which students make is to describe the disagreements
rather than giving reasons for them.

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FOCUS ON: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

Lloyd George and Clemenceau disagreed over what to do about Germany

because Clemenceau saw Germany as a bigger threat than Lloyd George
This answer gets straight to the did. During the war France suffered massive damage to its industries,
point and gives valid reasons about towns and agriculture. Over two-thirds of French troops were killed or
why the leaders disagreed about injured in the war. Germany’s population was still much greater than
how to treat Germany. There is
no wasting time on irrelevant or France’s (75 million compared to 40 million) and Germany had invaded
background information. France in 1870 and 1914. Lloyd George did not see Germany as a threat
in the same way. In fact he wanted to rebuild Germany so that British
industries could start trading with Germany.
The opening sentence of each
paragraph clearly states a reason Lloyd George and Clemenceau also disagreed about what measures would
for disagreement. The rest of each work. Clemenceau thought the best way to get future peace was to cripple
paragraph explains clearly why Germany by breaking it up into separate states, reducing its army and
Clemenceau held this view and
why Lloyd George held a different forcing it to pay huge fines. Lloyd George believed this would not work.
view. It would simply make Germany want revenge in the future. So although
he favoured fines and some limits on German arms he did not think
Germany should be treated as harshly as Clemenceau did.

How to approach judgement-style questions

An important skill at this stage of your studies is to be able to think like a
historian and make a judgement. Can you:
■ weigh up different factors – whether you think one factor is more
important than others
■ decide how far you agree or disagree with a particular opinion?
Here is an example of a judgement question.

‘The Treaty of Versailles was a fair settlement.’ How far do you

agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]

You need to plan your answer to this question before you start writing
so that you remain focused on the topic throughout your answer. So make
sure you:
■ Step 1: understand the statement.
■ Step 2: list key points which support and oppose the statement.
■ Step 3: decide on your argument (the view that you are best able to
support with evidence).
You are then ready to write your answer.
There are many different ways to structure your answer. Many teachers
advise students to:
■ explain reasons to agree with the statement
■ explain reasons to disagree
■ finally, to express your judgement as to how far you agree.
There is not a right or wrong judgement to reach as long as you can explain
yourself and support it with valid knowledge. Make sure you can write
balanced answers that use your wider knowledge of the topic, as it is rare
in History that there is ever a single cause for any event.
A common error is to only give your own view without considering another
or giving it little or no explanation.

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Focus on: Structured Questions

There are many arguments to support the view that the Treaty of Versailles
was a fair settlement. To begin with, it was strongly believed that
Germany had started the war and was therefore responsible for it. It was
The first three paragraphs give
certainly true that Germany invaded neutral Belgium in 1914, which
reasons why historians or people broke international treaties.
at the time would argue the Treaty Another argument was that most of the fighting on the western front
was fair. These could be all put in
a single paragraph but it can help took place in Belgium and France. France lost around 1.6 million troops
organise your thinking to put a and civilians as well as suffering huge damage to industry, towns and
point per paragraph. agriculture. There was no fighting on German soil and so there was a
strong case that Germany should pay compensation.
A third argument was that the Treaty was not as harsh as its critics
claimed. Germany certainly lost territory in the Versailles settlement
– 10 per cent of its land, all colonies, 12.5 per cent of its population.
However, it could have been a lot harsher. Clemenceau wanted Germany to
be broken up into small states. And when we look at the Treaty of Brest-
Litovsk, which Germany forced Russia to sign in 1918, we can see that
Germany was much harsher in its terms with Russia than the Allies were
with Germany at Versailles.
This paragraph gives reasons why
historians or people at the time Of course, there were terms that were seen as unfair. Germans regarded
might argue the Treaty was unfair. the Treaty as a diktat because they were not consulted about it. They
also believed that the Allies operated double standards. For example, the
German army was limited to 100,000 men but France and Britain
and most other countries did not reduce their armed forces to the same
levels. Another term that could be seen as unfair was the fact that many
Germans were left outside Germany as a result of the Treaty.
Overall, I agree with the statement. Obviously no treaty will be seen as
fair by all sides but the Treaty of Versailles was as fair as it possibly
could have been, and was a lot fairer on Germany than it might have
been. The arguments against the Treaty were mainly complaints from the
German point of view at the time, as many Germans believed the peace
treaty would be based on Wilson’s 14 Points and were not happy about the
The conclusion states a clear
reparation payments or War Guilt Clause imposed by other countries such
judgement, supported with
evidence. as France.

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Worked examples: The Cold War, 1945–c.1989

FOCUS ON: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

These examples are based on the content of Chapters 4–6.

How to approach description-style questions

Description questions may not use the word ‘describe’ but that is what you
need to do. For example:

What agreements were made at the Yalta Conference? [4]

This will be straightforward if you have revised thoroughly. You simply

have to display accurate knowledge. However bear in mind you still have to
select facts which are relevant to the question. Selection is a vital skill for
a historian. Questions like this have a strict content focus so don’t waste
time giving information that is not relevant.
A common error is writing too much for a four-mark question – this will
waste time.

They agreed to divide Germany into four occupation zones run by

Here is an example we have Britain, France, the USA and the Soviet Union, and they agreed to
written of a good answer. It uses allow free elections to take place in eastern Europe. They also all agreed
plenty of relevant knowledge to to join a new United Nations Organisation to try to keep world peace
thoroughly describe many of the
agreements made at the Yalta after the war. Finally, Stalin agreed to help the Allies in the war against
Conference. Japan when Germany was defeated.

How to approach explanation-style questions

Here is an example of an explanation question.

Why was the Truman Doctrine important? [6]

Read the question carefully to see what you have to explain.

The focus for this question is on:
■ the Truman Doctrine
■ why it was important.
You need to select, from your knowledge of the Truman Doctrine, examples
of how and why it was important. It is vital to remain focused and not give
unnecessary information.
Use a paragraph structure to help you fully develop your answer. Many
teachers use Point, Evidence, Explain (PEE) to help students. You might
have another technique.
A common error is to describe the policy rather than giving reasons why it
was important.

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Focus on: Structured Questions

The Truman Doctrine was important because it marked an increase in
tension between the USA and USSR and could even be seen as the start of
This is a good clear opening.
the Cold War. The US President Harry Truman was angry and concerned
at the way that Stalin had established communist regimes in many
This is quite an interesting point eastern European states in the period 1946–47. Although the Soviet leader
but it is not really answering the Stalin saw this as a defensive policy against possible future invasions,
question.
Truman regarded it as Stalin trying to build an empire. His response was
the Truman Doctrine, designed to stop any further spread of communism.

This section explains what Under the Truman Doctrine the USA said it would send money,
Truman’s concerns were and why equipment and advice to any country which was, in American eyes,
he responded to those concerns threatened by a communist take-over. He did not offer troops. Most of the
with the Truman Doctrine. communist take-overs had been carried out by communist sympathisers
inside each country who had been helped by Stalin. Truman therefore
chose to help opponents of communism in a similar sort of way. This way
he could oppose the spread of communism without triggering a war.

How to approach judgement-style questions

An important skill at this stage of your studies is to be able to think like a
historian and make a judgement. Can you:
■ weigh up different factors – whether you think one factor is more
important than others
■ decide how far you agree or disagree with a particular opinion?
Here is an example of a judgement question.

‘The USA was more responsible than the USSR in causing the
Cold War in the late 1940s.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer. [10]

You need to plan your answer before you start writing so you remain
focused on the topic in the question. Make sure you:
■ Step 1: understand the statement.
■ Step 2: list key points which support and oppose the statement.
■ Step 3: decide on your argument (the view that you are best able to
support with evidence).
You are then ready to write your answer.
There are many different ways to structure your answer. Many teachers
advise students to:
■ explain reasons to agree with the statement
■ explain reasons to disagree
■ finally to express your judgement as to how far you agree.
There is not a right or wrong judgement to reach as long as you can explain
yourself and support your judgement with valid knowledge. Make sure you
can write balanced answers that use your wider knowledge of the topic as
it is rare in History that there is ever a single cause for any event.
A common error is to only give your own view without considering another
or giving it little or no explanation.

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FOCUS ON: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

In some respects the statement is correct. The USA could be accused of

causing the Cold War in some ways. One reason for this was the attitude
of US President Truman towards Stalin and the USSR. His predecessor
Good start – very clear what is Roosevelt had had relatively good relations with Stalin. Truman was
being said here. much more anti-communist and aggressive towards the USSR. He was
very critical of Stalin’s actions in eastern Europe. He tried to intimidate
Again, very clear what point is Stalin at the Potsdam Conference by telling Stalin the USA had
being made – and this is then developed an atomic bomb. He also encouraged former British Prime
followed up with supporting facts. Minister Winston Churchill to give the ‘iron curtain’ speech in 1947,
which was a major cause of tension.
There were other ways in which the USA could be seen as responsible for
Once again it is very clear what
point is being made and it is the Cold War. One of these was the USA’s Marshall Aid programme.
followed up well with supporting This programme channelled billions of dollars of economic aid into the
evidence. countries which had been affected by the war, mostly countries in western
Europe. However, it was only available to countries that agreed to have
democratic governments like the USA and capitalist economies, like the
USA. The Soviets saw this as ‘dollar imperialism’ – trying to create an
empire of states which were dependent on US dollars.
This is still a strong balancing On the other hand it could be argued that the USSR was more responsible
point although it is not quite for the Cold War. At the end of the Second World War Soviet troops drove
as crystal clear as the two German forces out of eastern Europe. However, after Germany surrendered
paragraphs before. The reader in 1945 the Soviet forces stayed in most eastern European states. At
has to wait to find out what point is
being made. the same time Stalin encouraged and supported communist supporters
within states like Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia to take control
of these countries and set up communist governments which supported
the USSR. This caused a great deal of tension with the USA and Britain
who saw this as the USSR building an empire and planning to take over
the rest of Europe as well.
Overall, I believe that the statement is incorrect and that neither the USA
This is a sensible conclusion. If nor USSR were more to blame for the Cold War. The real difficulty
you really wanted to go the extra was that each side was unable to understand the viewpoint of the other
mile you could possibly refer to the side because of their differing ideologies. As a result they tended to
work of a historian you have read
misunderstand and misinterpret each other’s actions and this is what
to fully develop a paragraph like
this. caused the worst of the tension.

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Focus on: Document Questions

Focus on: Document Questions

angry, afraid, unhappy, outraged … and much
The information in this section is based on the Cambridge
more.
International syllabus. You should always refer to the
appropriate syllabus document for the year of examination
— Tone: sources may deny, criticise, mock, praise,
to confirm the details and for more information. The accuse, threaten or warn, and this will allow you to
syllabus document is available on the Cambridge make inferences about the author of the source.
International website at [Link]. ■ As well as the content of the sources, you will
also need to use your background knowledge to
evaluate the sources (e.g. your knowledge of events
Paper 2 Document Questions will also be based on might confirm what is being said in a source, or
your study of the Core Content in Chapters 1 to 6. The your knowledge of a particular group might help
difference between the Structured Questions paper you to evaluate a source produced by that group).
and the Document Questions paper is that Document
Questions are source-based investigations. They test Advice
your ability to use your knowledge and skill to evaluate
a range of sources and use them to answer an historical ■ Read through all the sources before you start
question. This question will be drawn from the Core writing anything.
Content. You will have been told in advance what general ■ Read through all the questions as well. Note the
area this investigation will be based on. For example: marks for each so you know how much time to
‘How effectively did the USA contain the spread of spend.
communism?’ ■ Always support your answers with details from
the sources. For written sources use actual words
or phrases from the source to support your answer.
Features For visual sources describe relevant features from
the source and explain how they support your
■ This paper includes a range of sources. Typically answer.
you will find some pictures and a range of different ■ Use your background knowledge whenever it’s
types of written sources. helpful, but don’t include background knowledge
■ Sources are not designed to catch you out, but just for its own sake if it’s got nothing to do with
usually some sources agree with each other, some the source or the question.
disagree and some do a bit of both! ■ When you use your own knowledge avoid saying ‘my
■ This paper includes five questions – you have to knowledge tells me…’. Just state what you know.
answer them all. ■ Avoid speculation – so avoid using words like
■ These questions typically take you step-by-step ‘might’ and ‘could’ (such as ‘The author might be a
through the sources: using, evaluating and comparing supporter so he could be biased…’).
them towards a final question that gets you using all ■ Avoid phrases such as ‘we don’t know what else…’
the sources to answer the big question. or ‘she could have forgotten…’. This type of phrase
■ The skill you need to answer source-based questions could apply to any source so does not display any
is to think like an historian. This means doing skill or knowledge.
more than extracting basic information from a ■ Sources might support or challenge each other.
source. It means considering the following: When you explain how Source X supports or
— Purpose: why the source was produced. challenges Source Y, be specific – use details from
— Audience: the audience for the source. the sources to support your explanation.
— Methods: the methods used in the source to ■ Don’t include your own personal views which
convince its audience. are not historical (such as, ‘I think it was awful
— Attitudes: what the source reveals about the the way the USA used chemical weapons in
person/people who made it, for example their Vietnam…’).
attitudes, values, concerns. The makers may be

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Question types
FOCUS ON: DOCUMENT QUESTIONS

■ This page gives examples of question types. You Purpose: ‘Why was Source X published at this time?’
could encounter any type of question about any Work out the message of the source and then think about why
type of source so this is not comprehensive! These this message was relevant at the time or what the maker of the
are only a small selection of possible question types. source wanted to achieve by getting that message across.
■ It is also important to remember that your For example did they want to change people’s attitudes or
answers to the different types of question will behaviour (e.g. getting them to join a movement or contribute
vary depending on the actual source – there is no funds to a particular cause).
‘one size fits all’ formula.
■ On pages 157–59 and 162–65 are some worked
examples with our comments. On pages 160–61 Is Source X surprising
and 166–67 are sets of practice questions we These questions test your knowledge and understanding of the
have put together. period in which the source was created.
Look for whether the events and attitudes in the source are
‘What is the message?’ surprising given what you know about the context of the time.
The source could be a cartoon, or a poster or part of For example, you might be surprised to hear a speech by
a speech – something where the creator is trying to President Richard Nixon building friendly relations with
make a particular point. communist China in the 1970s although the USA was
Think about the following: traditionally very anticommunist. Or you might not be surprised
■ What is the cartoonist/speaker/artist for or because you know he was trying to end the Vietnam War and this
against? These sources are not made simply involved improved relations with China.
to inform. They might criticise, disapprove or
maybe mock.
■ How do you know? What details in the source tell
‘How reliable is Source X about…?’
you the maker’s view?
■ Why then? Why was the message relevant at that A source is never reliable or unreliable in itself. It all depends on
point in time? what you are using it for.
■ Note: For message questions, you do not need to Think about the following:
comment on reliability. ■ The author. The caption may tell you something about the
author or you may know something from your contextual
knowledge. Explain whether the author can be trusted to
tell the truth about particular people, issues or events.
Comparison: ‘How far do Sources X and Y agree ■ The tone. If the source uses emotive language or a
about…?’ biased tone this will affect how far you trust the source’s
Look for: view of particular people, issues or events.
■ similarities and/or differences in the content of ■ Knowledge. Does the source fit with or contradict your own
the sources knowledge about particular people, issues or events?
■ similarities and/or differences at a more subtle ■ Cross-referencing. Sometimes you will be asked to
level, for example in the attitudes shown, or the compare sources, but even if you are not you can use
purpose. For example, two text sources may other sources in the paper to support or contradict the
agree about events or details (e.g. that the USSR source and to comment on their reliability.
did place missiles in Cuba) but differ in attitude
(e.g. one might be critical of the USSR whereas
the other is supportive).
Conclusion: ‘How far do Sources A–G support this statement?’
This is worth most marks. It builds on the previous questions
and asks you to use as many sources as possible in your answer.
‘How useful is Source X for…?’
Make sure you:
All sources are useful for something so think in ■ Address both sides of the argument: how the sources
terms of ‘How is this source useful…?’ Even a biased support and how they don’t support the statement.
source is useful for telling you about the attitudes of ■ Work through source by source, explaining whether and
the person or organisation who created them. how they support or challenge the statement.
For example, an American poster accusing ■ Start a new paragraph for each source.
communists of crimes is not reliable evidence about ■ When you make use of a source in your answer, don’t just
communists but it is very useful in showing how far refer to it by letter. Use relevant detail from the source to
Americans were worried about communism. show how it supports or challenges the statement.

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Worked examples based on the Inter-war years 1919–39 content

Focus on: Document Questions

The questions, example answers and comments that appear on pages 157–67 were written by the authors. In an
examination, the way marks would be awarded to questions like these may be different.

SOURCE A 1 Study Source A. How useful is this source to an

The Sudetenland is the last problem that must be solved and historian? Explain your answer using details of
it will be solved. It is the last territorial claim which I have to the source and your knowledge. [7]
make in Europe.
The aims of our foreign policy are not unlimited … They are The source is definitely useful because it tells us
grounded on the determination to save the German people how Hitler was publicly portraying the issue of the
alone … Ten million Germans found themselves beyond the Sudetenland to the German people and the rest of
frontiers of the Reich … Germans who wished to return to the the world. He says that it is the ‘last territorial claim’
Reich as their homeland. Germany has in Europe. Even though this turned
Hitler speaking in Berlin, September 1938. out not to be true, it is still useful to show us the
methods Hitler used to get what he wanted. He was
using the language of peace because he was trying
Recognises that biased and untrustworthy
sources are useful! In this case, we may not be
to take the Sudetenland without having to fight for
able to trust what Hitler is saying, but it is still it. He worried that Britain and France would fight
useful in revealing how Hitler manipulated the alongside Czechoslovakia to stop him and hoped
situation. that promising to leave Czechoslovakia alone would
prevent this. The source also gives us an insight into
why some people in Britain supported Appeasement
and helps explain why the Munich Agreement was
generally popular in Britain after it was signed.

SOURCE B 2 Study Source B. What is the message of the

cartoonist? Explain your answer using details of
the source and your knowledge. [7]

Good idea to start your answer in this way. It gets you

straight to the point. This answer has carefully and
correctly identified that the source is supportive of
the Munich Agreement.

The message that the cartoonist was trying to put

across is that Chamberlain has done a good job
by signing the Munich Agreement, avoiding a
crisis and averting taking the world to war, and
moving it towards peace.
You can see this because he’s shown as tough and
strong with his sleeves rolled up, successfully
rolling the globe across the sheer drop to war below.
A British cartoon published in the News of the World, shortly
after the Munich Agreement.
The cartoonist clearly thinks that giving Hitler the
Sudetenland in 1938 was the right decision.

The answer has not simply described the cartoon Understands the context in which this cartoon
but has actually used the details to support the point was drawn, and gets this across, without too much
made above. unnecessary detail.

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FOCUS ON: DOCUMENT QUESTIONS

SOURCE C 3 Study Sources C and D. How far does Source D

People of Britain, your children are safe. Your husbands and prove Source C wrong? Explain your answer using
your sons will not march to war. Peace is a victory for all details of the sources and your knowledge. [8]
mankind. If we must have a victor, let us choose Chamberlain,
for the Prime Minister’s conquests are mighty and enduring – In some ways Source D does prove Source C wrong.
millions of happy homes and hearts relieved of their burden.
The newspaper says that the Munich Agreement
The Daily Express comments on the Munich Agreement, will bring peace – ‘your husbands and sons will
30 September 1938.
not march to war’. This is contradicted by Churchill
when he says ‘This is only the beginning of
SOURCE D the reckoning’. The overall impression given by
Source C is that people are relieved by the Munich
We have suffered a total defeat … I think you will find that
in a period of time Czechoslovakia will be engulfed in the Agreement, whereas Churchill seems to prove this
Nazi regime. We have passed an awful milestone in our wrong by being very critical of it.
history. This is only the beginning of the reckoning. However, Source D cannot prove Source C wrong about
Winston Churchill speaking in October 1938. He felt that people’s reactions to the Munich Agreement. Lots
Britain should resist the demands of Hitler. However, he was of people in Britain were relieved that it had averted
an isolated figure in the 1930s. war, or at least delayed it in the short term. This can
be seen by looking at Source B, where the cartoonist
Uses the content of the sources to seems to support Chamberlain’s actions, showing how
show how they disagree. This is a he has dealt well with a tricky situation.
useful starting point – it is saying
that Source D says Source C is
wrong about people’s attitudes Improves the answer because it looks at the issue of ‘proof’ in a different
to the Munich Agreement. It is way. By cross-referencing Source C with another source on the paper, it can
important to explain ‘wrong about be shown that while Churchill may be right about the Munich Agreement in
what?’. general, he cannot prove Source C wrong about people’s reactions to it.

SOURCE E SOURCE F
By repeatedly surrendering to force, Chamberlain has
encouraged aggression … our central contention,
therefore, is that Mr Chamberlain’s policy has throughout
been based on a fatal misunderstanding of the psychology
of dictatorship.
Extract from an article in a British newspaper, the Yorkshire
Post, published in December 1938.

4 Study Sources E and F. Does Source E make

Source F surprising? Explain your answer using
details of the sources and your knowledge. [8] A British cartoon published in 1938 at the time of the Munich
Agreement. John Bull represents Britain.

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Focus on: Document Questions

Source E does make Source F surprising because the message in Source E suggests that Chamberlain’s policy
of appeasing Germany has been a failure and has ‘encouraged aggression’, whereas in Source F the cartoonist
portrays Chamberlain as ‘a great mediator’ who has saved Britain from war against Germany. Many politicians
in Britain as well as much of the public still remembered the horrors and casualties caused by the Great War
and were desperate to avoid a conflict with Germany, even if it meant that Hitler was appeased and given
the Sudetenland in the Munich Agreement. This makes Source F less surprising. However, Source F is still
surprising as politicians such as Churchill and some newspapers believed that Appeasement was a mistake and
would encourage Hitler to take over even more territory in the future.

A thorough response which clearly compares and contrasts the two sources and uses good source details to support
the explanations of why Source F is surprising. The answer also uses some good contextual knowledge to give balance
to the argument over surprise, though some more precise knowledge or examples would have helped develop the
explanation further.

5 Study Sources A–F. How far do these sources provide convincing evidence that
the crisis in Czechoslovakia was a failure for Appeasement? Use the sources to
explain your answer. [9]

Source A was written by Hitler and suggests that after the Sudetenland has been
given to Germany, he will make no more territorial claims in Europe. Hitler says
that it is ‘the last problem that must be solved’ which suggests that Appeasement was
not a failure but instead would avoid war against Germany in the future. However,
the source is not completely trustworthy because Hitler clearly had ambitions to
expand eastwards and retake the Polish Corridor which was land lost in the Treaty of
A well-balanced Versailles and he eventually planned to invade the East to create Lebensraum for the
answer that uses
all of the sources to
German Reich.
address the question. Source B also suggests that the Munich Agreement was a success for Appeasement.
Each source is Chamberlain is seen in the cartoon carefully manoeuvring the world away from war
analysed individually
and well-selected
suggesting that the Munich Conference helped achieve future peace in Europe.
details from each Source C is a newspaper article which expresses the idea that Chamberlain’s actions at
of the sources are the Munich Conference were a great success and have avoided war. The Daily Express
used to support the
arguments. There
reads ‘People of Britain, your children are safe.’ Many families still remembered the
is some attempt horrors of the Great War and many newspapers voiced their relief when the Munich
to use contextual Agreement was signed.
knowledge to
Source D, however, was a speech by Churchill who was a vocal opponent of Appeasement
evaluate the
reliability of Source and Chamberlain. Churchill says that ‘Czechoslovakia will be engulfed in the Nazi
A but this is not regime’ which suggests that the Munich Conference was a failure for Appeasement
necessary for and would lead to further German expansion in the near future.
this question. It is
important to make Source E, which is an article in the Yorkshire Post, implies that Chamberlain is a
sure each source failure and the Munich Agreement has actually ‘encouraged aggression’ by giving
is referenced by its in to Hitler’s demands over the Sudetenland.
source letter or by
relevant quotations Source F views the Munich Conference and Chamberlain’s actions as a success rather
or descriptions of than a failure. In the cartoon, Chamberlain is being congratulated by John Bull who
source content. represents the British public. This indicates to the reader that the cartoonist believes
Chamberlain has helped maintain peace and security in Europe and thus avoided war
with Germany thanks to his diplomatic actions.

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Practice: How successful was the League of Nations in the 1920s?

FOCUS ON: DOCUMENT QUESTIONS

SOURCE A
The League was created, first and foremost, as a security organisation. But in this
respect it fell badly short of its original aims. There was no way to guarantee that
members would carry out their obligations to enforce sanctions or undertake military
force where it might be needed. But it was not without its achievements. For most
countries attendance at League meetings in the 1920s was seen as essential, because
the foreign ministers of the major powers were almost always present. The small and
middle sized states found the League was a vital platform for them to talk about their
SOURCE B interests and concerns. Even those outside the League, including the United States,
Despite its poor historical reputation, found it useful to attend League-sponsored Conferences and similar events. Without
the League of Nations should not be exaggerating its importance the League developed useful ways of handling inter-state
dismissed as a complete failure. Of disputes. For the most part the League handled the ‘small change’ of international
sixty-six international disputes it had diplomacy. It was not a substitute for great power diplomacy as Wilson had hoped, but
to deal with (four of which had led to it was an additional resource which contributed to the handling of international politics.
open hostilities), it successfully resolved An American historian writing in 2005.
thirty-five important disputes and quite
legitimately passed back twenty to the
traditional channels of diplomacy where SOURCE C
major powers negotiated settlements
outside the League. It failed to resolve
eleven conflicts. Like its successor the
United Nations, it was capable of being
effective.
A British historian writing in 2009.

A British cartoon about the conflict between Greece and Bulgaria, published
in December 1925.

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SOURCE D SOURCE E

Focus on: Document Questions

The League Council felt that our role In response to the successive menaces of Mussolini we muzzled the League, we imposed
under the League Covenant was to the fine on Greece without evidence of her guilt and without reference to the International
do everything we could to promote Court of Justice, and we disbanded the Commission of Enquiry. A settlement was thus
a settlement, and since the two achieved. At the time I felt that British public opinion will wonder how it came about
parties had willingly agreed to accept that we entered into the dispute upon a firm moral basis and that in the end we forced
the decision of the Conference of Greece to accept a settlement that was unjust. Corfu was evacuated by the Italians, but
Ambassadors our job from this point the League of Nations had suffered a defeat from which its prestige has never recovered.
was to do everything we could to help British Government official Sir Harold Nicolson writing in 1929, soon after he
the Ambassadors make decisions which resigned from the British diplomatic service after criticising one
were in line with the opinions expressed of his ministers.
in the Assembly in Geneva. In this I
believe we acted rightly and properly.
British Government minister Lord Robert SOURCE G
Cecil writing in October 1923 about
the Corfu crisis. Cecil was the British
minister responsible for League of
Nations matters.

SOURCE F
Greek forces have invaded our sovereign
territory. Make only slight resistance.
Protect the refugees. Prevent the spread
of panic. Do not expose the troops to
unnecessary losses in view of the fact
that the incident has been laid before
the Council of the League of Nations,
which is expected to stop the invasion.
A telegram from the Bulgarian Ministry
of War in Sofia to its army commanders,
22 October 1925.

A cartoon published in the USA in 1919. The title of the cartoon was ‘The League of
Nations Bridge’ and the character on the right (John Bull, representing Britain) is
saying: ‘Your bridge, Jonathan. We shan’t quarrel about this.’

1 Study Sources A and B. 4 Study Source F.

How far do Sources A and B agree about the Are you surprised by Source F? Explain your
League of Nations? Explain your answer using answer using details from the source and your
details from the sources. [8] own knowledge. [8]
2 Study Source C. 5 Study Sources A–G.
What is the message of the cartoonist? Explain ‘The League of Nations was very successful in
your answer using details from the source and the 1920s.’ How far do these sources support
your own knowledge. [7] this statement? Use the sources to explain
3 Study Sources D and E. your answer. [9]
Why do these sources give such different accounts
of the League’s actions over Corfu? Explain your
answer using details from the sources and your
own knowledge. [8]

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Worked examples based on the Cold War 1945–c.1989 content

FOCUS ON: DOCUMENT QUESTIONS

(a) Study Sources A and B. How far do these sources disagree

over reasons why some people opposed the war in Vietnam?
Explain your answer using details of the sources and your
knowledge. [8]

SOURCE A A very focused start to the response. This part starts by explaining
the opinions implied in Source A and uses some good contextual
The Tet Offensive was the decisive battle knowledge to support the explanation.
of the Vietnam War because of its
profound impact on American attitudes Sources A and B disagree over the main reasons why some people
about involvement in Southeast Asia. In were opposed to US involvement in the Vietnam War. Source
the aftermath of Tet, many Americans A suggests many Americans became 'disillusioned' after the
became disillusioned … To the
Tet Offensive in 1968 when the Viet Cong launched a surprise
American public and even to members
offensive in over one hundred cities and against key US and South
of the administration, the offensive
demonstrated that US intervention … Vietnamese military targets. Many in the USA saw the surprise
had produced a negligible effect on the attack as evidence that American money and lives were being
will and capability of the Viet Cong and wasted in the conflict in Vietnam as the Viet Cong were clearly
North Vietnamese. undefeated and supported by many in South Vietnam.
Extract from The Tet Offensive: Contrastingly, Source B opposes the war in Vietnam because
Intelligence Failure in War by James Wirtz.
of the inhumanity associated with the chemical warfare tactics
SOURCE B used by US forces against the Vietnamese population. The author
comments on the use of 'napalm on villages' and the use of
One does not use napalm on villages chemicals which 'deform its people'. The USA used napalm bombs
and hamlets sheltering civilians if to attack settlements they believed to be Viet Cong strongholds and
one is attempting to persuade these
used Agent Orange, a strong chemical to to clear vegetations and
people of the rightness of one’s cause.
jungle cover to stop supplies from the North down the Ho Chi Minh
One does not defoliate [destroy
the vegetation of] the country and Trail. Both weapons caused horrific injuries to civilians and soldiers
deform its people with chemicals if alike, and Agent Orange was known to lead to birth defects.
one is attempting to persuade them
of the foe’s evil nature.
Richard Hamer, an American journalist This part makes the vital contrast between the two sources by
comments on US policy failure in explaining the different opinion portrayed in Source B and is supported
Vietnam, 1970. by some in-depth contextual knowledge.

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Focus on: Document Questions

SOURCE C
We were not in My Lai to kill human beings. We were
there to kill ideology that is carried by – I don’t know
– pawns. Blobs. Pieces of flesh. And I wasn’t in My Lai
(b) Study Sources C and D. Why do they differ in their
to destroy intelligent men. I was there to destroy an
accounts of what happened at My Lai in 1968?
intangible idea … To destroy Communism. Explain your answer using details of the sources and
From Lieutenant Calley’s account of the event, Body your knowledge. [8]
Count, published in 1971.

SOURCE D Even though this response has not yet tackled the question of
why the sources differ, it is a good approach because we can
This was a time for us to get even. A time for us to settle see the sources are being compared to each other, and not
the score. A time for revenge – when we can get revenge dealt with in isolation.
for our fallen comrades. The order we were given was to
kill and destroy everything that was in the village. It was
to kill the pigs, drop them in the wells; pollute the water In Source C, Lieutenant Calley gives the impression that
supply … burn the village, burn the hootches as we the massacre at My Lai was not really a massacre or a
went through it. It was clearly explained that there were revenge operation: ‘We were not in My Lai to kill human
to be no prisoners. The order that was given was to kill beings.’ But in Source D, Sergeant Hodge says it was
everyone in the village. Someone asked if this meant the revenge – the operation was ‘a time for us to get even’.
women and children. And the order was: everyone in the
I think the sources say different things because at the
village, because those people that were in the village –
the women, the kids, the old men – were VC … or they time they were produced, Calley and other officers in
were sympathetic to the Viet Cong. Charlie Company had been charged with murder for
The testimony of US Army Sergeant Hodge to the what happened at My Lai. So Hodge is trying to put the
official US Army investigation into My Lai in 1970. blame for what happened on his senior officers, placing
all the responsibility on them, whilst Calley is trying to
justify his actions. He’s trying to appeal to people’s fear of
communism.

This part now successfully tackles the question of why the

sources differ and uses the context and purpose of the
sources to fully explain this.

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FOCUS ON: DOCUMENT QUESTIONS

SOURCE E (c) Study Source E. What is the message of the

cartoonist? Explain your answer using details of the
source and your knowledge. [7]

The cartoonist is criticising President Lyndon Johnson

for lying to the American people when he says there is
enough money to fight the Vietnam War and help poorer
areas of the USA (shown by the ragged woman labelled
US Urban Needs). The cartoonist clearly thinks that
the Vietnam War is getting all the money and poor
Americans are being ignored.
This was published in 1967 and by this time a lot of
the US media were starting to question American
involvement.

This answer correctly identifies that this cartoonist is

An American cartoon from 1967. critical of America’s sustained involvement.

SOURCE F (d) Study Source F. How reliable is this source about

The American military was not defeated in the Vietnam War? Explain your answer using details
Vietnam – of the source and your knowledge. [7]
The American military did not lose a battle of any
consequence. From a military standpoint, it was almost I don’t think Source F is very reliable at all about the
an unprecedented performance. This included Tet 68, Vietnam War. I think the source’s whole purpose seems to be
which was a major military defeat for the VC and NVA.
to convince people that America shouldn’t be embarrassed
The United States did not lose the war in about its actions in Vietnam and that it could have won
Vietnam, the South Vietnamese did – the war had it chosen to stay because the author is very
The fall of Saigon happened 30 April 1975, two years selective in the evidence put forward, such as the fact that
AFTER the American military left Vietnam. The last Saigon did not technically fall to North Vietnam until
American troops departed in their entirety 29 March after the Americans left. He neglects evidence such as the
1973. How could we lose a war we had already stopped
fact America spent $110 billion on the war and had been
fighting? We fought to an agreed stalemate.
there over ten years without securing victory.
The Fall of Saigon –
The 140,000 evacuees in April 1975 during the fall
of Saigon consisted almost entirely of civilians and This is a very good response which tackles the question
Vietnamese military, NOT American military running for of reliability in different ways. First, the answer uses
contextual knowledge to challenge details in the source,
their lives.
and second, the answer examines the purpose of the
There were almost twice as many casualties in source and uses that to question its reliability.
Southeast Asia (primarily Cambodia) the first two years
after the fall of Saigon in 1975 than there were during
the ten years the US was involved in Vietnam.
An extract from a website, [Link], ‘Vietnam War
Statistics’, by an American ex-serviceman.

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Focus on: Document Questions

(e) Study Sources A–F. How far do these sources
provide convincing evidence that there was
support for US involvement in Vietnam? Use the
sources to explain your answer. [9]

Source A does not support the statement there was support for US
involvement in Vietnam. The author of ‘The Tet Offensive’, James Wirtz,
clearly views the attack by the Viet Cong as a turning point in the war in
Vietnam which led to more Americans opposing direct US involvement
when he says it ‘…had produced a negligible effect on the will and
capability of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese’. This means that he is
questioning the impact the US military are having in the Vietnam War
and believes this will begin to turn the US public against it.
Source B also suggests that many Americans were critical of US
This answer uses all of the involvement in Vietnam. The source implies that US military tactics,
available sources which is particularly its use of chemical weapons such as ‘napalm’ and
important for this question. ‘chemicals’ which were used against the Vietnamese population were
There are plenty of references turning many in South Vietnam against the Americans and likely in
directly to the sources, including
some relevant quotations and favour of the communists.
descriptions of detail which Source C could suggest that some Americans, especially those in the
support the arguments and military, supported US involvement as they believed that the war’s
explanations. Most importantly,
the answer is balanced and
aim was to ‘destroy Communism’. Many in the USA feared that if the
examines both sides of the Communists were successful in taking over South Vietnam it would
argument convincingly. have a domino effect and would spread to neighbouring countries like
Laos and Cambodia. This is why the US government followed a policy of
containment.
Source D suggests that lower ranking soldiers also supported the war as
they could get ‘revenge for … fallen comrades’. This implies that many
soldiers had been deeply affected by the horrors they encountered when
fighting the guerrilla tactics used by the Viet Cong. However, the source
could also be used as evidence to show why some Americans might oppose
the war as it was not only affecting the mental health of the US soldiers,
most of whom were very young, but was also leading to the deaths of
innocent Vietnamese civilians as in the My Lai Massacre of 1968: 'the
order was: everyone in the village, because those people ... were VC'.
Source E is an American cartoon which is criticising President Johnson.
The message of the cartoonist suggests that Johnson is wasting public
money on the Vietnam War and neglecting social problems at home
such as urban poverty. Some in the US media were beginning to
disapprove of the US government for wasting money on the Vietnam
War.
Source F was written by an ex-serviceman of the Vietnam War. He
clearly supported US involvement in the conflict believing that the USA
were victorious against the Viet Cong and did not ‘lose a battle of any
consequence’. He points the blame on the fall of Saigon on the south
Vietnamese army and believed that the war was a stalemate.

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Practice: What caused the Cold War?

FOCUS ON: DOCUMENT QUESTIONS

SOURCE A SOURCE C
We (Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin) argued freely and frankly across the table. But at OPERATION UNTHINKABLE
the end on every point unanimous agreement was reached … We know, of course, REPORT BY THE JOINT PLANNING
that it was Hitler’s hope and the German war lords’ hope that we would not agree – STAFF
that some slight crack might appear in the solid wall of allied unity … But Hitler has
We have examined Operation
failed. Never before have the major allies been more closely united – not only in their
Unthinkable. As instructed, we have
war aims but also in their peace aims.
taken the following assumptions on
Extract from President Roosevelt’s report to the US Congress on the Yalta Conference, which to base our examination:
April 1945.
Great Britain and the United States have
full assistance from the Polish armed
SOURCE B
forces and can count upon the use of
I have always worked for friendship with Russia but, like you, I feel deep anxiety German manpower and what remains of
because of their misinterpretation of the Yalta decisions, their attitude towards Poland, German industrial capacity …
their overwhelming influence in the Balkans excepting Greece, the difficulties they Owing to the special need for secrecy,
make about Vienna, the combination of Russian power and the territories under their the normal staffs in Service Ministries
control or occupied, coupled with the Communist technique in so many other countries, have not been consulted.
and above all their power to maintain very large Armies in the field for a long time.
OBJECT
What will be the position in a year or two?
Extract from a telegram sent by Prime Minister Churchill to President Roosevelt in May 1945.
The overall or political object is to impose
upon Russia the will of the United States
and British Empire. The only way we can
SOURCE D achieve our object with certainty and
lasting results is by victory in a total war.
Extract from a top secret document
called Operation Unthinkable. It was
presented by the Army Chiefs to Churchill
in May 1945 but the research and
planning had begun in February 1945.

A Soviet cartoon published in 1946.

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SOURCE E SOURCE G

Focus on: Document Questions

A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so
lately lighted by the Allied victory. From
Stettin on the Baltic to Trieste on the
Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended.
Behind that line lie all the states of
central and eastern Europe. The
Communist parties have been raised to
power far beyond their numbers and are
seeking everywhere to obtain totalitarian
control. This is certainly not the liberated
Europe we fought to build. Nor is it one
which allows permanent peace.
A speech by Winston Churchill on
5 March, 1946. It was given in the USA
and was broadcast widely. At the time
Churchill was no longer British prime
minister.

SOURCE F
The following circumstances should not
be forgotten. The Germans made their
invasion of the USSR through Finland,
Poland and Romania. The Germans
were able to make their invasion through
these countries because, at the time,
governments hostile to the Soviet Union A publicity photograph of the Big Three taken at the Yalta Conference in 1945.
existed in these countries. What can
there be surprising about the fact
that the Soviet Union, anxious for its 1 Study Sources A and B.
future safety, is trying to see to it that How far do Sources A and B agree? Explain your answer using
governments loyal in their attitude to details from the sources. [8]
the Soviet Union should exist in these 2 Study Source C.
countries? Are you surprised by Source C? Explain your answer using
A speech by Soviet leader Stalin given details from the source and your own knowledge. [7]
on 15 March, 1946. It was broadcast in 3 Study Source D.
the USSR and reported in Britain and the What is the cartoonist’s message? Explain your answer using
USA. details from the sources and your own knowledge. [8]
4 Study Sources E and F.
How far do you think Source E influenced Source F? Explain
your answer using details from the sources and your own
knowledge. [8]
5 Study Sources A–G.
‘The Cold War began because Churchill had such a poor
relationship with Stalin.’ How far do these sources support
this statement? Use the sources to explain your answer. [9]

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Advice for Cambridge O Level History students

FOCUS ON: DOCUMENT QUESTIONS

The Cambridge 0 Level History syllabus was harmonised

with Cambridge IGCSE History in 2020 so this advice is
particularly for teachers and students who are used to the
O Level assessment and reiterates the skills that will be
needed. The content between Cambridge IGCSE and O Level
is identical.

Paper 1 Structured Questions Paper 2 Document Questions

■ Both the Cambridge IGCSE and O Level syllabuses ■ Both the Cambridge IGCSE and O Level syllabuses
use the same format for Structured Questions and use the same format for Document Questions and it
it will require students to answer questions on will require students to use a range of sources on
their chosen Core Content and chosen Depth Study a prescribed topic from their chosen Core Content
options. option. The Cambridge International website tells
■ Questions will require students to use their you the prescribed topic in each examination
own knowledge to describe, explain and make session.
judgements. ■ Students will need to be able to interpret, compare,
■ Students will need to have developed good time evaluate and make judgements about the sources
management skills to answer each of the different using their own knowledge to support their answers.
types of question and it is vital that all of the ■ Time management will, once again, be key to
exam-style questions are practised in lessons. success, so it is important that students get to
■ The ability to write extended answers is also work with and annotate different types of sources
important for success. Students will need to give such as pictures, written sources, photographs and
balanced explanations and use their own knowledge cartoons and think about why the author made the
to reach supported judgements in order to produce source or the significance of the time period it was
the best answers. made (or both!).

One difference
■ The only difference between the assessment of the
two syllabuses is that the O Level syllabus DOES NOT
include Coursework or Alternative to Coursework.
Students take only two papers Paper 1 Structured
Questions and Paper 2 Document Questions.

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SECTION 2
Depth Studies
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8 Germany, 1918–45
KEY QUESTIONS
8A
8B
8C
8D
Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start?
Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934?
How effectively did the Nazis control Germany, 1933–45?
What was it like to live in Nazi Germany?

Germany emerged from the First World War in a state of chaos. The
new WEIMAR Government struggled from crisis to crisis. Out of this The end of the
1918
First World War
confusion Adolf Hitler and the Nazis emerged as the most powerful
group in Germany and led the nation into a period of DICTATORSHIP 1920
ending in an international war and the deaths of tens of millions

THE WEIMAR REPUBLIC

of people.
Stresemann becomes
How could this happen in a modern, democratic European state? 1923 Chancellor of Germany

In 8A you will investigate how the Weimar Republic was created out
of post-war chaos and how its leaders tried to solve the problems left
over from the war.
In 8B you will focus on the same period but view it through a different
lens and examine the reasons for the birth and growth of the Nazi The Wall Street Crash is
1929 followed by a worldwide
Party. You will see how its early failures turned into a runaway success depression
1930
after the ECONOMIC DEPRESSION hit Germany in the early 1930s.
The Nazis had a very specific vision of what Germany should be like
and they did not tolerate opposition. In 8C you will examine how they 1933 Hitler becomes
imposed their will on the German people through a combination of Chancellor of Germany
terror and PROPAGANDA.
THE THIRD REICH

In 8D you will see how specific groups of people were affected by

Nazi rule – young people, women, workers and farmers – and how
the lives of Germans began to change again as a result of the Second
World War. The Second World War
1939
begins
1940
Timeline 1941 The USA joins the war
This timeline shows the period you will be covering in this chapter.
Some of the key dates are filled in already. To help you get a complete
picture of the period make your own much larger version and add other
details to it as you work through the chapter. 1945 Germany is defeated
by the Allies.
Hitler kills himself

This Nazi poster from the 1930s encouraged people to

turn to Nazi-led community groups for help and advice.
1 Using this source, describe the Nazis’ ideal family.
2 What are the Nazis offering this ideal family and how is
it represented in the poster?
3 Does this poster give the impression that people were
afraid of the Nazis?
4 What message is the poster trying to convey to
Germans?

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8A Was the Weimar Republic

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

FOCUS
The democratic Weimar
Government was set up in 1919, doomed from the start?
but it collapsed in 1933 and was
replaced by a Nazi dictatorship.
Was this inevitable? Many have The impact of the First World War
argued it was because of:
■ a weak CONSTITUTION In 1914 the Germans were a proud people. Their K AISER – virtually a DICTATOR
■ huge post-war problems – was celebrated for his achievements. Their army was probably the finest
■ being forced to sign the TREATY OF in the world. A journey through the streets of Berlin in 1914 would have
VERSAILLES.
revealed prospering businesses and a well-educated and well-fed workforce.
However, others would disagree There was great optimism about the power and strength of Germany.
because there were significant
political economic and cultural Four years later a similar journey would have revealed a very different
achievements, especially from picture. Although little fighting had taken place in Germany itself, the war
1924–29. had still destroyed much of the old Germany. The proud German army was
defeated. The German people were surviving on turnips and bread, and
There is plenty of evidence on both
even the flour for the bread was mixed with sawdust to make it go further.
sides of the debate. As you study
these events you can reach your
A flu epidemic was sweeping the country, killing thousands of people
own conclusions on these issues already weakened by lack of food.
and arrive at your own judgement
about whether the Weimar
Republic was doomed to fail. The end of the old Germany
Focus Points By the autumn of 1918 Germany had clearly lost the war. Germany was
■ How did Germany emerge from in a state of chaos, as you can see from the diagram on page XXX. The
defeat at the end of the First Allies offered Germany peace, but under strict conditions. One condition
World War? was that Germany should become more democratic and that the Kaiser
■ What was the impact of the should abdicate. When the Kaiser refused, sailors in northern Germany
Treaty of Versailles on the mutinied and took over the town of Kiel. This triggered other revolts. The
Republic? Kaiser’s old enemies, the Socialists, led uprisings of workers and soldiers
■ To what extent did the Republic in other German ports. Soon, other German cities followed. In Bavaria
recover after 1923? an independent Socialist Republic was declared. On 9 November 1918 the
■ What were the achievements of
Kaiser abdicated his throne and left Germany for the Netherlands. This is
the Weimar period?
often referred to as the German Revolution of 1918.
On 10 November, the Socialist leader Friedrich Ebert became the new
FOCUS TASK 8.1 Chancellor of Germany. With the cooperation of the German army EBERT
How did Germany emerge from signed an ARMISTICE with the Allies on 11 November. He and his government
defeat at the end of the First were often referred to by right-wing opponents as the ‘November Criminals’
World War? for signing the ceasefire.
1 Use the information on these The war was over and Ebert announced a new government would be set up
two pages to make a list of all
in Germany – a REPUBLIC. Ebert introduced many reforms including the 8-hour
the challenges facing Ebert
when he took over in Germany
working day and improved benefits for the sick, elderly and unemployed.
in 1918. You could organise the A new Constitution was drawn up and the first elections for the new
list into sections: parliament took place in January 1919. In February 1919 Ebert was elected
■ Political challenges the first President of the new German Republic. However, the Republic
■ Social challenges faced many problems, as you can see in the diagram on the next page.
■ Economic challenges.
2 Imagine you are advising Ebert.
Explain what you think are the Revision Tip
three most serious challenges
Make sure you can:
that need tackling urgently.
■ describe one social, one economic and one political impact of the war on
3 Take a class vote and see if you
Germany.
can all agree on which are the
■ explain how at least two of these factors made it difficult for the new
most serious challenges.
German Government.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
National
income There were acute shortages of food. By
was about 1918 Germany was producing only 50 per
one-third cent of the milk and 60 per cent of the
of what it
butter and meat it had produced before
had been
in 1913. the war. Fuel was short and people were
cold. Nearly 300,000 people died from
starvation and hypothermia in 1918.

War left 600, 000 widows and 2 million

children without fathers – by 1925 the
state was spending about
one-third of its Industrial
BUDGET in
production
war pensions. was about
ECONOMIC IMPACT two-thirds
Germany was virtually of what it
bankrupt had been
in 1913.

POLITICAL IMPACT
Germany had a revolution and became
an unstable democratic republic. Groups
SOCIAL IMPACT Impact of the war on with extremist political views tried to
The war had deepened divisions in gain power.
German society Germany by 1918

Stresses of war led to a revolution in

October –November 1918. There was
fighting between RIGHT-WING
groups and LEFT-WING groups.
There were huge gaps between the living
standards of the rich and the poor.

One and a
half million
demobilised
soldiers
returned to
society, many
disillusioned.

Many ex-soldiers and civilians

despised the new democratic leaders
Many German workers were bitter at and came to believe that the heroic
the restrictions placed on their Many Germans were leader Field Marshal Hindenburg had
angry about losing the been betrayed by weak politicians –
earnings during the war while the
war. There was a wave this was known as the ‘stab in the
factory owners made vast fortunes
back’ myth.
from the war. of unrest, especially in
cities like Berlin. Law
and order was breaking
down in a country where
people were used to
order and discipline.

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

A new Germany: The Weimar Republic

In January 1919 free elections took place for the first time in Germany’s
history. Ebert’s party won the largest share of the vote and he became the
president of the Weimar Republic. It was called this because, to start with,
the new Government met in the small town of Weimar rather than in the
German capital, Berlin. Even in February 1919, Berlin was thought to be too
violent and unstable.
The success of the new Government would depend on two key factors:
■ Factor 1: The Constitution: Would the new Constitution provide a
practical, workable solution to the challenge of ruling Germany? It was
designed to be as democratic as possible and to represent the many
different groups which made up German society. The Factfile on the
next page explains how the Constitution worked.
■ Factor 2: The German people: Would the German people accept an
almost instant change from the traditional, autocratic German system of
government to this new democratic system?
The prospects for this did not look good. The reaction of politicians and
many ordinary Germans was unenthusiastic. Ebert faced opposition from
both right and left.
■ On the right wing, nearly all the Kaiser’s former advisers remained in their
positions in the army, judiciary, civil service and industry. They restricted
what the new Government could do. Many still hoped for a return to rule
by the Kaiser. A powerful myth developed that men such as Ebert had
‘stabbed Germany in the back’ and caused the defeat in the war.
■ On the left wing there were many communists who believed that at this
stage what Germany actually needed was a communist revolution, just
like Russia’s in 1917.
The government ministers assembled in the town of Weimar after the first
elections in January 1919 to draw up a new constitution.

The Constitution
■ Ebert signed the Weimar Constitution into law in August 1919. It was a
FEDERAL Republic with a President as head of state instead of the Kaiser.
It divided Germany into states which had their own governments.
■ There was UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE – all adults over the age of 20 could vote and
all German citizens had equal rights (freedom of religion, the right to
own private property, for example).
■ The REICHSTAG (Parliament) was elected every four years by proportional
representation – if a party won 20 per cent of the votes they gained 20
per cent of the seats.
■ The President was the head of state and was elected every seven years.
Day-to-day government was the responsibility of the CHANCELLOR who was
both appointed by, and could be dismissed by, the President.
■ In a crisis, the Constitution gave the President emergency powers
(Article 48) to pass decrees which did not need the approval of the
Reichstag. Ebert used Article 48 136 times while in office. Article 48
sometimes saved the new Weimar Republic from uprisings as it allowed
the President to act swiftly and mobilise the army. Some criticised it for
making the President too powerful during crises.
■ The Chancellor needed the support of half of the Reichstag to pass new
laws.
■ In the January 1919 elections there were eighteen different parties
that won seats in the Reichstag. Ebert’s Social Democratic Party won

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38 per cent of the seats and was the largest party, but as you can

8 Germany, 1918–45
see, it did not win a majority. This led to COALITIONS being formed with
smaller parties which often led to slow decision-making and ineffective
government. There was a total of seven different coalitions with
different Chancellors between 1919 and 1923!

FOCUS TASK 8.2 Factfile

What were the strengths and
weaknesses of the Weimar The Weimar Constitution
Constitution?
President
1 Make a list of what you think
seem to be the strengths of the
Weimar Constitution. Appointed judges Appointed Controlled
2 Here are some concerns
expressed at the time about the
weaknesses of the Constitution. Courts Chancellor Armed forces
For each one explain how the
Constitution might allow such
things to happen. Appointed
■ The Constitution is too
democratic – even small and
Government Ministers 17 local governments (Länder)
extreme parties could get for Bavaria, Prussia and all
seats in the Reichstag. Germany’s other regions.
■ If the Chancellor cannot get The Constitution limited their
Government sent laws power as much as possible
the support of the Reichstag to Reichstag for approval
he will be unable to pass any
laws or other measures, or it
will take an enormous amount Reichstag (Parliament)
of time to get measures
through.
Elected Elected Elected
■ If the various parties in the
Reichstag refuse to work
together there could be a
German people
stalemate.
■ The president might abuse
his powers under Article 48.
The main political parties in Germany, 1919–33
Left-wing parties generally wanted greater equality in society. Socialists
or social democrats wanted to achieve this by distributing the wealth more
fairly by increasing taxes on the rich and business or by nationalising
industries and banks. Liberals wanted to create greater equality by
introducing reforms and protecting people’s rights and democratic
freedoms. Centre-left parties like the socialists and liberals supported the
Weimar democracy.
Far-left parties like the communists wanted a workers’ revolution like
in Russia in 1917. They wanted to seize control of the government by
revolution, confiscate property and land from the ruling classes and
create a state-controlled economy. Communists opposed the Weimar
democracy.
Right-wing parties generally wanted to conserve the traditional class
system and allow private enterprise to flourish (capitalism). Conservative
parties wanted to achieve this through support for the German army, the
established churches and by protecting the privileges of the ruling elites
such as landlords and industrialists.
Far-right parties were anti-Weimar nationalists. They wanted a strong
government and a powerful army and were very anti-communist. Some
nationalists, like the Nazis, also had racist and anti-Semitic policies.

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The political spectrum

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Far-left Centre Far-right

Communist Social German German Centre Party German National

Party of Democratic Democratic People’s National Socialist German
Germany Party of Party (DDP) Party (DVP) People’s Workers’ Party
(KPD) Germany Party (DNVP) (NSDAP) or Nazi
(SPD) Party
Political Far-left Left-wing Centre-left Centre-right Right-wing Far-right Far-right
position revolutionary; moderate; liberal; pro- liberal; pro- conservative conservative- extreme
Marxist; anti- socialist; Weimar Weimar and pro- nationalist; nationalist; anti-
Weimar pro-Weimar Weimar anti-Weimar Weimar
Main Workers’ Democratic Liberal Liberal Conservative Nationalist Racist and anti-
policies revolution socialist policies policies policies – policies Semitic policies;
to set up policies to to protect to protect pro-business to restore oppose Weimar
Soviet-style improve equality of rights but and pro- monarchy Republic and
communist welfare rights and more pro- Catholic and oppose abolish Treaty
system in system for improve business the Weimar of Versailles;
Germany workers and welfare Republic and reclaim lost
unemployed system the Treaty of German
Versailles territory
Support Workers; Industrial Middle Wealthy, Catholics; Industrialists; Mainly lower
base some ex- workers classes educated some wealthy ex-soldiers, middle class
soldiers and middle class; middle class especially and peasant
sailors industrialists officer class; farmers;
landowners members
included
workers,
unemployed, ex-
soldiers
Significance The The Social Declined in Led by Gustav Third largest The main A fringe party
Communist Democratic popularity Stresemann party for nationalist for most of
Party saw an Party was in the early who would much of party before the 1920s
increase in the single 1920s and serve as the Weimar 1930 when but rapidly
support during most seen as Chancellor period and it lost votes increased its
economic popular increasingly (1923) and formed part to the Nazis; popularity after
problems party in the out of touch foreign of many supported the 1929 Wall
after the early 1920s, with the minister coalitions; Hindenburg’s Street Crash
crises of 1923; though problems (1923–29); some in election as and Depression
distrusted it never of ordinary popular in the party President in of the 1930s;
the Social received a Germans the early and supported 1925; made largest party in
Democratic majority of mid-1920s monarchy, a temporary the Reichstag
Party of Ebert the votes, but this others the alliance with by 1932 and
after he made forcing decreased in Republic; the Nazis in Hitler appointed
a deal with the Ebert to the late 1920s increasingly 1931 – the Chancellor in
Freikorps and agree to right-wing by Harzburg 1933
army to crush coalitions; the late 1920s Front – which
the Spartacist anti- supported
Uprising in communist Hitler
1919

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Factfile
German federal election results

January 1919

Political party Percentage of votes won

Social Democratic Party 38%
Centre Party 20%
German Democratic Party 19%
German National People’s Party 10%
Independent Social Democratic Party 8%
Other 5%

June 1920

Political party Percentage of votes won

Social Democratic Party 22%
Independent Social Democratic Party 18%
German National People’s Party 15%
German People’s Party 14%
Centre Party 14%
German Democratic Party 8%
German Communist Party 2%
Other 7%

May 1924

Political party Percentage of votes won

Social Democratic Party 21%
German National People’s Party 19%
Centre Party 13%
German Communist Party 13%
German People’s Party 9%
Nazi Party 7%
German Democratic Party 6%
Other 12%

December 1924

Political party Percentage of votes won

Social Democratic Party 26%
German National People’s Party 20%
Centre Party 14%
German People’s Party 10%
German Communist Party 9%
German Democratic Party 6%
Nazi Party 4%

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

The Republic in danger, 1919–24

From the start, Ebert’s Government faced violent opposition from both left-
wing and right-wing opponents.

The threat from the Left The threat from the Right
One left-wing group was known as the SPARTACISTS. They were At the same time, Ebert’s Government faced violent
communists led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. opposition from the Right. His right-wing opponents were
Their party was much like Lenin’s Bolsheviks, which had largely people who had grown up in the successful days
just taken power in Russia. They wanted a Germany ruled by of the Kaiser’s Germany. They resented the new Germany
workers’ councils or soviets. and above all they deeply resented the humiliating Treaty
In January 1919 the Spartacists launched their bid for of Versailles, which they blamed Ebert for agreeing to
power. Joined by rebel soldiers and sailors, they set up (see page 229).
soviets in many towns. Not all soldiers were on the side of In March 1920 Dr Wolfgang Kapp led 5000 Freikorps into
the Spartacists, however. Some anticommunist ex-soldiers Berlin in a rebellion known as the K APP PUTSCH (‘PUTSCH’ means
had formed themselves into vigilante groups called FREIKORPS. rebellion). The army refused to fire on the Freikorps and it
Ebert made an agreement with the commanders of the army looked as if Ebert’s Government was doomed. However, it
and the Freikorps to put down the rebellion. Bitter street was saved by the German people, especially the industrial
fighting and heavy casualties followed. Eventually the workers of Berlin. They declared a GENERAL STRIKE which
Freikorps won and Liebknecht and Luxemburg were murdered. brought the capital to a halt with no transport, power or
The Spartacist rising was soon followed by another water. After a few days Kapp realised he could not succeed
rebellion in Bavaria in the south of Germany. Ebert used the and fled the country. He was hunted down and died while
same tactics as he had used against the Spartacists. The awaiting trial. It seemed that Weimar had support and
Freikorps moved in to crush the revolt in May 1919. Around power after all.
600 communists were killed. Even so, the rest of the rebels went unpunished by the
In 1920 there was more communist agitation in the RUHR courts and judges. Ebert’s Government struggled to
industrial area. Again police, army and Freikorps clashed deal with the political violence in Germany. Political
with communists. There were 2000 casualties. assassinations were frequent. In the summer of 1922
Ebert’s Jewish foreign minister Walther Rathenau was
Ebert’s ruthless measures against the communists created
murdered by extremists. Then in November 1923 Adolf
lasting bitterness between them and his Socialist Party.
Hitler led an attempted rebellion in Munich, known as
However, it gained approval from many in Germany. Ebert was
the MUNICH PUTSCH (see page 236). Both Hitler and the
terrified that Germany might go the same way as Russia (at
murderers of Rathenau received short prison sentences.
that time rocked by bloody civil war). Many Germans shared
It seemed that Weimar’s right-wing opponents had
his fears. Even so, despite these defeats, the communists
friends in high places.
remained a powerful antigovernment force in Germany
throughout the 1920s.

Revision Tip Think!

Make sure you can describe: 1 Draw up a table like the one below to compare the various threats from
■ at least one strength and Left and Right described on this page.
one weakness of the Weimar
Constitution, and why it was a Left wing Right wing
strength or weakness Name of group
■ at least one example of left-wing Leadership
and one example of right-wing
Demands/aims
revolts and how each was
defeated. Supported by
Methods
How defeated
Consequences

2 What differences can you see between how Ebert’s Government treated
left-wing and right-wing extremists? How can you explain this?

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SOURCE 1 The Treaty of Versailles

8 Germany, 1918–45
Versailles was a scandal and a disgrace The biggest crisis for the new republic came in May 1919 when the terms
and … the dictate signified an act of of the Treaty of Versailles were announced. You can read more about this
highway robbery against our people. in Chapter 1. Most people in Germany were appalled, but the right-wing
Extract from Hitler’s biography opponents of Ebert’s Government were particularly angry. They blamed
Mein Kampf, 1925. Ebert’s Government for betraying Germany.
Germany lost:
■ 10 per cent of its land
FOCUS TASK 8.3 ■ all of its overseas colonies
■ 12.5 per cent of its population
What was the impact of the Treaty
of Versailles on the Republic? ■ 16 per cent of its coal and 48 per cent of its iron industry.
1 Research: Using all the In addition:
information and sources on ■ Its army was reduced to 100,000; it was not allowed to have an air
pages 229–31 and pages
force; its navy was reduced.
14–17 in Chapter 1, find out the
■ Germany had to accept blame for starting the war and was forced to pay
impact of the Treaty on:
REPARATIONS.
a) German territory
b) the armed forces Most Germans were appalled. Supporters of the Weimar Government felt
c) German attitudes and betrayed by the Allies. The Kaiser was gone – why should they be punished for
national pride his war and aggression? Opponents of the regime turned their fury on Ebert.
d) the economy
e) political stability. Ebert himself was very reluctant to sign the Treaty, but he had no choice.
2 Reach a judgement: Which Germany could not go back to war. However, in the minds of many Germans,
of these do you think was Ebert and his Weimar Republic were forever to blame for the Treaty. The injustice
most damaging to the Weimar of the Treaty became a rallying point for all Ebert’s opponents. They believed
Republic in: that the German army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the Socialist and Liberal
■ the short term (in 1920)
politicians who agreed an armistice in November 1918. They believed that
■ the long term (by 1923)?
Germany had not been beaten on the battlefield, but that it had been betrayed
Support your answer with evidence by its civilian politicians who didn’t dare continue the war. The Treaty was still a
from your research. source of bitterness in Germany when Hitler came to power in 1933.

Revision Tip
Make sure you can describe at least two ways (one political, one economic) the
Treaty affected Germany.

SOURCE 2

The text reads: ‘The Mammoth Military

superiority of our neighbours’.

The chains = military treaties;

F = peacetime strength;
R = reserve soldiers.

The German Reich (centre) is surrounded by

France, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland
(from left to right).

Source Analysis
Study Source 2 carefully.
1 What point is the cartoonist
making about the relationship
between France and Germany?
2 What point is the cartoonist
making about the relationship
between France and the other
Nazi cartoon commenting on the military terms of the Versailles treaty. countries?

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SOURCE 3
SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Economic disaster
There was widespread hunger, squalor The Treaty of Versailles destabilised Germany politically, but Germans also
and poverty and – what really affected blamed it for another problem – economic chaos. See if you agree that the
us – there was humiliation. The French Treaty of Versailles was responsible for economic problems in Germany.
ruled with an iron hand. If they disliked
you walking on the pavement, for Reparations
instance, they’d come along with their The Treaty of Versailles forced Germany to pay reparations to the Allies. The
riding crops and you’d have to walk in reparations bill was announced in April 1921. It was set at £6600 million, to
the road. be paid in annual instalments of 2 per cent of Germany’s annual output. The
The memories of Jutta Rudiger, a German Germans protested that this was an intolerable strain on the economy, which
woman living in the Ruhr during the they were struggling to rebuild after the war, but their protests were ignored.
French occupation.
The occupation of the Ruhr
The first instalment of £50 million was paid in 1921, but in 1922 nothing was
Source Analysis
paid. Ebert did his best to play for time and to negotiate concessions from
Work in pairs. One study Source
the Allies, but the French in particular ran out of patience. They too had
4 and the other Source 5. Explain
war debts to pay to the USA. So in January 1923 French and Belgian troops
the message of your source to your
partner. entered the Ruhr (quite legally under the Treaty of Versailles) and began to
■ Remember to make a valid take what was owed to them in the form of raw materials and goods.
inference (for example, the The results of the occupation of the Ruhr were disastrous for Germany. The
cartoonist is saying…). Government ordered the workers to go on strike. That way, there would be
■ Then remember to support the
nothing for the French to take away. The French reacted harshly, killing
inference with a detail from the
source (for example this is shown
over 100 workers and expelling over 100,000 protesters from the region.
in the cartoon by…). More importantly, the halt in industrial production in Germany’s most
important region caused the collapse of the German currency.

SOURCE 4 SOURCE 5

A 1923 German poster discouraging people from buying

French and Belgian goods, as long as Germany is under
occupation. The poster reads, ‘Hands off French and Belgian
A British cartoon from 1921. The two goods as long as Germany is raped!’ Bochun and Essen
watchers are the leaders of France and Britain. are two industrial towns in the Ruhr.

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SOURCE 6 Hyperinflation

8 Germany, 1918–45
Because it had no goods to trade and because it needed to pay the
striking workers in the Ruhr, the Government simply printed money. For
the Government this seemed an attractive solution. It paid off its debts
in worthless marks, including war loans of over £2200 million. The great
industrialists were able to pay off all their debts as well.
This set off a chain reaction. With so much money in circulation, but not enough
goods to buy with it, prices and wages rocketed, but people soon realised that
this money was worthless. Workers needed wheelbarrows to carry home their
wages. Wages began to be paid daily instead of weekly. The price of goods could
rise between joining the back of a queue in a shop and reaching the front!
Poor people suffered, but in some ways those who lost most were middle-class
Germans. A prosperous middle-class family would find that their savings, which
might have bought a house in 1921, by 1923 would not even buy a loaf of
bread. Pensioners found that their monthly pension would not even buy one
cup of coffee. The Government had lost the support of the middle classes.
It was clear to all, both inside and outside Germany, that the situation
needed urgent action. In August 1923 a new government under Gustav
A photograph taken in 1923 showing a
woman using worthless banknotes to
Stresemann took over.
start her fire. ■ He called off the passive resistance in the Ruhr.
■ He called in the worthless marks and burned them, replacing them with
a new currency called the Rentenmark.
SOURCE 7 ■ He negotiated to receive American loans under the DAWES PLAN.
■ He even renegotiated the reparations payments.
1918 0.63 marks
1922 163 marks The economic crisis was solved very quickly. Some historians suggest
that this is evidence that Germany’s problems were not as severe as its
January 1923 250 marks
politicians at the time had made out.
July 1923 3465 marks
September 1923 1,512,000 marks It was also increasingly clear, however, that the hyperinflation had
November 1923 201,000,000,000 done great political damage to the Weimar Government. Their right-wing
marks opponents had yet another problem to blame them for, and many linked it
The rising cost of a loaf of to the hated Treaty of Versailles which the Government had signed. They
bread in Berlin. blamed reparations and the Weimar politicians who had agreed to pay
them. Many Germans never forgave them.
Revision Tip
SOURCE 8
Hyperinflation
One afternoon I rang Aunt Louise’s bell. The door was opened merely a crack. From
Make sure you can describe:
■ two causes and two effects of
the dark came a broken voice: ‘I’ve used 60 billion marks’ worth of gas. My milk bill is
hyperinflation 1 million. But all I have left is 2000 marks. I don’t understand any more.’
■ two actions Stresemann took to E. Dobert’s memoir, Convert to Freedom, published in 1941.
tackle the crisis Dobert was a working-class German who converted to Nazism.
■ one reason why Germans
blamed the Treaty of Versailles
for hyperinflation. FOCUS TASK 8.4 Challenges to Weimar Republic, 1919–23
What was the most serious challenge for
Weimar Republic 1919–23
the Weimar Republic in the period 1919–23?
You also need to be able to: Challenge
■ describe at least two other The diagram on the right shows the Hyperinflation
from the
challenges facing the Weimar challenges which faced the Weimar Left
Republic 1919–23 Republic,1919–23. At the moment they
Challenge
■ explain why each one was a are shown as equally serious. Redraw the Ruhr
from the
diagram so that the most serious challenge is crisis
challenge Right
■ take a view on which of your largest, the next most serious is next largest, Treaty of
two challenges was most and so on. Add notes to each sector explaining Versailles
threatening. why it was a serious challenge.

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FIGURE 9
SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

120
The Weimar Republic under Stresemann,
100
1923–29
Although Chancellor for only a few months, Gustav Stresemann was a
80
leading member of every government from 1923 to 1929. He was a more
skilful politician than Ebert, and, as a right-winger, he had wider support.
60
He was also helped by the fact that through the 1920s the rest of Europe
40 was gradually coming out of its post-war depression.
Key
20 Industrial production
Achievement 1: The economy
Spending power of workers Slowly but surely, Stresemann rebuilt Germany’s prosperity. Under the
0 Dawes Plan (see pages 38 and 39), reparations payments were spread over
1913 1923 1928 a longer period, and 800 million marks in loans from the USA poured into
Comparison of aspects of the German German industry. Some of the money went into German businesses to help
economy in 1913, 1923 and 1928. them replace old equipment with the latest technology. Some went into
public works like swimming pools, sports stadia and apartment blocks. As
well as providing facilities, these projects created jobs.
By 1927 German industry seemed to have recovered very well. In 1928
Germany finally achieved the same levels of production as before the war
and regained its place as the world’s second greatest industrial power
(behind the USA). Wages for industrial workers rose and for many Germans
there was a higher standard of living.
Think! Reparations were being paid and exports were on the increase. The Government
1 List the factors that helped was even able to increase welfare benefits and wages for state employees.
Germany’s economy to
recover, for example reduced Achievement 2: Politics
reparations. Even politics became more stable. There were no more attempted
2 In what ways did economic revolutions after 1923. One politician who had been a leading opponent of
recovery affect the lives of
Ebert in 1923 said that ‘the Republic is beginning to settle and the German
ordinary Germans?
people are becoming reconciled to the way things are’. Figure 10 shows
that the parties that supported Weimar DEMOCRACY did well in these years. By
1928 the moderate parties had
FIGURE 10 136 more seats in the Reichstag
400 than the RADICAL parties. Hitler’s
Nazis gained less than 3 per cent
of the vote in the 1928 election.
300 Just as importantly, some of the
Number of MPs elected

parties who had co-operated in

the ‘revolution’ of 1918 began to
co-operate again.
200

100
Revision Tip
■ Make sure you can describe how
0 the Dawes Plan worked.
1919 May 1924 1928 ■ Describe one way in which
Key German politics was more
Left wing opposed to the Republic settled in this period.
Left wing supporting the Republic ■ Practise explaining to someone
Right wing opposed to the Republic else why the Nazis were
Support for the main political parties in Germany, 1919–28. unsuccessful in this period.

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SOURCE 11 Achievement 3: Culture

8 Germany, 1918–45
There was also a cultural revival in Germany. In the Kaiser’s time there had
been strict CENSORSHIP, but the Weimar Constitution allowed free expression
of ideas. Writers and poets flourished, especially in Berlin. Artists in Weimar
Germany turned their back on old styles of painting and tried to represent
the reality of everyday life, even when that reality was sometimes harsh and
shocking. Artists like George Grosz produced powerful paintings such as Pillars
of Society, which criticised politicians and business, Church and army leaders
of the Weimar period. It showed them as callous and mindless. Other paintings
highlighted how soldiers had been traumatised by their experiences in the war.
The famous BAUHAUS style of design and architecture developed. Artists such
as Walter Gropius, Paul Klee and Wassily Kandinsky taught at the Bauhaus
A photograph of a design college in Dessau. The Bauhaus architects and designers rejected
Berlin nightclub in 1920. traditional styles to create new and exciting buildings and objects. They
produced designs for anything from chairs and desk lamps to art galleries
and factories. The first Bauhaus exhibition attracted 15,000 visitors.
The 1920s were a golden age for German cinema, producing one of its greatest
FOCUS TASK 8.5 ever international stars, Marlene Dietrich, and one of its most celebrated
Weimar culture directors, Fritz Lang. Berlin was famous for its daring and liberated nightlife.
Uhe Weimar period saw many Going to clubs was a major pastime. In 1927 there were 900 dance bands in
cultural developments, especially Berlin alone. Cabaret artists performed songs criticising political leaders that
in Berlin. would have been banned in the Kaiser’s days. These included songs about sex
that would have shocked an earlier generation of Germans.
Carry out some research online
to find at least three sources from Achievement 4: Foreign policy
the Weimar period and copy and
Stresemann’s greatest triumphs were in foreign policy. In 1925 he signed
paste them into a document. Then
write a short description of each
the Locarno Treaties, guaranteeing not to try to change Germany’s western
of the sources. You should include borders with France and Belgium. As a result, in 1926 Germany was accepted
one source from each of the into the League of Nations. Here Stresemann began to work, quietly
following categories: but steadily, on reversing some of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles,
■ Cinema particularly those concerning reparations and Germany’s eastern frontiers. By
■ Architecture the time he died in 1929, Stresemann had negotiated the YOUNG PLAN, which
■ Art further lightened the reparations burden on Germany and led to the final
removal of British, French and Belgian troops from the RHINELAND.
Problem 1: The economy
The economic BOOM in Weimar Germany was precarious. The US loans could
be called in at short notice, which would cause ruin in Germany.
The boom also increased inequality. The main economic winners in Germany
were big businesses (such as the steel and chemicals industries) which
controlled about half of Germany’s industrial production. Other winners were
big landowners, particularly if they owned land in towns – the value of land
in Berlin rose by 700 per cent in this period. The workers in the big industries
gained as well. Most Weimar governments were sympathetic towards the
unions, which led to improved pay and conditions. However, even here there
SOURCE 12 were concerns as unemployment began to rise – it was 6 per cent of the
working population by 1928.
What we have today is a coalition of
ministers, not a coalition of parties. The main losers were the peasant farmers and sections of the middle classes.
There are no government parties, The peasant farmers had increased production during the war. In peacetime,
only opposition parties. This state they were producing too much. They had loans to pay back but not enough
of things is a greater danger to the demand for the food they produced. Many small business owners became
disillusioned during this period. Small shopkeepers saw their businesses
democratic system than ministers and
threatened by large department stores (many of which were owned by Jewish
parliamentarians realise. people). A university lecturer in 1913 earned ten times as much as a coal
Gustav Stolper, a Reichstag member for miner. In the 1920s he only earned twice as much. These people began to
the DDP in 1929. feel that the Weimar Government offered them little.

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Problem 2: Politics
SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

FOCUS TASK 8.6

Despite the relative stability of Weimar politics in this period, both the Nazis
To what extent did the Weimar
and Communists were building up their party organisations. Even during these
Republic recover after 1923?
stable years there were four different Chancellors and it was only the influence
Draw a diagram like this then of party leaders which held the party coalitions together (see Source 12).
complete it to summarise the
strengths (+) and weaknesses (-) of More worrying for the Republic was that around 30 per cent of the vote regularly
the Weimar Republic in 1929. went to parties opposed to the Republic. Most serious of all, the right-wing
organisations which posed the greatest threat to the Republic were quiet rather
+ − + − than destroyed. The right-wing Nationalist Party (DNVP) and the Nazis began
to collaborate closely and make themselves appear more respectable. Another
Politics The economy event which would turn out to be very significant was that the German people
elected a new president in 1925 who was opposed to democracy. Hindenburg
even wrote to the (exiled) Kaiser for approval before he took up the post!
How far
has the Problem 3: Culture
Weimar Republic Weimar culture was colourful and exciting to many. However, for others
recovered?
living in Germany’s villages and country towns, the culture of the cities
represented moral decline, made worse by American immigrants and Jewish
artists and musicians. As you have read, the Bauhaus design college was
Foreign policy Culture in Dessau. What you were not told is that it was in Dessau because it was
forced out of Weimar by hostile town officials.
+ − + −
Organisations such as the Wandervogel movement were a reaction to Weimar
culture. The Wandervogel called for a return to simple country values. It
You could give each sector a mark
wanted to see more help for the countryside and less decadence in the towns.
out of ten.
It was a powerful feeling, which the Nazis successfully used in later years.
Finally, you need to decide on an
overall judgement: in your opinion, Problem 4: Foreign policy
how far had the Weimar Republic There was also the question of international relations. Nationalists
recovered? In your answer, do attacked Stresemann for joining the League of Nations and for signing the
remember that, in the view of Locarno Pact because it meant Germany accepted the Treaty of Versailles.
many historians, it was probably a Communists also attacked Locarno, seeing it as part of a plot against the
major achievement for the Weimar
communist government in the USSR.
Republic just to have survived.

Key Question Summary

Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start?
1 Germany emerged from the First World War in a poor state, short of
food and goods and in debt. It was an angry, bitter and divided society –
politically (between left- and right-wing views) and socially (rich and poor).
2 The Weimar Republic was created in this turbulent time. Its Constitution
was very democratic but it had weaknesses. In particular, its system of
proportional representation meant that it was difficult for any political
party to get a clear majority and provide strong government.
3 Its leaders signed the armistice to end the war (the ‘stab in the back’) and
the hated Treaty of Versailles. This gave some Germans a poor view of
democratic government and the Weimar Republic from the beginning.
Revision Tip 4 Challenges from the Left (Spartacists, 1919) and Right (Kapp Putsch, 1920
and Munich Putsch, 1923) created political instability.
Make sure you can describe:
5 The Treaty of Versailles harmed Germany economically (reparations, loss
■ one example of cultural
of territory and industry) and psychologically (WAR GUILT, national pride).
achievement and one example 6 One consequence of the Treaty, the occupation of the Ruhr, led to the
of economic achievement in this hyperinflation of 1923.
period 7 The economy recovered after 1924 as Germany was put on a sounder
■ one group who were winners in financial footing. However, prosperity depended on American loans, and
the Weimar period and explain unemployment remained a problem.
why they were winners 8 Germany became more stable politically after 1924 and extremists
■ one group who were losers in parties, like the Nazis, did not do well in elections through the 1920s.
the Weimar period and explain 9 Given the problems that the Weimar Republic started with it was an achievement
why they were losers. just to have survived to 1929. This proved it was not ‘doomed from the start’.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Profile 8B Why was Hitler able to
Adolf Hitler – the early
years, 1889–1919
dominate Germany by 1934?
FOCUS
Stresemann’s Government succeeded in stabilising Germany. However, as
you have already seen, the extremist opponents of the Weimar Government
had not disappeared. Through the 1920s they were organising and
regrouping, waiting for their chance to win power.
One of these extremist groups was the Nazi Party. You are now going to look
back at what it had been doing since 1919 and examine its changing fortunes
through the 1920s and early 1930s.
Your key question examines how the Nazis turned themselves from an
obscure fringe party in the 1920s to the most popular party in Germany by
■ Born in Austria in 1889. 1933. You will see that there are a range of factors including Hitler’s skills as
■ He got on badly with his father a leader and the economic Depression that hit Germany in the 1930s.
but was fond of his mother. You will also examine the ruthless way that once elected as Chancellor Hitler
■ At sixteeen he left school and CONSOLIDATED his power by removing all possible opposition.
went to Vienna to become a
painter. He did not succeed and Focus Points
between 1909 and 1914 he was ■ What did the Nazi Party stand for in the 1920s?
‘down and out’ living on the
■ Why did the Nazis have little success before 1930?
streets of Vienna.
■ Why was Hitler able to become Chancellor by 1933?
■ During this period he developed
■ How did Hitler consolidate his power in 1933–34?
his hatred of foreigners and
Jewish people.
■ In 1914 Hitler joined the German
army and served with distinction, Hitler and the Nazis
winning the Iron Cross.
■ Hitler found it very hard to accept The Nazis began as the German Workers’ Party, led by Anton Drexler. In 1919
the armistice and was completely Adolf Hitler joined the party. Drexler soon realised that Hitler had great
unable to accept the Treaty of
Versailles.
talent and within months he had put him in charge of propaganda and the
■ He despised Weimar democracy political ideas of the party. In 1920 the party announced its Twenty-Five
and like many Germans looked Point Programme (see Factfile), and renamed itself the National Socialist
back to the ‘glorious days’ of the German Workers’ Party, or Nazis for short.
Kaiser.
■ After the war, Hitler stayed In 1921 Hitler removed Drexler as leader. Hitler’s energy, commitment and
working for the army spying on above all his power as a speaker were soon attracting attention, as you can
extremist groups. This is how see from Source 1.
he came across the German
Workers’ Party. He liked their Hitler had a clear and simple appeal. He stirred nationalist passions in his
ideas and joined in 1919. audiences. He gave them scapegoats to blame for Germany’s problems:
the Allies, the Versailles Treaty, the ‘November Criminals’ (the Socialist
politicians who signed the Treaty), the Communists and the Jewish people.
Factfile
His meetings were so successful that his opponents tried to disrupt
Twenty-Five Point them. To counter this, he set up the SA, also known as Stormtroopers or
Programme Brownshirts, in 1921. These hired thugs protected Hitler’s meetings but
also disrupted those of other parties.
The most important points were:
■ the abolition of the Treaty of
Versailles SOURCE 1
■ union of Germany and Austria
■ only ‘true’ Germans to be allowed The most active political force in Bavaria at the present time is the National Socialist Party
to live in Germany. Jewish people … It has recently acquired a political influence quite disproportionate to its actual numerical
in particular were to be excluded strength … Adolf Hitler from the very first has been the dominating force in the movement
■ large industries and businesses
to be nationalised
and the personality of this man has undoubtedly been one of the most important factors
■ generous old-age pension contributing to its success … His ability to influence a popular assembly is uncanny.
■ a strong central government. American intelligence report on political activities in Germany, 1922.

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

SOURCE 2 The Munich Putsch, 1923

Hitler knew how to whip up those
By 1923 the Nazis were still very much a minority party, but Hitler had given
crowds jammed closely in a dense cloud
them a high profile. In November 1923 Hitler believed that the moment
of cigarette smoke – not by argument,
had come for him to topple the Weimar Government. The Government
but by his manner: the roaring and was preoccupied with the economic crisis. Stresemann had just called off
especially the power of his repetitions Germany’s passive resistance in the Ruhr (see page 16). On 8 November, Hitler
delivered in a certain infectious rhythm hijacked a local government meeting and announced he was taking over the
… He would draw up a list of existing government of Bavaria. He was joined by the old war hero Ludendorff.
evils and imaginary abuses and after
listing them, in higher and higher Nazi Stormtroopers, many of them under the command of Ernst Röhm (see
crescendo, he screamed: ‘And whose Profile on page 238), began taking over official buildings. The next day,
fault is it? It’s all … the fault … of however, the Weimar Government forces hit back. Police rounded up the
Stormtroopers and in a brief exchange of shots sixteen Nazis were killed by
the Jews!’
the police. The rebellion broke up in chaos. Hitler escaped in a car, while
A person who went to Nazi meetings
Ludendorff and others stayed to face the armed police. Hitler had gambled
describes the impact of Hitler’s speeches.
and miscalculated and his revolution had failed. But this was not quite the
From A Part of Myself: Portrait of an
Epoch, by C. Zuckmayer, 1966. end of the story.

SOURCE 3

Revision Tip
■ Make sure you can describe two
aims of the Nazis before 1923.
■ Explain one way in which the
Munich Putsch was a disaster
for the Nazis and one way it was A painting of the Munich Putsch made by Arthur Wirth, one of the Nazis who took part
a success. in it. Hitler is in the centre and Ludendorff is in the black hat to Hitler’s right.

Source Analysis
1 What impression does Source 3 give of the Putsch and Hitler’s role in it?
2 Why would you have concerns about it as a source for finding out what
happened?

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SOURCE 4

8 Germany, 1918–45
The aftermath of the Munich Putsch
When I resume active work, it will In the short term, the Munich Putsch was a disaster for Hitler. He had
be necessary to pursue a new policy. miscalculated the mood of the German people and the Nazis had been
Instead of working to achieve power humiliated. People did not rise up to support him. He and other leading
by armed conspiracy we shall have to Nazis were arrested and charged with treason.
take hold of our noses and enter the
However, from a longer-term point of view, the Putsch turned out to be less
Reichstag against the Catholic and of a disaster. At his trial Hitler gained enormous publicity for himself and
Marxist deputies. If out-voting them his ideas, as his every word was reported in the newspapers.
takes longer than out-shooting them,
at least the results will be guaranteed In fact, Hitler so impressed the judges that he and his accomplices got
by their own constitution. Any lawful off very lightly. Ludendorff was freed altogether and Hitler was given
process is slow. Sooner or later we shall only five years in prison, even though the legal guidelines said that
have a majority and after that we shall high treason should carry a life sentence. In the end, Hitler only served
have Germany. nine months of the sentence and did so in great comfort in Landsberg
Castle. This last point was very significant. It was clear that Hitler
Hitler, writing while in prison in 1923.
had some sympathy and support from important figures in the legal
system. Because of his links with Ludendorff, Hitler probably gained the
Factfile attention of important figures in the army. Time would show that Hitler
was down, but not out.
Hitler’s views
In Mein Kampf and his later writings, The Nazis in the wilderness, 1924–29
Hitler set out the main Nazi beliefs: Hitler used his time in prison to write a book, Mein Kampf (My Struggle),
■ National Socialism: This stood which clarified and presented his ideas about Germany’s future (see Factfile
for loyalty to Germany, racial and Sources 1–3 on pages 235 and 236).
purity, equality and state control
of the economy. It was also while in prison that he came to the conclusion that the Nazis
■ Racism: The Aryans (white would not be able to seize power by force. They would have to work within
Europeans) were the Master the democratic system to achieve power but, once in power, they could
Race. All other races and
destroy that system (see Source 4).
especially Jewish people were
inferior. As soon as he was released from prison, Hitler set about rebuilding the
■ Armed force: Hitler believed Nazi Party so that it could take power through democratic means. He saw
that war and struggle were an
the Communists building up their strength through youth organisations and
essential part of the development
of a healthy Aryan race.
recruitment drives. Soon the Nazis were doing the same.
■ Living space (‘Lebensraum’): Their candidates stood in the Reichstag elections for the first time in
Germany needed to expand as
May 1924 and won 32 seats. Encouraged by this, Hitler created a network of
its people were hemmed in. This
expansion would be mainly at the
local Nazi parties which in turn set up the HITLER YOUTH, the Nazi Students’
expense of Russia and Poland. League and similar organisations.
■ The Führer: Debate and
democratic discussion produced
SOURCE 5
weakness. Strength lay in total Three million people lack work and sustenance … The illusion of freedom, peace and
loyalty to the leader (the Führer).
prosperity that we were promised … is vanishing …
Thus we demand the right of work and a decent living for every working German.
Source Analysis While the soldier was fighting in the trenches to defend his Fatherland, some Jewish
1 Read Source 5. List the demands profiteer robbed him of hearth and home. The Jew lives in palaces … Therefore we
made by Goebbels.
demand homes for German soldiers and workers. If there is not enough money to
2 Would you say this source
appeals more to the hearts of
build them, drive the foreigners out so that Germans can live on German soil.
German people than to their These days anyone has the right to speak in Germany – the Jew, the Frenchman, the
minds? Support your answer Englishman, the League of Nations. Everyone but the German worker. He has to shut
with evidence from the source. up and work. Every four years he elects a new set of torturers, and everything stays
the same. Therefore we demand the annihilation of this system of exploitation!
Extracts from a pamphlet called ‘We demand’, written in 1927 by Nazi propaganda
expert Joseph Goebbels.

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Hitler’s henchmen
Hitler had many loyal followers who helped organise the Nazis to increase
their support and membership. Below are some of the most important of
Hitler’s henchmen in this period, many of whom were also instrumental
later in the period in Hitler’s rise to power.

Profile
Ernst Röhm
(Chief of Staff of the SA)
Background
Röhm served as a captain in the German army in the First World War and received
the Iron Cross for bravery. In 1919 he joined the Nazi Party and took part in the
failed Munich Putsch (see page 236) leading 2,000 men to march on the War
Ministry. He left the Nazi Party in 1925 for a role in Bolivia but returned after Hitler
asked him to lead the SA during the Depression.

Importance
Röhm was a violent man who despised Jews and communists. He organised the SA
into a powerful paramilitary force and won the loyalty of its members. By 1931 the
SA numbered over one million. SA members marched, sang songs and held parades,
and also attacked communists and Jews on the streets. After the Wall Street Crash,
Rohm stirred up trouble to make the government look weak and to make many
Germans fear a communist revolution was imminent.

Profile
Joseph Goebbels
(Gauleiter (District leader) of Berlin
and Head of Nazi Propaganda in 1928) Background
Goebbels joined the Nazi Party in 1924 after taking an interest in Hitler during his
trial for the Munich Putsch. He supported Hitler when it looked like the Nazi Party
might break up into factions in 1926. As Gauleiter in Berlin, he drew large crowds
to his speeches and like Hitler, was a charismatic public speaker. He was elected
to the Reichstag in 1928 and by 1930 the Nazi Party in Berlin was second in size
only to the Party in Munich.

Importance
Goebbels was in charge of Nazi propaganda during the Depression and targeted
different groups in Germany to win their votes by propagating the idea of the
FÜHRER MYTH. He used posters, rallies and the Nazi newspaper, the Volkischer
Beobachter (People’s Observer), to promise jobs for the unemployed workers, to
crush communism to appeal to the middle class and industrialists and to protect
the racial purity of the peasant farmers.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Profile
Heinrich Himmler Background
(Reichsführer-SS) Himmler had not fought in the war and failed to make a successful career in the
military as a young man. In 1923, he joined the Nazi Party and took part in the
Munich Putsch as part of Röhm’s SA men. In 1925 he joined the newly formed
SS (then a part of the SA), which was used as the personal bodyguard for Nazi
leaders. He persuaded Hitler to separate the SS from the SA in 1927 and in 1929
was made head of the SS (Reichsführer-SS). He quickly expanded the SS and by
1933 it had over 50,000 members.

Importance
Himmler’s SS were fiercely loyal to Hitler who sometimes doubted the loyalty and
discipline of the SA. They were well-trained and were meant to represent the Nazi
Party elite – members even had to prove their Aryan heritage as far back as 1800! The
intelligence service of the SS (the SD) was used to root out opponents and threats to
Hitler in the Nazi Party and was led by Himmler’s deputy, Reinhard Heydrich.

Profile
Hermann Goering
(Early SA leader and President
(Speaker) of the Reichstag from 1932) Background
Goering was a First World War fighter pilot ace who received the ‘Blue Max’ medal
for his 22 victories in the air. He joined the Nazi Party in 1922 and led the SA during
the Munich Putsch where he was shot in the groin. He became addicted to morphine
for the rest of his life to cope with the pain. He was a leading party member who was
elected to the Reichstag in 1928. In 1932, when the Nazis were the largest party, he
was appointed as President of the Reichstag (not to be confused with the President
of the Republic).

Importance
Goering was an early supporter of Hitler and was born into an aristocratic family with
ties to many wealthy and influential German families, especially in the military. His
background served the Nazi Party well when it needed funds to win the elections. Like
many Nazis, he promoted the ‘stab in the back myth’. His aviation background would
serve Hitler well when the Nazis got into power and he needed to build a new air force.

Profile
Rudolf Hess
(Hitler’s private secretary; Chairman
of the Nazi Party and Deputy Führer in 1933)
Background
After serving in the war, Hess joined the Nazi Party in 1920 and allegedly introduced
the idea of Lebensraum to Hitler. He joined the SA in 1921 and took part in the Munich
Putsch. He was imprisoned with Hitler and other Nazis at Landsberg Prison and
assisted Hitler in writing Mein Kampf. He helped increase the size of the SA and
followed Hitler on his election campaigns around Germany as a close friend.

Importance
Hess was trusted by Hitler and as his private secretary had unbridled access to him
at all times. All official orders passed through his office before reaching Hitler and
he oversaw the Nazi Party organisation as a whole. He often gave the opening speech
at the Nuremberg Rallies before introducing Hitler. Hess was loyal to Hitler and was
rewarded with the honour of Deputy Führer when Hitler was appointed Chancellor of
Germany in 1933.

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

A change of strategy
As you can see from Source 5 (on page 237), by 1927 the Nazis were still
trying to appeal to German workers. However, most workers supported either
the Socialists or the Communists. In the 1928 elections the Nazis gained only
twelve Reichstag seats (a quarter of the Communist vote). Although their
antisemitic policies gained them some support, they had failed to win over the
workers. Although the Nazis argued that workers were exploited, in fact urban
industrial workers felt that they were doing rather well in Weimar Germany in
the years up to 1929.
Target the farmers
Other groups in society were doing less well, however. The Nazis found
that they gained more support from groups such as the peasant farmers in
northern Germany and middle-class shopkeepers and small business people
in country towns.
Unlike Britain, Germany still had a large rural population that lived and worked
on the land – probably about 35 per cent of the entire population. They were
not sharing in Weimar Germany’s economic prosperity. The Nazis highlighted
the importance of the peasants in their plans for Germany, promising to
help agriculture if they came to power. They praised the peasants as racially
pure Germans (see the image in Source 7 for example). Nazi propaganda also
contrasted the supposedly clean and simple life of the peasants with that of
the allegedly corrupt, immoral, crime-ridden cities (for which they blamed
Jewish people). The fact that the Nazis despised Weimar culture also gained
them support among some conservative people in the towns, who saw Weimar’s
flourishing art, literature and film achievements as immoral.

SOURCE 7

SOURCE 6
At one of the early congresses I was sitting
surrounded by thousands of SA men.
As Hitler spoke I was most interested
at the shouts and more often the
muttered exclamations of the men around
me, who were mainly workmen or lower-
middle-class types. ‘He speaks for me …
Ach, Gott, he knows how I feel’ … One
man in particular struck me as he leant
forward with his head in his hands, and
with a sort of convulsive sob said: ‘Gott sei
Dank [God be thanked], he understands.’
E. Amy Buller, Darkness over Germany,
published in 1943. Buller was an anti- A Nazi election poster from 1928, showing a farmer. The caption says ‘Work, freedom
Nazi German teacher. and bread! Vote for the National Socialists.’

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Strengthen the SA
In 1925 Hitler enlarged the SA. About 55 per cent of the SA came from the
ranks of the unemployed. Many were ex-servicemen from the war. He also
set up a new group called the SS. The SS were similar to the SA but were
fanatically loyal to Hitler personally. Membership of the party rose to over
100,000 by 1928.

Spread the message

Hitler appointed Joseph Goebbels to take charge of Nazi propaganda. Goebbels
was highly efficient at spreading the Nazi message. He and Hitler believed that
the best way to reach what they called ‘the masses’ was by appealing to their
feelings rather than by rational argument. Goebbels produced posters, leaflets,
films and radio broadcasts; he organised ralliessuch as the annual Nuremberg
Rally; he set up photo opportunities; and leading party members were even
trained how to deliver speeches in public.

But … no breakthrough
Despite these shifting policies and priorities, there was no electoral
breakthrough for the Nazis. Even after all their hard work, in 1928 they
were still a fringe minority party who had the support of less than 3
per cent of the population. They were the smallest party with fewer
seats than the Communists. The prosperity of the Stresemann years and
Stresemann’s success in foreign policy made Germans uninterested in
extreme politics.

FOCUS TASK 8.7 FOCUS TASK 8.8

What did the Nazi Party stand for Stage 1: Why did the Nazis have little success before 1930?
in the 1920s?
Below are some factors which explain the Nazis’ lack of success.
1 Using the information and
sources from pages 235–37, At the moment these factors are organised in alphabetical order. Work
draw up a diagram or chart in groups to rearrange these factors into what you think is their order of
to represent the Nazis’ ideas. importance:
You can use this for revision so ■ Disastrous Putsch of 1923
make the headings big and bold. ■ Disruption of meetings by political enemies
You can use the ones below and/ ■ Lack of support in the police and army
or add others of your own: ■ Most industrial workers supported left-wing parties
■ The Treaty of Versailles ■ Nazi aims were irrelevant to most Germans
■ Greater Germany ■ Successes of Weimar Government (for example in the economy,
■ The German people foreign policy)
■ Lebensraum
Stage 2: What successes did the Nazis have before 1930?
■ Race and Jewish people
■ Government/Weimar The 1920s was not a good period for the Nazis but it was not a complete
Republic failure. Draw a line and mark one end ‘Total failure’ and the other end ‘Great
■ Economic policies success’. In the middle, write ‘Important development’. Now consider where
■ Social policies. the following events and developments belong on the line:
2 What was the biggest change in ■ The 25 Points
Nazi policy after 1923? ■ Hitler’s speaking ability
■ Munich Putsch
■ Hitler’s trial after the Munich Putsch
■ Changing policies targeting different groups to win support
■ Expanding the SA
■ Appointing Goebbels in charge of propaganda

Add notes to explain your placing. NB You may show the same event or
development twice if its success changed at different times.
Keep this work safe. It will be useful for Focus Task 8.10 on page 245.

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The Depression and the rise of the Nazis

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

In 1929 the American STOCK MARKET crashed and sent the USA into a
Revision Tip disastrous ECONOMIC DEPRESSION. In a very short time, countries around
■ Can you describe two effects of the world began to feel the effects of this depression. Germany was
the Depression on Germans?
particularly badly affected. American bankers and businessmen lost huge
■ Make sure you can explain two
ways in which the Depression
amounts of money in the CRASH. To pay off their debts they asked German
helped the Nazis. banks to repay the money they had borrowed. The result was economic
collapse in Germany. Businesses went bankrupt, workers were laid off
and unemployment rocketed. And Germany still had to pay the hated
reparations from the Treaty of Versailles. The Government tried to act but
the Weimar Constitution, with its careful balance of power, made firm and
decisive action by the Government difficult.
SOURCE 8

Think!
Draw a diagram to show how the
Wall Street Crash in New York could
lead to miners losing their jobs in
Silesia (Source 8). You could refer to The German mining region of Upper Silesia in 1932: unemployed miners and their families
Chapter 2 or Chapter 9. moved into shacks in a shanty town because they had no money to pay their rent.

FIGURE 9 Enter the Nazis!

250
Key
7 Hitler’s ideas now seemed to have a special relevance:
Unemployed ■ Is the Weimar Government indecisive? Then Germany needs a strong
Communist 6 leader!
Number of seats in the Reichstag

200 vote ■ Are reparations adding to Germany’s problems? Then kick out the Treaty
Nazi vote 5
of Versailles!
Unemployed (millions)

150
4
■ Is unemployment a problem? Let the unemployed join the army, build
Germany’s armaments and be used for public works like road building!
3
100 The Nazis’ Twenty-Five Points (see Factfile on page XXX) were very
2
attractive to those most vulnerable to the Depression: the unemployed,
the elderly and the middle classes. Hitler offered them culprits to blame
50
1 for Germany’s troubles – the Allies, the ‘November Criminals’ and Jewish
people. None of these messages was new and they had not won support
0 0 for the Nazis in the Stresemann years. The difference now was that the
1928 1930 July Nov
1932 1932
democratic parties simply could not get Germany back to work.
In the 1930 elections the Nazis got 107 seats. In November 1932 they got
Support for the Nazis and Communists,
nearly 200. They did not yet have an overall majority, but they were the
and unemployment, 1928–32.
biggest single party.

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SOURCE 10 Why did the Nazis succeed in

8 Germany, 1918–45
The Duties of German Communist Party volunteers elections?
The simple answer is: the Depression. But there were
many other important factors that allowed the Nazis to
seize this opportunity.

Factor 1: Nazi campaigning

Nazi campaign methods were modern and effective.
The Nazis’ greatest campaigning asset was Hitler.
He was a powerful speaker. Hitler ran for president
Unselfishly they help the farmers Particular detachments are responsible for in 1932. Despite his defeat, the campaign raised
to dry the harvest. improving transport. his profile hugely. He was years ahead of his time
as a communicator. Using films, radio and records
he brought his message to millions. He travelled by
plane on a hectic tour of rallies all over Germany. He
appeared as a dynamic man of the moment, the leader
of a modern party with modern ideas. At the same
time, he was able to appear to be a man of the people,
someone who knew and understood the people and
their problems.
They work nights and overtime getting They increase their fitness for the father- Nazi posters and pamphlets such as Sources 10 and
together useful equipment. land with target practice. 11 could be found everywhere. Their rallies impressed
An English translation of a 1931 Nazi election poster. people with their energy, enthusiasm and sheer size.
The Nazis relied on generalised slogans – ‘uniting the
SOURCE 11 people’, ‘going back to traditional values’ – but they
were never very clear about what this meant in terms
of policies. This made it hard to criticise them. When
they were criticised for a specific policy, they were
quite likely to drop it. (For example, when industrialists
expressed concern about Nazi plans to nationalise
industry, they simply dropped the policy.) The Nazis
repeated at every opportunity that they believed
Jewish people, communists, Weimar politicians and
the Treaty of Versailles were the causes of Germany’s
problems. They expressed contempt for Weimar’s
democratic system and said that it was unable to solve
Germany’s economic problems.
They backed up their campaigns with practical action.
For example, Nazis organised soup kitchens and
provided shelter in hostels for the unemployed.
SOURCE 12
My mother saw a storm trooper parade in the streets
of Heidelberg. The sight of discipline in a time of chaos,
the impression of energy in an atmosphere of universal
hopelessness seems to have won her over.
Albert Speer, writing in 1931. Later, he was to become an
important and powerful Nazi leader.

A Nazi election poster from July 1932. The Nazis proclaim ‘We
build!’ and promise to provide work, freedom and bread. They
Revision Tip
accuse the opposing parties of planning to use terror, corruption, Note two examples of increasing Nazi support and be
lies and other strategies as the basis for their government. ready to explain why.

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SOURCE 13 Factor 2: ‘Negative cohesion’

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Our opponents accuse us National Cohesion means bringing together. The historian Gordon Craig believed the
Socialists, and me in particular, of being Nazis benefited from ‘NEGATIVE COHESION’. People supported the Nazis not because
intolerant and quarrelsome. They say that they shared Nazi views (that would be positive cohesion) but because they
we don’t want to work with other parties. shared Nazi fears: ‘If you hate what I hate, then I’ll support you!’
They say the National Socialists are not
Factor 3: Disillusionment with democracy
German at all, because they refuse to work
with other political parties. So is it typically Perhaps the biggest negative was a dissatisfaction with democracy in
German to have thirty political parties? I Weimar Germany. Politicians seemed unable to tackle the problems of the
have to admit one thing – these gentlemen Depression. When the Depression began to bite, Chancellor Brüning actually
cut government spending and welfare benefits. He urged Germans to make
are quite right. We are intolerant. I have
sacrifices. Brüning called new elections in 1930. This was a disastrous
given myself this one goal – to sweep these
decision as it gave the Nazis the opportunity to exploit the discontent in
thirty political parties out of Germany.
Germany. Unemployment was heading towards 6 million and the average
Hitler speaking at an election rally, German’s income had fallen by 40 per cent since 1929.
July 1932.
Factor 4: The Communist threat
Think! As the crisis deepened, Communist support was rising too. The Nazis turned
1 In a sentence explain 'negative this to their advantage. ‘Fear of COMMUNISM’ was another shared negative.
cohesion' to someone who has
never heard the phrase. There were frequent street battles between communist gangs and the police.
2 Do you think Gordon Craig was Large unruly groups of unemployed workers gathered on street corners. In
right that people supported contrast, the SA and SS gave an impression of discipline and order. Many people
the Nazis for negative reasons felt the country needed this kind of order (see Source 12), and many unemployed
rather than positive reasons? men signed up with the SA in order to be involved in the Nazi Party.
Business leaders feared the Communists because of their plans to introduce
FOCUS TASK 8.9 state control of businesses. They were also concerned about the growing
strength of Germany’s TRADE UNIONS. They felt the Nazis would combat these
How did the Depression help
the Nazis? threats and some began to put money into Nazi campaign funds.
1 The Depression: Farmers were also alarmed by the Communists. In the USSR, the communist
■ made Weimar politicians government had taken over all of the land. Millions of peasants had been
look weak and indecisive killed or imprisoned in the process. In contrast, the Nazis promised to help
■ made Germany less able to Germany’s desperately struggling small farmers.
pay reparations
■ increased unemployment Factor 5: Decadence
and poverty in Germany
As for modern decadent Weimar culture – the Nazis could count on all those
■ increased support for
communism.
who felt traditional German values were under threat. The Nazis talked
Write these factors onto about restoring these old-fashioned values.
separate cards and divide
into groups. Find examples Factor 6: Weak opposition
for each of the factors using The SOCIAL DEMOCRATIC PARTY made a grave mistake in thinking that German
pages 242–44. Next, put them people would not fall for these vague promises and accusations. They also
in priority order – which factor failed to work with other parties, particularly the Communists. But Ebert’s
helped the Nazis gain electoral crushing of the Communists in 1919–20 left too many bitter memories and
support the most? Explain your
the Nazis exploited the divisions among their opponents.
judgement.
2 Decide how far you agree with
the following statement. Give The result
it a score out of five (five would Nazi support rocketed. For example, in Neidenburg in East Prussia Nazi
mean total agreement). support rose from 2.3 per cent in 1928 to over 25 per cent in 1931, even
‘Without the economic though the town had no local Nazi Party and Hitler never went there. We
depression in Germany the know from the work of W.S. Allen that many Germans, especially middle-
Nazis would have remained a class Germans, supported Hitler in villages, towns and cities across
minority party.’
Germany. In rural communities the Nazis gained many votes from those
Write a short paragraph
explaining your score.
who shared their views about the decadent cities.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
How did Hitler become Chancellor?
After the Reichstag elections of July 1932 the Nazis were the largest single
July 1932 party (with 230 seats) but did not have an overall majority. Hitler demanded the
post of Chancellor. However, Hindenburg was suspicious of Hitler and refused.
He allowed the current Chancellor Franz von Papen to carry on. He then used
his emergency powers to pass the measures that von Papen hoped would solve
the unemployment problem. However, von Papen was soon in trouble. He had
virtually no support in the Reichstag and so called yet another election.
In the November 1932 elections the Nazis again came out as the largest
November 1932 party, although their share of the vote fell. Hitler regarded the election as
a disaster. He had lost more than 2 million votes along with 38 seats in the
Reichstag. The signs were that the Hitler tide had finally turned. The Nazis
started to run out of funds. Hitler is said to have threatened suicide.
Hindenburg again refused to appoint Hitler as Chancellor. In December 1932
December 1932 he chose Kurt von Schleicher, one of his own advisers and a bitter rival of von
Papen. But within a month, however, von Schleicher too was forced to resign.
By this time it was clear that the Weimar system of government was not
working. The system of balances and proportional representation meant
that no political group was able to provide strong rule. This had left the
84-year-old President Hindenburg to more or less run the country using his
emergency powers, supported by army leaders and rich industrialists. In one
sense, Hindenburg had already overthrown the principles of democracy by
running Germany with emergency powers. If he was to rescue the democratic
system, he needed a Chancellor who actually had support in the Reichstag.
Hindenburg appointed Hitler. Through January 1933 Hindenburg and von
January 1933 Papen met secretly with industrialists, army leaders and politicians. On 30
January, to everyone’s surprise, they offered Hitler the post of Chancellor.
With only a few Nazis in the Cabinet and von Papen as Vice Chancellor, they
were confident that they could limit Hitler’s influence and resist his extremist
demands. The idea was that the policies would be made by the Cabinet, which
was filled with conservatives like von Papen. Hitler would be there to get
Revision Tip support in the Reichstag for those policies and to control the Communists.
Describe three events (in date
So Hitler ended up as Chancellor through a behind-the-scenes deal by some
order) that brought Hitler to power
in 1933.
German aristocrats. Both Hindenburg and von Papen were sure that they
could control Hitler. They were very wrong.

FOCUS TASK 8.10

Why was Hitler able to become Chancellor by 1933? ■ The impact of the Depression
Here is a list of factors that helped Hitler come to power. ■ The Treaty of Versailles
Hitler's strengths ■ Memories of the problems of 1923
■ Hitler’s speaking skills 1 For each factor, write down one example of how it
■ Propaganda campaigns helped Hitler.
■ Their criticisms of the Weimar system of government 2 Give each factor a mark out of 10 for its importance in
■ Nazi policies bringing Hitler to power.
■ Support from big business 3 Choose what you think are the five most important
■ Violent treatment of their opponents factors and write a short paragraph on each,
Opponents’ weaknesses explaining why you have chosen it.
■ Failure to deal with the Depression 4 If you took away any of those factors, would Hitler still
■ Failure to co-operate with one another have become Chancellor?
■ Attitudes of Germans to the democratic parties 5 Were any of those five factors also present in the 1920s?
Other factors 6 If so, explain why the Nazis were not successful in the
■ Weaknesses of the Weimar Republic 1920s.
■ Scheming of Hindenburg and von Papen

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Factfile Hitler consolidates his position

Reichstag Fire Decree
A Dutch communist called Marinus
It is easy to forget, but when Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933 he was
van der Lubbe was found at the scene in a very precarious position (see Source 14). Few people thought he would
of the Reichstag Fire. He was later hold on to power for long. Even fewer thought that by the summer of 1934 he
charged with treason and executed. would be the supreme dictator of Germany. He achieved this through a clever
Hitler blamed the attack on the combination of methods – some legal, others dubious. He also managed to
Communists and claimed a revolution defeat or reach agreements with those who could have stopped him.
was imminent. He demanded
Hindenburg used Article 48 to grant
the government emergency powers.
Step 1: The Reichstag Fire
With these powers Hitler was able to: Once he was Chancellor, Hitler took steps to complete a Nazi take-over of
■ suspend civil liberties, such Germany. He called another election for March 1933 to try to get an overall
as the freedom of expression Nazi majority in the Reichstag. He used the same tactics as in previous
and freedom of the press and elections, but now he had the resources of state media and control of the
the freedom to organise and
assemble
streets. Even so, success was in the balance. Then on 27 February there
■ increase police powers and use was a dramatic development: the Reichstag building burnt down. Hitler
the SA as an auxiliary police blamed the Communists and declared that the fire was the beginning of a
force communist uprising. He demanded special emergency powers to deal with
■ use the police and the SA to the situation and was given them by President Hindenburg. The Nazis used
arrest over 4000 communist these powers to arrest Communists, break up meetings and frighten voters.
leaders and shut down the anti-
Nazi press. There have been many theories about what caused the fire, including that it
This effectively removed the
was an accident, the work of a madman, or a Communist plot. Many Germans
communist threat, helped prevent at the time thought that the Nazis might have started the fire themselves.
opposition from trade unions and
helped the Nazis to increase their SOURCE 14
share of the vote in the March
elections.

Source Analysis
This source can be interpreted in
different ways.
■ Does it show Hitler pressing
down and controlling von Papen
and Hindenburg or
■ Is it saying that without these
men holding Hitler up he would
be nowhere?
Come to your own decision as to
which is the best interpretation and
explain your answer.

A British cartoon from early 1933. Hitler,

as Chancellor, is being supported by
Hindenburg and Von Papen.

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SOURCE 15

8 Germany, 1918–45
Think!
1 Some people suggest that the The defeat in 1918 did not depress me as greatly as the present state of affairs. It
Nazis burnt down the Reichstag is shocking how day after day naked acts of violence, breaches of the law, barbaric
themselves. Explain why the
opinions appear quite undisguised as official decree. The Socialist papers are
Nazis might have wanted to do
this. permanently banned. The ‘Liberals’ tremble. The Berliner Tageblatt was recently
2 Explain why the Enabling Act banned for two days; that can’t happen to the Dresdener Neueste Nachrichten, it
was so important to Hitler. is completely devoted to the government … I can no longer get rid of the feeling of
3 In the Night of the Long Knives, disgust and shame. And no one stirs; everyone trembles, keeps out of sight.
why might Hitler have executed An extract for 17 March 1933 from the diary of Victor Klemperer, a Jewish man who
people such as von Schleicher lived in Dresden and recorded his experiences from 1933 to 1941.
who were nothing to do with the
SA?
4 Why do you think Hitler chose Step 2: The Enabling Act
the support of the army over the In the election, the Nazis won their largest-ever share of the votes and, with
support of the SA? the support of the smaller Nationalist Party, Hitler had an overall majority.
Using the SA and SS, he then intimidated the Reichstag into passing the
ENABLING ACT which allowed him to make laws without consulting the Reichstag.
Revision Tip Only the SPD voted against him. Following the election, the Communists had
■ Make sure you can describe been banned. The Catholic Centre Party decided to co-operate with the Nazis
how the Nazis reacted to the rather than be treated like the Communists. In return, they retained control
Reichstag Fire.
of Catholic schools. The Enabling Act made Hitler a virtual dictator. For the
■ Can you explain how the
next four years if he wanted a new law he could just pass it. There was nothing
Enabling Act helped Hitler
secure his power? President Hindenburg or anyone else could do.
Even now, Hitler was not secure. He had seen how the Civil Service, the
judiciary, the army and other important groups had undermined the Weimar
Republic. He was not yet strong enough to remove his opponents, so he set
about a clever policy that mixed force, concessions and compromise (see
Factfile below).

Factfile
Nazi consolidation of power
■ 30 January 1933 Hitler appointed Chancellor; Goering ■ 7 April Civil Service administration, court, and education
minister of interior. purged of ‘alien elements’, i.e. Jewish people and other
■ 17 February Goering ordered local police forces to co- opponents of the Nazis.
operate with the SA and SS. ■ 1 May Workers granted May Day holiday.
■ 27 February Reichstag fire. Arrest of 4000 Communists ■ 2 May Trade unions banned; all workers to belong to new
and other Nazi opponents on the same night. German Labour Front (DAF).
■ 28 February Emergency Decree issued by Hindenburg: ■ 9 June Employment Law: major programme of public
– police to arrest suspects and hold them without trial, works (e.g. road building) to create jobs.
search houses, ban meetings, close newspapers and ■ 14 July Law against the Formation of New Parties:
radio stations Germany became a ONE-PARTY STATE.
– Hitler took over regional governments. ■ 20 July CONCORDAT (agreement) with the Roman Catholic
■ 5 March Reichstag elections: government used control of Church: government protected religious freedom; Church
radio and police to intimidate opponents. Nazi election slogan banned from political activity.
was ‘The battle against Marxism’. Won 43.9 per cent of vote. ■ January 1934 All state governments taken over.
■ 13 March Goebbels appointed head of Ministry for ■ 30 June NIGHT OF THE LONG K NIVES.
Propaganda. Took control of all media. ■ August On death of Hindenburg, Hitler became Führer.
■ 24 March The Enabling Act allowed Hitler to pass decrees German armed forces swore oath of loyalty to him.
without the President’s involvement. This made Hitler a legal
dictator.

Revision Tip
■ Choose three events from the Factfile and make sure you can describe
them accurately.
■ Give the Enabling Act and the Night of The Long Knives marks out of ten for
their importance. Now prepare two points that justify your marks.

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Step 3: The Night of the Long Knives

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Within a year any opponents (or potential opponents) of the Nazis had
either left Germany or been taken to CONCENTRATION CAMPS run by the SS. Other
political parties were banned.
Hitler was still not entirely secure, however. The leading officers in
the army were not impressed by him and were particularly suspicious
of Hitler’s SA and its leader Ernst Röhm. The SA was a badly disciplined
force (in comparison with the army that is). What’s more, Röhm talked of
making the SA into a second German army to begin a ‘second revolution’.
This would achieve some of the Nazi Party’s more socialist aims from
their 25-Point Programme. Röhm’s nearly four million strong SA was also
increasingly causing chaos on the streets with the communists gone.
Hindenburg even threatened to enforce
SOURCE 16 martial law if nothing was done. This
would have seen the German army take
control of law and order in Germany and
with it, Nazi rule. Hitler himself was also
suspicious of Röhm and feared that Röhm’s
control over the SA men made him a
potentially dangerous rival.
Hitler had to choose between the
army and the SA. He made his choice,
after leading Nazis such as Himmler
and Goering persuaded him of Röhm’s
intentions, and acted ruthlessly. On the
weekend of 29–30 June squads of SS men
broke into the homes of Röhm and other
leading figures in the SA and arrested
them. Hitler accused Röhm of plotting
to overthrow and murder him. Over the
weekend Röhm and possibly as many as
400 others were executed. These included
the former Chancellor von Schleicher, a
fierce critic of Hitler, and others who
actually had no connection with Röhm.
This purge came to be known as the Night
of the Long Knives.
Hindenburg thanked Hitler for his
‘determined action which has nipped
treason in the bud’. The army said it was
well satisfied with the events of the
weekend.
The SA was not disbanded. It remained as
a Nazi paramilitary organisation, but was
A Swiss cartoon commenting on the Night of the Long Knives. Röhm was the very much subordinate to the SS. Many of
head of the SA and Heines was his deputy. The caption for the cartoon is: its members were absorbed by the army and
‘And the Führer said: Only death can drive us apart.’
the SS.

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Step 4: The army oath

8 Germany, 1918–45
President Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934, at the age of 86. Hitler
used the Enabling Act to pass a law that abolished the position of
President and combined its powers with that of the Chancellor. This
meant Hitler was now Germany’s head of state and head of government.
His new title was ‘Führer und Reichskanzler’ (‘Leader and Chancellor of
the Reich’). Hindenburg’s death had removed the last obstacle to Hitler’s
absolute control over Germany.
On the day that Hindenburg died, the entire army swore an oath of personal
loyalty to Adolf Hitler as Führer of Germany.
The army agreed to stay out of politics and to serve Hitler. In return, Hitler
spent vast sums on REARMAMENT, brought back CONSCRIPTION and made plans to
make Germany a great military power again.

FOCUS TASK 8.11

How did Hitler consolidate his power in 1933–34?
1 Work in groups of three or four. Draw your own copy of 2 Use the Factfile on page 247 and choose at least eight
the following graph: of the 16 key events. You must include the following
four events:
■ Reichstag Fire and Emergency Decree
10 Helped the Nazis
■ Enabling Act
consolidate power
9
■ Concordat
■ Night of the Long Knives.
8
Decide where you would place each one, as well as
7 four more, on your timeline based on how far they
helped the Nazis consolidate power.
6 3 Add a brief explanation for each event on your timeline
5 justifying your decision.

0
30 January 1933 2 August 1934

Key Question Summary

Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934? 8 Hitler was a great asset as a highly effective speaker
1 The Nazi Party was formed in 1919 and Hitler soon who appeared to understand the people’s problems
became its leader. and express their hopes.
2 Its 25-point programme appealed to ex-soldiers and 9 Disillusionment with the Weimar Republic pushed
those on the Right but it did not enjoy wider support. Germans towards extremist parties, both the Nazis
3 While in prison after the Munich Putsch of 1923, Hitler and the Communists.
wrote Mein Kampf, setting out his ideas. 10 There was violence and lawlessness and groups like
4 The Nazi Party reorganised itself in the 1920s but was businessmen and farmers, who feared communism,
still a fringe party in the 1928 elections. liked the Nazis’ anticommunist message.
5 The Great Depression led to unemployment and 11 The Nazis became the biggest single party in the 1932
economic hardship, circumstances in which the Nazis elections.
could flourish. 12 The leaders of the Weimar Republic thought they
6 Nazi criticisms of the Weimar Government and the could use Hitler to their advantage by making him
Treaty of Versailles were popular along with their Chancellor. But he used emergency powers and the
ideas on rebuilding Germany. Enabling Act to establish himself as dictator.
7 They used innovative techniques – rallies, slogans, films,
radio, posters and pamphlets – to put across their ideas.

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8C How effectively did the Nazis

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

control Germany, 1933–45?

FOCUS
There was supposed to be no room for opposition of any kind in Nazi
Germany. The aim was to create a TOTALITARIAN state. In a totalitarian state there
can be no rival parties, no political debate. Ordinary citizens must divert their
whole energy into serving the state and doing what its leaders want.
In this section you will examine how the Nazis combined the strategies of
terror and propaganda to control Germany.

Focus Points
■ How much opposition was there to the Nazi regime?
■ How effectively did the Nazis deal with their political opponents?
■ How did the Nazis use culture and the mass media to control the people?
■ Why did the Nazis persecute many groups in German society?
■ Was Nazi Germany a totalitarian state?

The Nazi seizure of power

Nazi aims
Achieving political power was only the beginning of Nazi ambition. Hitler
wanted power in order to reshape Germany. The Nazis wanted to build:
■ A strong Germany. Hitler blamed Germany’s problems on weak
leadership. He wanted strong leadership as in the days of the Kaiser.
He wanted strong Germans, ready for war who were able to restore
Germany’s military pride.
■ A racially pure Germany. Hitler believed in Aryan supremacy and
blamed Jewish people for many of Germany’s problems. He wanted
to remove Jewish people and other non-Aryans from any positions of
leadership.
■ A People’s Community (or Volk). The Nazis wanted people to give
their hearts and minds to Hitler. In the VOLK people would see their
contribution to Germany as more important than their own fulfilment.
They intended to eliminate anything that stood in the way of achieving
these aims. They started immediately Hitler took power in January 1933.
The speed and ruthlessness of this take-over took many Germans by
surprise. Political opposition was decapitated – its leaders imprisoned or
intimidated into silence.

Case study: The Nazi seizure of power in

Northeim
The historian W.S. Allen wrote a groundbreaking book in the 1960s. He
interviewed hundreds of people in the small town of Northeim in northern
Germany about their experience of living under Nazi rule. He compiled an
incredibly thorough account of how the Nazis took control in this one town.
This process is summarised in the diagram on the opposite page.
The steps that took place in Northeim were replicated in thousands of other
small towns and communities around Germany.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
How the Nazis seized power in the town of Northeim
1. They took over the council by bullying and intimidation. They had a majority
of 15:5 on the council. Before the first council meeting the police arrested one
opposition councillor. At the meeting they stationed SA officers all around the room
and refused to let opposition councillors speak. Opposition councillors walked out in
protest and were spat on by the SA officers as they left. The council never met again.
That was the end of democracy in Northeim.

2. They set up a search of all houses in Northeim supposedly looking for illegal guns
and ammunition. They ransacked homes and arrested 22 people. Seven were taken to
the local concentration camp. The deeper impact of this was that ordinary Northeimers
got the message that the violence the Nazis used against political opponents would also
be applied to any person who stepped out of line.

3. They ordered Gleichschaltung (co-ordination) of all organisations. They argued that

because the Nazis were a majority in national government that all local bodies should
also have a Nazi majority. The four sports clubs in Northeim were combined into one
Nazi-run sports club. Even the singing groups and choirs were combined as the Nazi-
led ‘Mixed choral singing club of 1933’. The aim was that whenever ordinary people got
together to do anything they would be watched by a loyal Nazi.

4. They organised boycotts of Jewish businesses. A newspaper campaign told

Northeimers not to shop at Jewish-run businesses. SA men were stationed outside to
turn people away.

5. They ended unemployment. This had been a key reason the Nazis had been elected.
In June 1933 there were 500 registered unemployed in Northeim; within three months
there were none. Most were put to work repairing roads and clearing the woods around
the town. However, socialists were dismissed from jobs which were then given to Nazis.
Unemployed socialists were offered physically demanding work in the local quarry but
only if they agreed to give up politics.

6. They produced relentless propaganda. In the first three months of Nazi power they
organised a torrent of propaganda events including the ceremonial burning of the
Weimar flag; a book burning to destroy unacceptable books; and a torchlight parade,
joined by 3000 people, through the streets to the park where the local Nazi leader Ernst
Girmann gave a speech saying, ‘The individual is nothing! The Volk is everything! Once
we unite internally, we shall defeat the enemy!’

7. Northeimers rushed to join the Nazi party. Northeimers could quickly see that to get
anywhere in Nazi Germany you had to join the party. By May membership had rocketed
to 1200 people in a town of 10,000. Many of these were not Nazi fanatics. They joined to
keep safe or to keep their jobs.

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Crushing opposition: The Nazi police state

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

FOCUS TASK 8.12

How did the Nazis control
Germany?
The Nazis had a range of powerful ways to terrorise the German people.
The main organisations and methods are summarised below. However you
Summarise these two pages in a will quickly see as you read about each one that their roles overlap. If it
table with the following headings: seems confusing, it was! Modern research suggests that Nazi Germany was
■ Organisation
in many ways chaotic and disorganised. Nazi officials competed with each
■ Methods
other to get Hitler’s approval. The result was often a jumble of different
■ Controlled by
■ Duties
organisations competing with each other and getting in each other’s way.
■ How it helped Hitler make his However, even if it was confusing exactly who did what to whom there is no
position secure. doubting the overall impression they generated – that the Nazi terror machine
was everywhere. It very effectively scared most opposition into submission.

The Gestapo SOURCE 1

■ The GESTAPO was the secret state police. It was
commanded by Reinhard Heydrich.
■ Gestapo agents had sweeping powers. They could
arrest citizens and send them to concentration camps
without trial or even explanation.
■ They were believed to have a network of ‘informers’
listening in on people’s conversations.
■ It seems that the Gestapo was the organisation most
feared by ordinary citizens. However, recent research
has shown that Germans believed the Gestapo was
much more powerful than it actually was. As a result,
Gestapo officers making an arrest. It was probably staged as
ordinary Germans informed on each other because
propaganda to increase the fear of the Gestapo.
they thought the Gestapo would find out anyway.

The SS SOURCE 2
■ After virtually destroying the SA in 1934, the SS
grew into a huge organisation with many different
responsibilities. It had 1 million staff by 1944. It was
led by Heinrich Himmler (see page 239).
■ SS men were Aryans, very highly trained and totally
loyal to Hitler.
■ Under Himmler, the SS had the main SS guards after taking over
responsibility for crushing opposition and the Berlin broadcasting
carrying out Nazi racial policies. station in 1933.
■ There were three particularly important sub-
divisions:
■ The SD was the SS’s own internal security FIGURE 3
service. The SD would investigate potential
disloyalty within the armed forces or politically East-
Prussia
sensitive cases (e.g. a crime committed by a
senior Nazi).
■ The Death’s Head units were responsible N
Berlin POLAND
for the concentration camps and the
transportation and murder of Jewish people. Dusseldorf Dresden
■ The Waffen-SS – armoured regiments that Cologne 0 300 km
Frankfurt Scale
fought alongside the regular army. Prague
■ As its power grew, the SS set up its own CZECHOSLOVAKIA
Key SS base
courts. Around 200,000 Germans were sent to FRANCE
Stuttgart Munich concentration camp
concentration camps by these courts. SS court

Map showing the locations and types of SS activities 1933–37.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Source Analysis Revision Tip
1 Study Sources 1–5. Does it seem strange ■ Make sure you can describe at
that these activities were photographed by least two methods of control
the Nazis? used by the Nazis.
2 Can you think why these pictures were ■ Choose one method and make
published and why the Nazis did not try to sure you can explain how it
hide what was happening? was effective.

Concentration camps SOURCE 4

■ Concentration camps were the Nazis’ ultimate
sanction against their own people.
■ The first camps were set up as soon as Hitler took
power in 1933. They were makeshift prisons in
disused factories and warehouses. Purpose-built
camps were soon built, usually in isolated rural areas.
■ Jewish people, socialists, communists, trade
unionists, churchmen and anyone else brave enough
to criticise the Nazis ended up in these camps.
Historians estimate that around 1.3 million Germans
spent at least some time in a concentration camp
between 1933 and 1939.
■ These camps were run by SS Death’s Head units.
■ Prisoners were forced to do hard labour. Food was
limited and prisoners suffered harsh discipline,
beatings and random executions.
Political prisoners at the Oranienburg concentration
■ The aim was to ‘correct’ opponents of the regime.
camp near Berlin.
However, by the late 1930s, deaths in the camps were
increasingly common and very few people came out
alive.

The police and the courts SOURCE 5

■ Top jobs in local police forces were given to high-
ranking Nazis reporting to Himmler.
■ As a result, the police added political ‘snooping’
to their normal law-and-order role. They were, of
course, under strict instructions to ignore crimes
committed by Nazi agents.
■ Similarly, the Nazis controlled magistrates, judges
and the courts. They appointed all the judges and
sacked those they disapproved of.
■ This led to self-imposed control – magistrates knew
what they were expected to do and did it. They knew
they would not last long if they did not. This meant that
opponents of Nazism rarely received a fair trial.

German judges swearing their loyalty to the Nazi regime at the

criminal courts in Berlin.

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Propaganda in Nazi Germany

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

One reason why opposition to Hitler was so limited was the work of Dr
Joseph Goebbels, minister for enlightenment and propaganda. Goebbels
passionately believed in Hitler as the saviour of Germany. His mission was
to make sure that others believed this too. Throughout the twelve years of
Nazi rule Goebbels constantly kept his finger on the pulse of PUBLIC OPINION
and decided what the German public should and should not hear. He aimed
to use every resource available to him to make people loyal to Hitler and
the Nazis.

The Nuremberg rallies

Goebbels organised huge rallies, marches, torch-lit processions and
Source Analysis
meetings. Probably the best example was the NUREMBERG RALLY which took
Look at Source 6. How does the
place in summer each year. There were bands, marches, flying displays and
rally:
a) make it clear who the leader is
Hitler’s brilliant speeches. The rallies brought some colour and excitement
b) give people a sense of belonging into people’s lives. They gave them a sense of belonging to a great
c) provide colour and excitement movement. The rallies also showed the German people the power of the
d) show the power of the state state and convinced them that ‘every other German’ fully supported the
e) show the Nazis’ ability to create Nazis. Goebbels also recognised that one of the Nazis’ main attractions was
order out of chaos? that they created order out of chaos and so the whole rally was organised
to emphasise order.

SOURCE 6
A Hitler speaks to the assembled Germans. C German youth marching with spades.

B A parade through the streets.

The annual rally at Nuremberg. The whole town was taken over and the rally dominated radio broadcasts and newsreels.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Control of media and culture
Less spectacular than the rallies but possibly more important was Goebbels’
control of media and culture. The diagram below summarises how he used
them to spread Nazi messages. This was in stark contrast with the freedom
of expression allowed in Weimar Germany.
Goebbels was supported in this work by the terror state. For example, when
he wanted to close down an anti-Nazi newspaper, silence an anti-Nazi
writer, or catch someone listening to a foreign radio station, the SS and
the Gestapo were there to do that work for him.

Books Art
■ No books could be published ■ Artists suffered the same kinds of
without Goebbels’ permission. Not restriction as writers. Only Nazi-
surprisingly the bestseller in Nazi approved painters could show their
Germany was Hitler’s book, Mein works.
Kampf. ■ These usually had to be paintings or
■ In 1933 Goebbels organised a sculptures of heroic-looking Aryans,
high-profile ‘book-burning’. Nazi military figures or images of the
students publicly burned books that ideal Aryan family.
included ideas unacceptable to the Nazis.

Newspapers Cinema
■ Within months of the Nazi take-over, Jewish ■ All films – factual or fictional, thrillers or
editors and journalists found themselves out comedies – had to carry a pro-Nazi message.
of work and anti-Nazi newspapers were closed ■ The newsreels before each feature film told of
down.
the greatness of Hitler and the achievements
■ Those that remained were not allowed to print
of Nazi Germany. There is evidence that
anti-Nazi articles. German newspapers became dull reading
and Germans bought fewer newspapers as a result – Germans avoided these by arriving late!
circulation fell by about 10 per cent. ■ Goebbels censored all foreign films coming into Germany.

Music Radio
■ He banned JAZZ music, which had been popular in Germany ■ Goebbels also loved new technology
as elsewhere around Europe. He banned and quickly saw the potential of
it because it was ‘Black’ music and black radio broadcasting for spreading the
people were considered an inferior race. Nazi message.
■ He made cheap radios available
so all Germans could buy one (see
Source 8 on page 256) and he
controlled all the radio stations.
Listening to broadcasts from the BBC was punishable by
Posters death.
■ If people missed the radio ■ Just in case people did not have a radio Goebbels placed
broadcasts they would see the loudspeakers in the streets and public bars.
posters. Goebbels plastered ■ Hitler’s speeches and those of other Nazi leaders were
Germany with posters repeated on the radio over and over again until the ideas
proclaiming the successes expressed in them – German expansion into eastern
of Hitler and the Nazis and Europe, the inferiority of Jewish people – came to be
attacking their opponents. accepted as normal by the German people.

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SOURCE 7
SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Source Analysis There are cinema evenings to be caught up with, very enjoyable ones – if only there
What can you infer from Sources 7 were not each time the bitterness of the Third Reich’s triumphalism. The renewal of
and 8 about the effectiveness of Nazi German art … enthusiastic welcome for the Führer in X or Y … Goebbels’ speech on
propaganda? culture … the biggest lecture theatre in the world, the biggest autobahn in the world,
etc. etc. – the biggest lie in the world, the biggest disgrace in the world. It can’t be
helped.
From the diary of Victor Klemperer for 8 August 1937.

Think! SOURCE 8
In groups, discuss which of the
following statements you most
agree with.
A Goebbels’ work was more
important to Nazi success than
that of Himmler (head of the SS).
B Himmler’s work was more
important to Nazi success than
Goebbels’.
C The techniques of repression
and propaganda go hand in hand
– neither would work without
the other.

Poster advertising
cheap Nazi-produced
radios. The text reads
‘All Germany hears the
Führer on the People’s
Radio.’ The radios had
only a short range and
were unable to pick up
foreign stations.

Revision Tip FOCUS TASK 8.13

■ Make sure you can describe How did the Nazis use culture and the mass media to control the people?
at least two things the Nazis
banned and one thing the Nazis Use your own wider research to find out about one of the following examples
promoted. of Goebbels’ use of culture or mass media:
■ Be ready to explain why ■ a book banned by the Nazis or an artwork banned by the Nazis
Goebbels thought the use ■ The Triumph of the Will: a propaganda film made by the Nazis
of modern technology was ■ Heinrich Hoffman’s photographs of Hitler
important. ■ Der Sturmer.

There are many other examples you can choose.

For your chosen example, research and then write a short explanation of how
this was used by the Nazis. It could be one or more of:
■ marginalising groups the Nazis disliked
■ persuading Germans to believe in Nazi ideology
■ building national pride
■ strengthening the cult of personality around Hitler.

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Case study: The 1936 Olympics

8 Germany, 1918–45
Think!
1 In what ways was the Berlin
Olympics a propaganda success One of Goebbels’ greatest challenges came with the 1936 Olympic Games
for Goebbels? in Berlin. Other Nazis were opposed to holding the Games in Berlin, but
2 In what ways was it a failure? Goebbels convinced Hitler that this was a great propaganda opportunity
3 Why do you think Nazi both within Germany and internationally.
propaganda was more
Goebbels and Hitler also thought that the Olympics could be a showcase for
successful within Germany than
outside it?
their doctrine that the Aryan race was superior to all other races. However,
4 You have already come there was international pressure for nations such as the USA to BOYCOTT the
across many examples of Games in protest against the Nazis’ repressive regime and anti-Jewish politics.
Nazi propaganda. Choose one In response, the Nazis included one token Jewish person in their team!
example which you think is the
Goebbels built a brand new stadium to hold 100,000 people. It was lit by
cleverest piece of propaganda.
Explain your choice.
the most modern electric lighting. He brought in television cameras for the
first time. The most sophisticated German photo-electronic timing device
was installed. The stadium had the largest stopclock ever built. With guests
and competitors from 49 countries coming into the heart of Nazi Germany,
it was going to take all Goebbels’ talents to show that Germany was a
modern, civilised and successful nation. No expense was spared. When the
Games opened, the visitors were duly amazed at the scale of the stadium,
the wonderful facilities and the efficiency of the organisation. However,
they were also struck, and in some cases appalled, by the almost fanatical
devotion of the people to Hitler and by the overt presence of army and SS
soldiers who were patrolling or standing guard everywhere.
To the delight of Hitler and Goebbels, Germany came top of the medal table,
Revision Tip way ahead of all other countries. However, to their great dismay, a black athlete,
■ Try to remember two ways Jesse Owens, became the star of the Games. He won four gold medals and broke
the Nazis exploited the 1936 eleven world records in the process. The ten black members of the American
Olympics. team won thirteen medals between them. So much for Aryan superiority!
■ Explain one way in which the
Olympics were a propaganda To the majority of German people, who had grown used to the Nazi
success for the Nazis and one propaganda machine, the Games appeared to present all the qualities
way they were a failure. they valued in the Nazis – a grand vision, efficiency, power, strength and
achievement. However, to many foreign visitors who were not used to such
blatant propaganda it backfired on the Nazi regime.
SOURCE 9

The stadium built for the 1936 Olympics.

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Factfile The Nazis and the Churches

Religion in Germany in the 1930s
The relationship between the Churches and the Nazis was complicated. In
Most Germans were Christian in the the early stages of the Nazi regime, there was some CO-OPERATION between the
1930s. Approximately one-third of Nazis and the Churches. Hitler signed a Concordat with the Catholic Church
Christians were Catholic and two-
in 1933. This meant that Hitler agreed to leave the Catholic Church alone
thirds were Protestant.
and allowed it to keep control of its schools. In return, the Church agreed
When the Nazis took control after to stay out of politics.
1933, the Protestant Church split
into two distinct groups: Hitler tried to get all of the Protestant Churches to come together in one
■ The German Christians under official Reich Church. The Reich Church was headed by the Protestant
Müller were prepared to swear Bishop Ludwig Müller (see Source 11). However, many Germans still felt
loyalty to Hitler and promote Nazi that their true loyalties lay with their original Churches in their local areas
racial ideas.
rather than with this state-approved Church.
■ The Confessing Church,
which included Niemöller and Hitler even encouraged an alternative religion to the Churches, the pagan
Bonhoeffer, resisted the German German Faith Movement.
Christian movement and opposed
the Nazification of religion. Many churchgoers either supported the Nazis or did little to oppose them.
The German Faith Movement, which
However, there were some very important exceptions. The Catholic Bishop
emerged as an alternative religion, Galen criticised the Nazis throughout the 1930s. In 1941 he led a popular
tried to tempt Germans away protest against the Nazi policies of killing mentally ill and physically disabled
from Christianity and towards an people, forcing the Nazis temporarily to stop. He had such strong support
older, pagan form of worship. This among his followers that the Nazis decided it was too risky to try to silence
emphasised worship of the sun, loyalty him because they did not want trouble while Germany was at war.
to Hitler and the peasant farmer ‘blood
and soil’ philosophy. It only managed Protestant ministers also resisted the Nazis. Pastor Martin Niemöller was
to attract about 200,000 followers or one of the most high-profile critics of the regime in the 1930s. Along with
0.3 per cent of the total population. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, he formed an alternative Protestant Church to the
official Reich Church. These church leaders suffered a similar fate to Hitler’s
political opponents. Niemöller spent the years 1938–45 in a concentration
SOURCE 10 camp for resisting the Nazis. Dietrich Bonhoeffer preached against the
Most postwar accounts have Nazis until the Gestapo stopped him in 1937.
concentrated on the few German
clerics who did behave bravely … But SOURCE 11
these were few. Most German church
leaders were shamefully silent. As late
as January 1945, the Catholic bishop of
Würzburg was urging his flock to fight on
for the Fatherland, saying that ‘salvation
lies in sacrifice’.
British historian and journalist Charles
Wheeler, writing in 1996.

Revision Tip
Make sure you can describe:
■ one example of collaboration
between the Nazis and the
Churches An official photograph of the National Synod (the ruling body) of the German
■ at least one example of conflict Evangelical Church (the largest of Germany's Protestant churches) in 1933. The man in
between the Nazis and the the centre is Bishop Ludwig Müller, a close ally of Hitler. Hitler forced the Church to
Churches. accept him as its leader in 1933.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
FOCUS TASK 8.14 The persecution of minorities
Why did the Nazis persecute many
groups in German society? Through their twelve years in power the Nazis persecuted any group that
You have seen how the Nazis they thought challenged Nazi ideals. Gay and lesbian people were seen as a
persecuted people who opposed threat to Nazi ideas about family life; people with mental health disorders
them politically, e.g. the Communists, were a threat to Nazi ideas about Germans being a perfect master race;
socialists and trade unionists. But Roma and Jewish people were thought to be inferior people.
why did they persecute so many other
groups? Methods of persecution varied.
1 Work in teams of five, each ■ Organisations for gay and lesbian people were shut down. Homosexuality
representing one of the minority was already a crime and there was a lot of antigay prejudice even before
groups below. Each team will 1933 so the Nazis exploited this prejudice. Books by gay authors were
use the information on pages banned. Around 100,000 gay people were arrested with around 50,000
259–61 and their own research to sent to prison. Figures are unclear but between 5000 and 10,000 of
investigate:
a) why the Nazis targeted their group
these ended up in concentration camps. They were forced to wear a pink
b) what actions the Nazis took triangle to mark them out.
against them. ■ A so-called ‘euthanasia programme’ was begun in 1939 against people
■ Group 1: Gay and lesbian with mental health disorders: at least 5000 babies and children were killed
people between 1939 and 1945 either by injection or by starvation. Between 1939
■ Group 2: People with physical
and 1941, 72,000 patients with mental health conditions were gassed before
or mental health disorders
■ Group 3: Roma
a public outcry in Germany itself ended the extermination.
■ Group 4: Asocials ■ The attempted extermination of the Roma, on the other hand, did not
■ Group 5: Jewish people cause an outcry. Five out of six Roma living in Germany in 1939 were
2 Complete a table to summarise killed by the Nazis.
this information. You will need to ■ Similarly, there was little or no complaint about the treatment of
ask the other teams about their so-called ‘asocials’ – alcoholics, the homeless, prostitutes, habitual
research to complete the table. criminals and beggars – who were rounded up off the streets and sent
to concentration camps.
Revision Tip
Make sure you can describe how the Jewish people
Nazis persecuted Jewish people and
one other group. It is important to be
The most vicious persecution was the Nazi treatment of the Jewish
able to explain Nazi theories on race population in which ANTISEMITISM culminated in the dreadful slaughter of the
and how these led to persecution. ‘FINAL SOLUTION’.

Hitler’s antisemitism
Factfile Antisemitism means hatred of Jewish people. Throughout Europe, Jewish
Nazi race theory people had experienced discrimination for hundreds of years. They were often
The Nazis believed that the Germans treated unjustly in courts or forced to live in ghettos. One reason for this
were members of the Aryan race who persecution was religious, in that Jewish people were blamed for the death of
were the herrenvolk, or master race, Jesus Christ. Another reason was that the Nazis promoted the idea that Jewish
destined to rule. This included mainly people tended to be better off, owning more stores and successful businesses.
white, northern Europeans. Germans
who could prove their Aryan heritage Hitler hated Jewish people. In his years of poverty in Vienna, he became
received an ‘Aryan Certificate’. obsessed by the fact that they ran many of the most successful businesses,
According to Nazi racial ideas, below particularly the large department stores. This offended his idea of the
the Aryans there were lesser races superiority of Aryans. Hitler also blamed Jewish businessmen and bankers
such as Slav, African and Asian. And for Germany’s defeat in the First World War. He thought they had forced the
at the bottom of the Nazi hierarchy
surrender of the German army.
came the Untermenschen (‘sub-
human’) races. This group included
Jews and Roma, who were viewed by SOURCE 12
the Nazis as parasitic and a danger to
the healthy Aryan race. The Mischling To read the pages [of Hitler’s Mein Kampf] is to enter a world of the insane, a world
were Germans of mixed race peopled by hideous and distorted shadows. The Jew is no longer a human being, he
ancestry. This included people with at has become a mythical figure, a grimacing leering devil invested with infernal powers,
least one Jewish grandparent. These
ideas formed the basis of the 1935 the incarnation of evil.
Nuremberg Laws. A. Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, published in 1990.

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Early measures against Jewish people

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Factfile
As soon as Hitler took power in 1933 he began to mobilise the full powers
Nazi eugenics of the state against Jewish people.
Nazi eugenics refers to the attempts ■ They were immediately banned from the Civil Service and a variety of
the Nazis made to biologically public services such as broadcasting and teaching.
‘improve’ the Aryan race. The Nazis
■ At the same time, SA and later SS troopers organised boycotts of Jewish
believed that to ensure a thriving future
Aryan master race, Aryans should shops and businesses (see Source 13), which were marked with a star of
only marry Aryans and raise Aryan David.
children. This eugenics programme ■ Goebbels’ propaganda experts bombarded German children and families
meant those deemed non-Aryan in with anti-Jewish messages.
Germany were barred from marrying ■ In daily life Jewish people faced discrimination. They might be refused
Aryans. Many non-Aryans were also
sterilised, including many of the 20,000
jobs or refused service in shops. In schools, Jewish children were
black people living in the Rhineland. humiliated and then segregated.
The Nazis also believed that people
SOURCE 13
with hereditary mental and physical
conditions, such as Down’s syndrome,
should not be allowed to have children.
They argued that people with these
conditions wasted public money. Many
were sterilised and in 1939 the ‘Aktion
T-4’ euthanasia programme saw a total
of 200,000 people deemed ‘unfit for life’.
All this in the name of ‘racial hygiene’.

SOURCE 14
I hate the treatment of the Jews. I think
it is a bad side of the movement and I will
have nothing to do with it. I did not join
the party to do that sort of thing. I joined
the party because I thought and still think
that Hitler did the greatest Christian
work for twenty-five years. I saw seven
million men rotting in the streets, often
I was there too, and no one … seemed
to care … Then Hitler came and he took
SA and SS men enforcing the boycott of Jewish shops, April 1933.
all those men off the streets and gave The sign tells Germans not to buy from Jewish people.
them health and security and work.
H. Schmidt, Labour Corps leader, in an
interview in 1938.
The Nuremberg Laws
In September 1935 at the annual Nuremberg Rally, Hitler announced two
SOURCE 15 new anti-Semitic laws. Collectively they are known as the Nuremberg Laws.
I feel the urge to present to you a true ■ The ‘Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honour’ made
report of the recent riots, plundering and it illegal for Jews to marry or have sex with Aryans.
destruction of Jewish property. Despite ■ The ‘Reich Citizenship Law’ classified Germans into different racial
what the official Nazi account says, the groups:
German people have nothing whatever – Aryans of pure German blood
to do with these riots and burnings. The – Mischling or mixed race
police supplied SS men with axes, house- – Non-Aryans, including Jews.
breaking tools and ladders. A list of the Only Aryans were given full German citizenship. A further decree later in
addresses of all Jewish shops and flats was the year added Roma and black Germans to the list of non-Aryans.
provided and the mob worked under the
leadership of the SS men. The police had Kristallnacht
strict orders to remain neutral. In November 1938 a young Jewish man killed a German diplomat in Paris.
Anonymous letter from a German civil The Nazis used this as an excuse to launch a violent revenge on Jewish
servant to the British consul, 1938. people. Plain-clothes SS troopers were issued with pickaxes and hammers

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and the addresses of Jewish businesses. They ran riot, smashing up Jewish

8 Germany, 1918–45
Source Analysis
shops and workplaces. Ninety-one Jewish people were murdered. Hundreds
1 Read Sources 14–17. How useful
of synagogues were burned. Twenty thousand Jewish peoples were taken to
is each source to a historian
looking at the German reaction
concentration camps. Thousands more left the country. This event became
to Kristallnacht? known as KRISTALLNACHT or ‘The Night of Broken Glass’. Many Germans watched
2 Taken together, do they provide a the events of Kristallnacht with alarm and concern. The Nazi-controlled press
clear picture of how Germans felt presented Kristallnacht as the spontaneous reaction of ordinary Germans
about Kristallnacht? against the Jewish people. Most Germans did not believe this. However,
hardly anyone protested. The few who did were brutally murdered. The Jews
SOURCE 16 were even fined one billion marks as a lot of the damaged property was
rented by Jews from German owners.
Until Kristallnacht, many Germans
After Kristallnacht, Nazi policies towards Jews got increasingly harsh.
believed Hitler was not engaged in
Jewish children were banned from German schools. By the end of 1938 all
mass murder. [The treatment of the
the remaining Jewish businesses were confiscated.
Jews] seemed to be a minor form of
harassment of a disliked minority. But Before war broke out again in September 1939, there were still nearly 200,000
after Kristallnacht no German could any Jews living in Germany (there had been nearly 500,000 in 1933). The Nazis
longer be under any illusion. I believe it enforced new restrictive laws to make it easier for the authorities to identify
was the day that we lost our innocence. Jewish people. They were forced to add new first names to their identification
But it would be fair to point out that I papers (‘Israel’ for men and ‘Sarah’ for women). They had a red ‘J’ stamped on
myself never met even the most fanatic their passports. As the war continued, Nazi policy towards the Jews in Germany
Nazi who wanted the extermination and occupied Europe would become more brutal and increasingly radical.
[mass murder] of the Jews. Certainly we
wanted the Jews out of Germany, but SOURCE 17
we did not want them to be killed.
[The day after Kristallnacht] the teachers told us: don’t worry about what you see,
Alfons Heck, member of the Hitler Youth
even if you see some nasty things which you may not understand. Hitler wants a
in 1938,
interviewed for a television programme
better Germany, a clean Germany. Don’t worry, everything will work out fine in
in 1989. the end.
Henrik Metelmann, member of the Hitler Youth, in 1938.

SOURCE 18

Revision Tip
It is important that you can
describe how persecution of
Jewish people increased in the
1930s. Make sure you can:
■ describe the 1933 boycott,
the Nuremberg Laws and
Kristallnacht
■ explain how each was more
severe than the one before it.

Think!
Could Germans have protested
effectively about Kristallnacht? An anti-Semitic cartoon from the Nazi newspaper Der Stürmer, 1935.
Explain your answer with The Nazis promoted the idea that Jewish people owned many shops and businesses
reference to pages 260–62. so they could target them for Nazi attacks.

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SOURCE 19 Opposition to Nazi rule, 1933–39

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Frustration and disappointment with the

realities of everyday life under Nazism The Nazis achieved a remarkable level of control over ordinary Germans.
led ordinary Germans to grumble and Through their mix of ruthless violence and constant propaganda they forced
complain, but seldom to engage in people to do what they wanted. Not all Germans became Nazis, but most
kept their fears or opposition to themselves because they felt powerless or
behaviour that can be appropriately
unwilling to risk their lives by saying or doing unacceptable things. Even
termed ‘resistance’. Why? Organised
the persecution of minorities, which nowadays seems so horrific, faced
terror played a central role. But the
little opposition.
most important mechanism of social
integration was Hitler’s charismatic However, some Germans did find their own ways to oppose the Nazis.
leadership. The ‘Hitler Myth’ secured
loyalty to the regime of even those who Political opposition
opposed the Nazi movement itself. The Nazis had not killed or imprisoned all the socialists. Some socialists did
Millions of Germans believed the Führer still meet secretly, but they had lost their leaders and were divided from
would right all wrongs in Germany if each other so their activities were small scale. There were no attempts
only the abuses could be brought to to challenge or topple the Nazi regime until well into the Second World
his attention. Hitler’s foreign policy and War. However, in the 1930s there was some sabotage of factories, railways
military successes also convinced ordinary and army stores. The Gestapo claimed to have broken up 1000 opposition
Germans (at least until Stalingrad) meetings in 1936 (probably many more took place). They record having
that the Führer was a brilliant, infallible seized 1.6 million anti-Nazi leaflets in 1936 alone. You could conclude
statesman and general who was leading from this either that the political opposition were still active (that is a lot
of leaflets!) or that it was powerless (what good was a leaflet against the
Germany to world power.
barrage of Nazi propaganda?).
From The Hitler Myth by Ian Kershaw,
published in 2001.
Social opposition
Social opposition means people or groups who tried to keep their own
identity or refused to accept and conform to Nazi ideals. This was much
FOCUS TASK 8.15 more common than political opposition. Historians have identified many
How much opposition was there to examples of this, particularly once the novelty of the Nazis had worn off
the Nazi regime, 1933–39? and the nature of their rule was clearer to ordinary Germans.
As Source 19 makes clear, there There was widespread apathy towards parades and propaganda, particularly
was very little opposition to the
after 1936. For example:
Nazis between 1933 and 1939. The
■ local party officials reported that they increasingly had to bully people
interesting thing however is to
compare these ‘peacetime’ years to attend Nazi rallies
with the war years. So this task ■ the Nazis had to use ‘radio wardens’ to force people to listen to Hitler’s
provides a baseline. speeches.
Take these examples from the text The Gestapo reported a lot of complaining in bars, trains and other public
and rate them by degree of threat places. They reported that some people refused to give the Heil Hitler
to the Nazi regime. Use a scale salute, others told jokes about Hitler and the Nazis or refused to contribute
of 0–10 (0 means no impact at all to party funds.
on the Nazis; 10 means it would
topple the regime). Some national Church leaders publicly criticised the Nazis. At the local
■ Meeting secretly level some resisted, for example Joseph Fath was reported for hanging his
■ Sabotaging factories or own flags in his church instead of Nazi flags, and Pastor Grueber risked his
railways life protecting Jewish people and helping them to escape the Nazis.
■ Distributing anti-Nazi leaflets
■ Not listening to Nazi radio We have little idea of how typical these examples are because Nazi opponents
broadcast left little evidence – they tried to cover their tracks – so even this information
■ Not giving the Heil Hitler salute comes via the Nazis’ own records, which obviously have to be handled carefully.
■ Hanging your own flags in However, the picture that emerges is that non-co-operation was quite common
church instead of Nazi flags and private grumbling about the Nazis was probably very widespread. Indeed,
■ Helping Jewish people escape one Gestapo report commented disapprovingly that grumbling had become a
from Germany national pastime. While the Nazis may have silenced opposition they had not
■ Grumbling about the Nazis won the ‘hearts and minds’ of the German people. In the next section (9D) you
■ Telling jokes about Hitler
will examine this in more detail.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
FOCUS TASK 8.16
Review: How effectively did the Nazis control Germany, 1933–39?
The table below lists various groups in Germany who the Nazis tried
to control. Look back over pages 258–62 and gather examples of
how they did this. Write that in column 2. In column 3 give the Nazis a
score out of 5 for effectiveness (5 would be total control). In column 4
explain your score using evidence.

Group Examples of methods used to Your judgement on Evidence to support your judgement
control effectiveness of control
Political
opponents

Churches Collaborating, e.g. Concordat with Effective Made important concessions to

Catholic Church Catholic Church; relatively little
conflict between Nazis and Catholic
Church

Jewish
people

You can add three further rows to this table for young people, women
and workers as you study Chapter 8D.

Key Question Summary

How effectively did the Nazis control Germany, 1933–39?
1 The Nazis had a powerful range of organisations to control Germany: the
SS, the Gestapo, the police and the courts, and concentration camps.
2 There was little opposition because of the terror they inspired, economic
progress and success in foreign affairs, overturning the Treaty of
Versailles and making Germany a strong military power.
3 The Nazis built a highly successful propaganda machine and used mass
media to control what people knew.
4 They sought to control culture, banning books which contained ideas
they did not like. Paintings, plays and films had to put across a pro-Nazi
message and show idealised images of the Aryan family.
5 The Nazis persecuted many groups that did not fit with their notions of
racial purity, such as disabled people, gay and lesbian people and Roma.
6 They particularly persecuted the Jewish people, depriving them of their
jobs, businesses and homes and forcing them into ghettos.

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8D What was it like to live in Nazi

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

FOCUS

Germany?
You have seen how Hitler and the
Nazis tried to control Germany.
You have also seen how they
persecuted groups they saw
as ‘outsiders’. In this section Young people in Nazi Germany
you will examine the effect of
Nazi rule on the majority of The Nazis reorganised every aspect of life to win children’s loyalty and to
Germans. Hitler wanted to create shape their ideas.
a Volksgemeinschaft – a NATIONAL
COMMUNITY of Germans. This meant At school
young people, women, workers,
farmers, businesspeople. But did If you had been a sixteen-year-old Aryan living in Nazi Germany you would probably
this vision become a reality? In have been a strong supporter of Adolf Hitler. At school your teacher would probably
this section you will examine the be an approved teacher who had been on a training course run by the National
experiences of these different Socialist Teachers Alliance. At school you would learn about the history of Germany.
groups. You would be outraged to find out how the German army was ‘stabbed in the
back’ by the weak politicians who had made peace. You might well remember the
Focus Points hardships of the 1920s for yourself, but at school you would be told how these were
■ How did young people react to caused by Jewish people squeezing profits out of honest Germans. By the time
the Nazi regime? you were a senior pupil, your studies in history would make you confident that
■ How successful were Nazi loyalty to the Führer was right and good. Your biology lessons would inform you
policies towards women and that you are special as a member of the Aryan race that is superior in intelligence
the family? and strength to the Untermenschen or ‘sub-human’ Jewish people and Slavs of
■ Did most people in Germany
eastern Europe. In maths you would be set questions like the one in Source 2. You
benefit from Nazi rule?
would not be expecting to go to university. Between 1933 and 1938 the number of
■ How did the coming of war
university places fell from 128,000 to just 58,000.
change life in Nazi Germany?

SOURCE 2
SOURCE 1
The Jews are aliens in Germany. In 1933 there were 66,060,000 inhabitants of the
It is my great educative work I am
German Reich of whom 499,862 were Jews. What is the percentage of aliens in Germany?
beginning with the young. We older ones
A question from a Nazi maths textbook, 1933.
are used up … We are bearing the
burden of a humiliating past … But my
magnificent youngsters! Are there finer SOURCE 3
ones in the world? Look at these young All subjects – German language, History, Geography, Chemistry and Mathematics
men and boys! What material! With – must concentrate on military subjects, the glorification of military service and of
them I can make a new world. German heroes and leaders and the strength of a rebuilt Germany. Chemistry will
Hitler, speaking in 1939. develop a knowledge of chemical warfare, explosives, etc, while Mathematics will help
the young to understand artillery, calculations, ballistics.
A German newspaper, heavily controlled by the Nazis,
approves of the curriculum in 1939.

SOURCE 4
8.00 German (every day)
8.50 Geography, History or Singing (alternate days)
Think!
9.40 Race Studies and Ideology (every day)
1 Do you think the real aim of
the question in Source 2 is to 10.25 Recess, Sports and Special Announcements (every day)
improve mathematical skills? 11.00 Domestic Science or Maths (alternate days)
2 Read Source 4. Eugenics is the 12.10 Eugenics or Health Biology (alternate days)
study of how to produce perfect
offspring by choosing parents 1.00–6.00 Sport
with ideal qualities. How would Evenings Sex education, Ideology or Domestic Science (one evening each)
this help the Nazis? The daily timetable for a girls’ school in Nazi Germany

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New schools for future German leaders

8 Germany, 1918–45
SOURCE 5
The Nazis set up three new types of selective school to recruit future Nazi Party
It was a great feeling. You felt you officials and leaders:
belonged to a great nation again. ■ National Political Institutes of Education or ‘Napolas’ – 35 of these were
Germany was in safe hands and I was set up by the SS and the German army to train future officers. About 6,000
going to help to build a strong Germany. children attended these.
But my father of course felt differently ■ Adolf Hitler Schools – twelve of these were set up and run by the Hitler
about it. [He warned] ‘Now Henrik, Youth and the SS to find future SS leaders. Children were indoctrinated with
Nazis ideas rather than taught academic subjects.
don’t say to them what I am saying to
■ The Reichsschule Feldafing was a single school created and funded by the
you.’ I always argued with my father
Nazi Party leaders to prepare the very best students for the highest Nazi
as I was very much in favour of the positions.
Hitler regime which was against his
background as a working man.
Henrik Metelmann describes what it was
like being a member of the Hitler Youth In the Hitler Youth
in the 1930s.
Outside school your indoctrination continued. If you were a boy you would probably
have been in the German Young People (Deutsches Jungvolk) from the age of ten to
fourteen. Girls had similar organisations called the League of German Girls. Then you
would have moved on to the Hitler Youth (for boys) or the LEAGUE OF GERMAN MAIDENS
(for girls). You would have marched in exciting parades with loud bands. You would
SOURCE 6 probably be physically fit. Your leisure time would also be devoted to Hitler and the
Nazis. You would be a strong cross-country runner, and confident at reading maps.
Hitler looked over the stand, and I know After years of summer camps, you would be comfortable camping out of doors and if
he looked into my eyes, and he said: you were a boy you would know how to clean a rifle and keep it in good condition. If
‘You my boys are the standard bearers, you were a girl you would be taught sewing, cooking and other domestic tasks. You
you will inherit what we have created.’ would also be taught about race and how to be a good German mother.
From that moment there was not any You would be attracted to the Nazi youth movements by the leisure opportunities
doubt I was bound to Adolf Hitler until they offered. There were really no alternatives. All other youth organisations had
long after our defeat. Afterwards I told been absorbed or made illegal. By 1936 the Hitler Youth had around 6 million
my friends how Hitler had looked into members. However, if you did not join this would have been looked on with surprise
my eyes, but they all said: ‘No! It was and suspicion. When it was time to apply for an apprenticeship or a job one of the
my eyes he was looking into.’ first things an employer will ask will be whether you had been in the Hitler Youth.
A young German describes his feelings
after a Hitler Youth rally. SOURCE 7

Members of the Hitler Youth in the 1930s. From a very early age children were encouraged to
join the Nazi youth organisations. It was not compulsory, but most young people did join.

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SOURCE 8 At home
SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Children have been deliberately taken As a child in Nazi Germany, you might well feel slightly alienated (estranged) from
away from parents who refused to your parents because they are not as keen on the Nazis as you are. They expect
acknowledge their belief in National your first loyalty to be to your family, whereas your Hitler Youth leader makes it
Socialism … The refusal of parents to clear that your first loyalty is to Adolf Hitler. You find it hard to understand why
allow their young children to join the your father grumbles about Nazi regulation of his working practices – surely the
youth organisation is regarded as an Führer (Hitler) is protecting him? Your parents find the idea of Nazi inspectors
adequate reason for taking the children checking up on the teachers rather strange. For you it is normal.
away.
A German teacher writing in 1938.
SOURCE 10

SOURCE 9
Early one morning, a neighbour of ours,
a trade-union secretary, was taken away
in a car by the SS and police. His wife
had great difficulty finding out what had
happened to him. My mother was too
scared to be seen talking to her and
Father became very quiet and alarmed
and begged me not to repeat what he
had said within our four walls about the
whole Nazi set-up …
I loved it when we went on our frequent
marches, feeling important when the
police had to stop the traffic to give us
right of way and passing pedestrians had
to raise their arm in the Nazi salute.
Whenever we were led out on a march, it
was always into the working-class quarters.
We were told that this was to remind the
Illustration from a Nazi children’s book. The children are being taught
workers, but I sometimes wondered what to distrust Jewish people
we wanted to remind them of, after all
most of our fathers were workers.
From Through Hell for Hitler, the memoirs The whole story?
of Henrik Metelmann, published in 1970.
The previous three text panels probably gave you the impression that the
Metelmann came from a working-class
family. Nazis really did control the hearts and minds of young people. However,
this might not be the whole story. We know from interviews with Hitler
Youth members after the war that while many of them enjoyed the
Think! activities they tended to switch off when lectured about Nazi ideas. We
1 Make a list of the main have reports from anti-Nazi spies that by 1938 many Hitler Youth members
differences between your life saw the organisation as boring, although we have to take care with
and the life of a sixteen-year-old evidence like this. We also know that despite all the lectures on health,
in Nazi Germany. diseases like diphtheria and scarlet fever increased in the 1930s. However,
2 Totalitarian regimes throughout even when the Nazis made all other youth organisations except the Hitler
history have used children as a Youth illegal in 1936, and made membership of the Hitler Youth compulsory
way of influencing parents. Why in 1939, there were still over a million children who never joined! We
do you think they do this?
also know that juvenile crime rose during the 1930s and 175,000 young
3 Read Source 5. Why do you think
Henrik’s father asks Henrik not
people were convicted of crimes in 1939 alone. Juvenile crime increased
to repeat what he says to him? dramatically once war began, and so did youth resistance. Find out more
about this on page 276.

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SOURCE 11

8 Germany, 1918–45
FOCUS TASK 8.17
We didn’t know much about Nazi How did young people react to the Nazi regime?
ideals. Nevertheless, we were politically 1 In pairs, you are going to write two short diary accounts of life as a young
programmed: to obey orders, to person in Nazi Germany. One person needs to write about their experiences
cultivate the soldierly virtue of standing from a positive point of view. The other person needs to write about the
to attention and saying ‘Yes, Sir’ and to negative experiences they have had as a young person under Nazi rule.
2 Use pages 264–67 to write three paragraphs to explain why the Nazis were
stop thinking when the word Fatherland
successful in winning young people over. Include the following points:
was uttered and Germany’s honour and ■ why the Nazis wanted to control young people
greatness were mentioned. ■ how they set about doing it
A former member of the Hitler Youth ■ what the attractions of the youth movements were.
looks back after the war. 3 The Nazi regime was not successful in keeping the loyalty of all young
people. Add a fourth paragraph to your essay to explain why some young
Revision Tip people rejected the Nazi youth movements.
■ Make sure you can describe:
■at least one way the Nazis
tried to control young people Women in Nazi Germany
■ at least two ways the Nazis
tried to win over young people. SOURCE 12
■ Record two points which
show that Nazi youth policies
succeeded and two points which
show they failed.

Source Analysis
What does Source 12 reveal about
the Nazis’ view of women?

Factfile
The Three Ks
Women in Nazi Germany were expected
to contribute towards creating a racially
pure community, or Volksgemeinschaft.
Nazi policy and propaganda (see Source
12) idealised the racially pure Aryan
woman and her family. In schools and
Hitler Youth organisations girls were
taught the three Ks – Kinder, Küche,
Kirche (Children, Kitchen, Church).
The National Socialist Women’s League,
or Nazi Women’s League, was set up to
promote the three Ks and encourage
women to leave the workplace and
become mothers. Marriage loans of
1000 marks were offered to newlyweds
if the woman left her workplace.
Other incentives and restrictions were
established by the Nazis:
■ women were barred from
government professions, such as
the army and the civil service
■ women were awarded the Mother’s
A painting showing the Nazis’ view of an ideal German family.
Cross for having four, six or eight
healthy Aryan children
■ women were encouraged not to
Young girls and women were expected to be fit and healthy in line with
smoke, drink or wear make-up Nazi racial theory. They were expected to marry Aryan men and raise large
■ women were expected to be tall, fit families for the fatherland. The Nazis used the SA to humiliate German
and naturally beautiful to ensure women who married Jewish or non-Aryan men (see Source 13) and in 1935
fertility. the Nuremberg Laws made it illegal for Aryans and non-Aryans to marry.
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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Nazi attitudes to women

Hitler and most Nazis had a very traditional view of the role of the German
woman as wife and mother. Many German men and women agreed. In the
traditional rural areas and small towns, many women felt that the proper role
of a woman was to support her husband. There was also resentment towards
working women in the early 1930s, since they were seen as keeping men out of
jobs. It all created a lot of pressure on women to conform to traditional roles.
There were some prominent women in Nazi Germany. Leni Riefenstahl was
a high-profile film producer. Gertrude Scholz-Klink was head of the Nazi
Women’s Bureau, although she was excluded from any important discussions
(such as the one to conscript female labour in 1942). Many working-class
girls and women gained the opportunity to travel and meet new people
through the Nazi women’s organisation. Overall, however, opportunities for
women were limited. Married professional women were forced to give up their
jobs and discrimination against women applicants for jobs was encouraged.
SOURCE 13

A German woman and her Jewish boyfriend being publicly humiliated by the SA in
1933. The notices say: (woman) ‘I’m the biggest pig in town and only get involved with
Jews’; (man) ‘As a Jewish boy I always take only German girls up to my room’.

Rewards for mothers

The Nazis offered tempting financial incentives for married couples to
have at least four children. Mothers got a ‘Gold Cross’ for having eight
children. Posters, radio broadcasts and newsreels all celebrated the ideas of
motherhood and homebuilding. The German Maidens’ League reinforced these
ideas, focusing on a combination of good physical health and housekeeping
skills. This was reinforced at school. With all these encouragements the birth
rate did increase from fifteen per thousand in 1933 to twenty per thousand
in 1939. There was also an increase in pregnancies outside marriage. These
girls were looked after in state maternity hostels.

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The impact of war

8 Germany, 1918–45
Factfile
Lebensborn By 1937, industry was beginning to run out of male workers due to
conscription and the increasing demands of the rearmament programme.
This SS-run organisation
encouraged unmarried women
The Nazis therefore did a U-turn on their original policies on women.
to bear children for the Führer by They abolished the marriage loan. They made it compulsory for many
getting impregnated by SS men in women to undertake a ‘duty year’ where they would work for a year
state-run brothels. The children on farms or in industry. The number of women in work increased, but
were then adopted by Aryan families. not by as much as the Nazis needed and far less than had worked in
About 8,000 Lebensborn children Weimar Germany.
were born in Germany in this way.
During the war, the organisation Women were also still expected to have children. It was a very confusing
also started to kidnap children set of policies! When war broke out in 1939, women were even allowed to
with Aryan features from occupied join the German armed forces as auxiliaries such as nurses, secretaries and
Europe. It is believed that around
even camp guards. By the end of the war, nearly half a million women had
100,000 children from Poland were
kidnapped.
served in the armed forces. Almost 4,000 women worked in the Nazi camp
system, including the extermination camps.

Revision Tip SOURCE 14

■ You need to be able to describe I went to Sauckel [the Nazi minister in charge of labour] with the proposition
at least two aspects of Nazi that we should recruit our labour from the ranks of German women. He replied
policy towards women. brusquely that where to obtain which workers was his business. Moreover,
■ Make sure you can explain why
the Nazis wanted women out of
he said, as Gauleiter [a regional governor] he was Hitler’s subordinate and
the workplace. responsible to the Führer alone … Sauckel offered to put the question to Goering
■ Find two points you could use as Commissioner of the Four-Year Plan … but I was scarcely allowed to advance
as evidence in an essay to argue my arguments. Sauckel and Goering continually interrupted me. Sauckel laid
that Nazi policies on women great weight on the danger that factory work might inflict moral harm on German
were successful. womanhood; not only might their ‘psychic and emotional life’ be affected but also
their ability to bear children.
Goering totally concurred. But just to be absolutely sure, Sauckel went immediately to
Hitler and had him confirm the decision. All my good arguments were therefore blown
to the winds.
Albert Speer, Inside The Third Reich, 1970. Speer was minister of armaments and
war production.

FOCUS TASK 8.18 Women who resisted Nazi rule

How successful were Nazi policies
towards women and the family? Many women in Nazi Germany silently opposed the regime and its policies
towards them and their families, especially after they had enjoyed the same
Read these two statements:
freedoms as men in the Weimar period. It has been estimated that women
Nazi policy for women
represented nearly 15 per cent of the various resistance movements that
was a success.
existed in Nazi Germany.
Communist student Liselotte Herrmann opposed the appointment of Hitler
as Chancellor and informed foreign governments about Nazi rearmament
Nazi policy for women was plans. She was later arrested and executed in 1938 – the first mother to
a failure. face the death penalty in the Nazi regime.
Twenty women from Dusseldorf passed information to foreign governments
For each statement explain about the concentration camps where their family members had been sent.
whether you agree or disagree Libertas Schulze-Boysen and Mildred Harnack-Fish were both members of
with it and use examples from the
the Kreisau Circle. They were both arrested and executed.
text to support your explanation.
Maria Terwiel helped spread the sermons of Bishop Galen about the Nazi
euthanasia programme and helped any Jews flee abroad.

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Workers, farmers and businesses in

Nazi Germany
Economic recovery and rearmament
Think!
The Nazi election campaigns had promised to solve the unemployment
As you read through pages 270–73,
you will come across a number problem in Germany caused by the Depression. In 1933, there were still
of individuals, organisations and nearly six million Germans out of work. By 1939 this number was below half
terms in bold type in the text, like a million. Nazi leaders declared it an ‘economic miracle’ thanks to Hitler’s
this. You could add more of your leadership. But is this the whole story?
own if you wish. Draw up a table
containing definitions of the words, YES, it was a miracle!
or explanations of their importance The Nazis tackled the economic problems with energy and commitment.
to the Nazi’s economic policies. The
The biggest issue was unemployment. Hitler appointed the economist,
completed table will help you with
your revision. You could organise
Dr Hjalmar Schacht, as his economics minister and President of the
your table like this: Reichsbank. Schacht created a ‘New Plan’ which included:
Key word/term/ Definition/ ■ Huge public works projects rebuilding German cities and extending the
person explanation motorways, or AUTOBAHNS, and railways, funded by government investment.
■ A compulsory National Labour Service (RAD) for young men (18–25) to
work on these public works projects for six months.
■ Major house-building programmes and grandiose new public building
projects, such as the Reich Chancellery in Berlin.
■ The reintroduction of conscription into the army, in 1935. More jobs
became available when Hitler announced that Germany would have a world-
class air force (the Luftwaffe). This reduced unemployment and created
work in related industries, such as weapons, uniforms and engineering.
In 1936, Hitler demanded a more rapid rearmament programme to prepare
Germany for war. Goering was named head of the Four Year Plan and became
a virtual economic dictator. His aim was to create a war economy and make
Germany self-sufficient (autarky). Goering increased the production of raw
materials, such as iron ore, oil and explosives, for rearmament. He persuaded
industries to switch from making consumer goods to making synthetic materials
like rubber. He tightened controls on prices and wages and used forced labour.
He used billions of marks of government money to fund this and handed out
lucrative contracts to industrialists who supported the rearmament programme.
The German economy did grow and unemployment fell. Industrial
production doubled between 1933 and 1939. The number of Germans out of
work halved in the first two years of Nazi rule. Government investment rose
from about four billion marks in 1933 to over 20 billion marks by 1938.

NO, there was no miracle!

The Nazis were lucky that the worst effects of the Depression had passed
by the time Hitler came to power. World trade was already starting to
recover. The unemployment figures look impressive, but the Nazis achieved
this at the expense of many in Germany.
■ Jews had been forced from many professions and were replaced by Germans.
■ Many Jewish businesses had been confiscated and given to Germans to run.
■ Conscription rapidly caused unemployment to decrease by making
military service compulsory.
■ Women were encouraged to leave their jobs for men.
Furthermore, real wages were by 1938 only at the same level as they had
been in 1929 before the Depression. Many workers were made to work

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longer hours for the same money. People had less access to consumer goods

8 Germany, 1918–45
as Hitler moved towards a war economy. Finally, the German economy was
near bankruptcy. Total government debt had quadrupled between 1933 and
1939 of which nearly 60 per cent had been spent on rearmament!

The Nazis and the workers

Hitler promised (and delivered) lower unemployment which helped
to ensure popularity among industrial workers. These workers were
SOURCE 16 important to the Nazis: Hitler needed good workers to create
the industries that would help to make Germany great. The
Nazis never really won the hearts of the workers but they
did provide a range of benefits which kept most workers
reasonably happy.
■ Schemes such as STRENGTH THROUGH JOY (KDF) gave them
cheap theatre and cinema tickets, organised courses, trips
and sports events.
■ Many thousands of workers saved five marks a week in the
state scheme to buy the Volkswagen Beetle, the ‘people’s
car’. It became a symbol of the prosperous new Germany,
even though no workers ever received a car because all car
production was halted by the war in 1939.
■ Another important scheme was the BEAUTY OF LABOUR movement.
This improved working conditions in factories. It introduced
Previously unemployed men assemble for the building of features not seen in many workplaces before, such as washing
the first autobahn, September 1933. facilities and low-cost canteens.
What was the price of these advances? Workers lost their main political party,
the SDP. They lost their trade unions and for many workers this remained a
source of bitter resentment. All workers had to join the DAF (General Labour
Front) run by Dr Robert Ley. This organisation kept strict control of workers.
They could not strike for better pay and conditions. In some areas, they were
prevented from moving to better-paid jobs. Wages remained comparatively
low, although prices were also strictly controlled. Even so, by the late 1930s,
many workers were grumbling that their standard of living was still lower
than it had been before the Depression (see Figure 15).

FIGURE 15

Total government expenditure (billions of Reichsmarks)

6 30

5
Unemployment (millions)

4 20

2 10

0 0
1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938

Unemployment and government expenditure in Germany, 1932–38.

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

The Nazis and the farming communities

The farmers had been an important factor in the Nazis’ rise to power.
Hitler introduced a series of measures to help them. In September 1933
he introduced the Reich Food Estate under Richard Darré. This set up
FIGURE 17 central boards to buy agricultural produce from the
30 farmers and distribute it to markets across Germany.
Percentage increase in consumption It gave the peasant farmers a guaranteed market
20 for their goods at guaranteed prices. The second
main measure was the Reich Entailed Farm Law:
10 banks could not seize their land if they could not
pay loans or mortgages. This ensured that peasants’
Percentage change 1927–37

0
20.2 11.5 4.1 farms stayed in their hands.
–10 The Reich Entailed Farm Law also had a racial
aim. Part of the Nazi philosophy was ‘Blood and
–14.2
–20 Soil’, the belief that the peasant farmers were the
basis of Germany’s master race. They would be the
–30 backbone of the new German empire in the east.
As a result, their way of life had to be protected.
–40 As Source 18 shows, the measures were widely
– 41.3
– 44.2 appreciated.
–50
However, some peasants were not thrilled with the
–60 –58.7
regime’s measures. More efficient, go-ahead farmers
Percentage drop in consumption were held back by having to work through the same
–70 processes as less efficient farmers. The Reich Entailed
Farm Law stated that only the eldest child inherited
Rye (lower
quality) bread

Wheat bread

Milk

Cheese

Eggs

Potatoes

Beer

the farm. As a result, many children of farmers

left the land to work for better pay in Germany’s
industries. Rural depopulation ran at about 3 per
Annual food consumption in working-class cent per year in the 1930s – the exact opposite of the
families, 1927–37 (% change). Nazis’ aims!

Big business and the middle classes

The record of the Nazis with the middle classes was also mixed.
Certainly many middle-class business people were grateful to the
Nazis for eliminating the Communist threat to their businesses and
properties. They also liked the way in which the Nazis seemed to be
SOURCE 18 bringing order to Germany. For the owners of small businesses it was a
mixed picture. If you owned a small engineering firm, you were likely
Thousands of people came from all to do well from government orders as rearmament spending grew in
over Germany to the Harvest Festival the 1930s. However, if you produced consumer goods or ran a small
celebrations … We all felt the same shop, you might well struggle. Despite Hitler’s promises, the large
happiness and joy. Harvest festival was department stores which were taking business away from local shops
the thank you for us farmers having a were not closed.
future again. I believe no statesman has It was big business that really benefited from Nazi rule. The big companies
ever been as well loved as Adolf Hitler no longer had to worry about troublesome trade unions and strikes.
was at that time. Companies such as the chemicals giant IG Farben gained huge government
Lusse Essig’s memories of the 1930s. contracts to make explosives, fertilisers and even artificial oil from coal.
Lusse was a farm worker who later Other household names today, such as Mercedes and Volkswagen, prospered
worked for the Agriculture Ministry. from Nazi policies.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Revision Tip ‘National community’: Volksgemeinschaft
Look back at pages 270–73. There We have divided this section by social group, but the Nazis would not
is a lot here and it might help you to
want Germans to see their society that way. Hitler wanted all Germans
get right down to basics, so make
sure you can describe:
(or more exactly all ‘racially pure’ Germans) to think of themselves as
■ two ways in which the Nazis part of a national community, or Volksgemeinschaft. Under Nazi rule,
helped tackle the problem of workers, farmers and so on would no longer see themselves primarily as
unemployment workers or farmers; they would see themselves as Germans. Their first
■ two ways the Nazis tried to loyalty would not be to their own social group but to Germany and the
improve life for workers Führer. They would be so proud to belong to a great nation that was
■ one way the Nazis tried to racially and culturally superior to other nations that they would put
improve life for farmers the interests of Germany before their own. Hitler’s policies towards
■ one reason each why the middle each group were designed to help win this kind of loyalty to the
classes and big business might Nazi state.
have approved of the Nazis.
The evidence suggests that the Nazis never quite succeeded in this: Germans
in the 1930s certainly did not lose their self-interest, nor did they embrace the
FOCUS TASK 8.19 national community wholeheartedly. However, the Nazis did not totally fail
Did most people in Germany either! In the 1930s Germans did have a strong sense of national pride and
benefit from Nazi rule? loyalty towards Hitler. For the majority of Germans, the benefits of Nazi rule
made them willing – on the surface at least – to accept some central control in
Here are some claims that the the interests of making Germany great again.
Nazi propaganda machine made
about how life in Germany had
been changed for the better during FOCUS TASK 8.20
the 1930s:
How did the Nazis try to create a national community?
■ ‘Germans now have economic
1 On pages 264–73 you have seen how the Nazis tried to win over various
security.’
groups in German society. Use the table below to record the ways they did
■ ‘Germans no longer need to feel
this and how far you think they succeeded.
inferior to other states. They
can be proud of their country.’
Group How and why Nazi policies Evidence Evidence of
■ ‘The Nazi state looks after its
they were the policies failure or lack
workers very well indeed.’
important to succeeded of success
■ ‘The Nazis have ensured that
Nazis
Germany is racially pure.’
■ ‘The Nazis are on the side of Young people
the farmers and have rescued
Germany’s farmers from Women
disaster.’
■ ‘The Nazis have made Germany Workers
safe from communism.’
You are now going to decide how Farmers
truthful these claims actually are.
1 Look back over pages 264–73. Businesses
Gather evidence that supports
or opposes each claim. You
could work in groups, taking 2 Nazi methods of control have been compared to a ‘carrot and stick’
one claim each. approach. You offer carrots (or anything nice to eat!) to get a donkey to work
2 For each claim, decide for you but you use the stick to beat them in case they don’t. For each of the
whether, overall, it is totally groups above explain whether you think the stick or the carrot was more
untrue; a little bit true; mostly important in maintaining Nazi control and persuading each to play their
true; or totally true. part in the national community.
3 Discuss:
a) Which of the groups you have
studied do you think benefited
most from Nazi rule?
b) Who did not benefit from
Nazi rule, and why not?

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The impact of the Second World War

SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Factfile
Germany’s war economy on Germany
■ When war broke out it did not
bring massive changes to the
Through the 1930s, Hitler fulfilled his promises to the German people that he would:
German economy because ■ reverse the Treaty of Versailles
Germany had been preparing for ■ rebuild Germany’s armed forces
it since the mid-1930s. ■ unite Germany and Austria
■ In the early stages of the war, ■ extend German territory into eastern Europe.
Germany was short of raw
materials. This was made worse He fulfilled each of these aims, but started the Second World War in the process.
when the British navy blockaded Germans had no great enthusiasm for war. People still had memories of the
sea routes into Germany. First World War. But in war, as in peacetime, the Nazis used all methods
■ As the German forces conquered
territories they took raw materials
available to make the German people support the regime.
and goods from these territories. Food rationing was introduced soon after war began in September 1939. Clothes
For example, Germany took rationing followed in November 1939. Even so, from 1939 to 1941 it was not
around 20 per cent of Norway’s difficult to keep up civilian morale because the war went spectacularly well
entire production in 1940.
for Germany. Hitler was in control of much of western and eastern Europe and
■ From 1942 German production
was shifted towards armaments supplies of luxury goods flowed into Germany from captured territories.
to supply the army fighting However, in 1941 Hitler took the massive gamble of invading the SOVIET UNION, and
against Russia. for the next three years his troops were engaged in an increasingly expensive war
■ Huge corporations like IG Farben
with Russian forces who ‘tore the heart out of the German army’, as the British
produced chemicals, explosives
and the infamous gas used in the war leader, Winston Churchill, put it. As the tide turned against the German
death camps. armies, civilians found their lives increasingly disrupted. They had to cut back
■ German factories used forced on heating, work longer hours and recycle their rubbish. Goebbels redoubled his
labour from occupied countries. censorship efforts. He tried to maintain people’s support for the war by involving
Most factories had a significant them in it through asking them to make sacrifices. They donated an estimated 1.5
number of prisoners in their million fur coats to help to clothe the German army in Russia.
workforce and estimates suggest
that forced labourers made up At this stage in the war, the German people began to see and hear less of
around 25 per cent of the workforce. Hitler. His old speeches were broadcast by Goebbels, but Hitler was increasingly
■ By 1944 there had been a vast preoccupied with the detail of the war. In 1942 the ‘Final Solution’ began (see
increase in military production. pages 278–79), which was to kill millions of Jewish civilians in German-occupied
Production of aircraft and tanks
trebled compared to 1942.
countries.
■ Production was hampered by From 1942, Albert Speer began to direct Germany’s war economy (see Factfile).
Allied bombing and some factories All effort focused on the armament industries. Postal services were suspended
were moved underground. and letter boxes were closed. All places of entertainment were closed, except
■ There is an ongoing debate about
the effectiveness of the Nazi war
cinemas – Goebbels needed these to show propaganda films. Women were
economy. The traditional view is drafted into the labour force in increasing numbers. Country areas had to take
that the economy was mismanaged evacuees from the cities and refugees from eastern Europe.
until 1942 and then improved. These measures were increasingly carried out by the SS. In fact, the SS
However, this account is based on
the writings of Albert Speer. Some
became virtually a state within the German state. This SS empire had its own
historians believe he exaggerated armed forces, armaments industries and labour camps. It developed a business
his own importance and that empire that was worth a fortune. However, even the SS could not win the war,
the war economy became more or even keep up German morale.
efficient after 1942 simply because
Germany focused production With defeat looming, support for the Nazis weakened. Germans stopped
away from civilian goods and onto declaring food they had. They stayed away from Nazi rallies. They
military equipment. refused to give the ‘Heil Hitler’ salute when asked to do so. Himmler even
contacted the Allies to ask about possible peace terms.

FOCUS TASK 8.21

How did the coming of war change life in Germany? 3 On the right, make notes to show how the war affected
1 Draw a timeline from 1939 to 1945 down the middle of Germans at home in Germany.
a page. 4 Choose one change from the right-hand column
2 On the left, make notes from pages 274–78 on how the that you think had the greatest impact on ordinary
war was going for Germany’s army. Germans and explain your choice.

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The bombing of Dresden

SOURCE 19

8 Germany, 1918–45
It was the bombing of Germany which had the most dramatic effect on the
Goebbels does not always tell you the lives of German civilians. In 1942 the Allies decided on a new policy towards
truth. When he tells you that England the bombing of Germany. Under Arthur ‘Bomber’ Harris the British began an
is powerless do you believe that? Have all-out assault on both industrial and residential areas of all the major German
you forgotten that our bombers fly over cities. One of the objectives was to destroy German industry, the other was to
Germany at will? The bombs that fell lower the morale of civilians and to terrorise them into submission.
with these leaflets tell you … The war The bombing escalated through the next three years, culminating in the
lasts as long as Hitler’s regime. bombing of Dresden in February 1945 which killed between 35,000 and 150,000
Translation of a leaflet dropped by the people in two days. Sources 20–22 tell you more about that bombing.
Allies on Berlin.
The end of the war
By 1945 the German people were in a desperate state. Food supplies were
SOURCE 20 dwindling. Already 3.5 million German civilians had died. Refugees were
fleeing the advancing Russian armies in the east.
The greatest effect on [civilian] morale
will be produced if a new blow of Three months after the massive destruction of Dresden, Germany’s war
catastrophic force can be struck at a was over. Hitler, Goebbels and other Nazi war leaders committed suicide
time when the situation already appears or were captured. Germany surrendered. It was a shattered country. The
desperate. Nazi promises lay in tatters and the country was divided up into zones of
From a secret report to the British occupation run by the British, French, US and Soviet forces (see page XX).
Government, 1944.
SOURCE 21

Think!
What do Sources 19–22 tell you
about:
a) the aims of the bombing
b) the success of the bombing?

The centre of Dresden

after the bombing in
February 1945.

FIGURE 22
Revision Tip
Make sure you can: Key
■ describe three changes which Totally destroyed
the war caused for Germans
■ explain how at least one change Badly damaged
affected Germans for the worse.
Damaged

Factory

Military Transport Centre

Air Command HQ

A map showing the destruction of Dresden. Dresden was an industrial city,

but the major damage was to civilian areas.

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SOURCE 23
How did war affect young people?
SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

The formation of cliques, i.e. groupings

of young people outside the Hitler Youth, In 1939 membership of a Nazi youth movement was made compulsory. But
has been on the increase before and by this time many of the experienced leaders had been drafted into the
particularly during the war to such a German army. Many of the movements were now run by older teenagers
degree that one must speak of a serious who rigidly enforced Nazi rules. They even forbade other teenagers from
risk of political, moral and criminal meeting informally with their friends.
subversion of our youth. As the war progressed, the activities of the youth movements focused
From a report by the Nazi youth increasingly on the war effort and military drill. The popularity of the
leadership, 1942. movements decreased and indeed an anti-Hitler Youth movement appeared.
The Nazis identified two distinct groups of young people who they were
worried about: the Swing movement and the EDELWEISS PIRATES.
Revision Tip
■ The Edelweiss Pirates and
The ‘Swing’ movement
Swing movements are important This was made up mainly of middle-class teenagers. They went to parties
examples of resistance. Make where they listened to English and American music and sang English songs.
sure you can describe each They danced American dances such as the ‘jitterbug’ to banned jazz music.
movement. They accepted Jewish people at their clubs. They talked about and enjoyed
■ Prepare two points to argue that sex. They were deliberately ‘slovenly’. The Nazis issued a handbook helping
the Pirates were a more serious the authorities to identify these degenerate types.
threat to the Nazis than the
Swing movement.
The Edelweiss Pirates
The Edelweiss Pirates were working-class teenagers. They were not an
organised movement, and groups in various cities took different names:
‘The Roving Dudes’ (Essen); the ‘Kittelbach Pirates’ (Düsseldorf); the
‘Navajos’ (Cologne). The Nazis, however, classified all the groups under the
single name ‘Edelweiss Pirates’ and the groups did have a lot in common.
The Pirates were mainly aged between fourteen and seventeen (Germans
could leave school at fourteen, but they did not have to sign on for military
service until they were seventeen). They sang songs, just like the Hitler
Youth, but changed the lyrics to mock Germany, and when they spotted
bands of Hitler Youth they taunted and sometimes attacked them.
The Pirates’ activities caused serious worries to the Nazi authorities in
some cities. In December 1942 the Gestapo broke up 28 groups containing
739 adolescents. The Nazi approach to the Pirates was different from their
approach to other minorities. As long as they needed future workers and
future soldiers they could not simply exterminate all these teenagers or put
SOURCE 24 them in concentration camps (although Himmler did
suggest that). They therefore responded uncertainly –
sometimes arresting the Pirates, sometimes ignoring
them.
In 1944 in Cologne, Pirate activities escalated.
They helped to shelter army deserters and escaped
prisoners. They stole armaments and took part in
an attack on the Gestapo during which its chief was
killed. The Nazi response was to round up the so
called ‘ringleaders’. Thirteen were publicly hanged in
November 1944.
Neither of the groups described above had strong
political views. They were not political opponents of
the Nazis. But they resented and resisted Nazi control
of their lives.
An Edelweiss Pirates youth group in an undated photograph.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
How did war affect Jewish people and
other persecuted groups?
You have already seen how the Nazis persecuted Jewish people and
other minority groups in Germany in the 1930s. Once the war began, this
persecution reached new depths of brutality. At the same time, it became
more carefully organised.
SOURCE 25
Polish ghettos
After invading Poland in 1939, the Nazis set
about ‘Germanising’ western Poland. This
meant transporting Poles from their homes
and replacing them with German settlers.
Around one in five Poles died, either in the
fighting or as a result of racial policies in
the period 1939–45. Polish Jewish people
were rounded up and transported to the big
cities. Here they were herded into sealed
areas, called ghettos. Able-bodied Jews
were used for slave labour but the young,
the old and the sick were left to die of
hunger and disease.
A photograph, probably taken by German army photographers,
of Jewish people arriving at the Warsaw ghetto in 1940.

SOURCE 26
I saw much suffering. The ghetto was very overcrowded. There was a typhoid epidemic.
Many buildings, including where I lived with my grandfather, were under quarantine.
During the winter I was very cold; to keep warm I stayed in bed covered by whatever
I could find. I was continuously hungry. I was dreaming of the white Kaiser rolls that I
had for breakfast before the war in Katowice. In the ghetto, young starving children
were begging for food, dead bodies were lying in the streets.
I had relatives who lived across from the notorious Pawiak prison, run by the Gestapo,
where executions took place daily. On one visit to their house, crossing a checkpoint
manned by police, I was beaten up by a policeman for no reason at all, but simply
because I was there.
In the early summer of 1942, my mother decided that for my survival it was necessary
for me to be smuggled out of the ghetto. It was just in time, because the transport of
Warsaw Jews to the death camp of Treblinka started a few months later.
Ed Herman’s memories of the Warsaw ghetto, published on a website in 2013.
Herman was nine years old in 1940.

Mass murder
In 1941, Germany invaded the USSR. Within weeks the Nazis found
themselves in control of 3 million Soviet Jews (in addition to the Jewish
people in all the other countries they had conquered). German forces had
orders to round up and shoot Communist Party activists and their Jewish
supporters. The executions were carried out by special SS units called
Einsatzgruppen. By the autumn of 1941, mass shootings were taking place
all over occupied eastern Europe. In Germany, all Jewish people were
ordered to wear the star of David on their clothing to mark them out.

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SOURCE 27
SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

The ‘Final Solution’

In January 1942, a group of senior Nazis met at Wannsee, a suburb of
Berlin, to discuss what they called the ‘Final Solution’ to the ‘Jewish
Question’. There, Himmler, head of the SS and Gestapo, was put in charge
of the systematic killing of all Jewish people within Germany and German-
occupied territory. Slave labour and death camps were built at Auschwitz,
Treblinka and Chelmno in Poland, among other places. The old, the sick and
young children were killed immediately. The rest were sent to work at the
labour camps. Some were used for medical experiments. Six million Jewish
people, 500,000 European Roma and countless political prisoners, Jehovah’s
Witnesses, gay and lesbian people and Russian and Polish prisoners of war
Wedding rings taken from people killed were sent to these camps, where they were worked to death, gassed or shot.
at Buchenwald concentration camp.
SOURCE 28
Think!
1 There are many websites, TV
programmes and books about
the mass murders during the
war. Some of these contain
shocking images of dead bodies,
gas chambers, cremation
ovens and other horrors. We
have chosen Sources 27 and 28
instead. Why do you think we did
this?
2 The systematic killing of the
Jewish people by the Nazis
is generally known today as
the Holocaust, which means
‘sacrifice’. Many people prefer A child’s drawing of prisoners arriving at the Auschwitz death camp.
the Jewish term Sho’ah, which
means ‘destruction’. Why do you
think this is? Who resisted?
Many Jewish people escaped from Germany before the killing started. Other
Jewish people managed to live under cover in Germany and the occupied
territories. Some joined resistance groups. Gad Beck, for example, led the
Jewish resistance to the Nazis in Berlin. He was finally captured in April 1945.
On the day he was due to be executed, he was rescued by troops from the
Jewish regiment of the Soviet army. There were 28 known groups of Jewish
fighters, and there may have been more. Many Jewish people fought in the
resistance movements in the Nazi-occupied lands. In 1945, the Jewish people
in the Warsaw ghetto in Poland rose up against the Nazis and held out against
them for four weeks. There were armed uprisings in five concentration camps,
and Greek Jews managed to blow up the gas ovens at Auschwitz.
We also know that many Germans and others helped Jewish people by
hiding them and smuggling them out of German-held territory. The
Revision Tip industrialist Oskar Schindler protected and saved many people by getting
■ Make sure you can describe the them on to his ‘list’ of workers. The Swedish diplomat Raoul Wallenberg
ghettos and the Final Solution. worked with other resisters to provide Jewish people with Swedish and
■ Identify three examples that US passports to get them out of the reach of the Nazis in Hungary. He
show how Nazi actions against disappeared in mysterious circumstances in 1945. Of course, high-profile
Jewish people and other groups individuals such as these were rare. Most of the successful resisters were
became more violent as the war
successful because they kept an extremely low profile and were discovered
went on.
neither by the Nazis at the time, nor by historians since then.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Who was responsible?
Was the ‘Final Solution’ planned from the start?
Historians have long debated how far Hitler had planned this ‘Final
Solution’. Some historians (intentionalists) believe that the whole process
had been carefully planned, for years. Others (structuralists) argue that
there was no clear plan and that the policy of mass murder evolved during
the war years. Lack of evidence makes it difficult to know for sure. Hitler
had made speeches in which he talked of the annihilation of Jewish
people, but there are no documents with his signature and no record of
him ever giving any orders directly relating to the extermination of Jewish
people. The Nazis kept the programme as secret as they could, so there are
relatively few documents.

SOURCE 29
Responsibility
Although historians disagree about whether Hitler planned this, they do
The extermination of the Jews is the generally agree that Hitler was ultimately responsible. However, other
most dreadful chapter in German individuals and organisations shared responsibility. The genocide would not
history, doubly so because the men have been possible without:
who did it closed their senses to the ■ the Civil Service bureaucracy who collected, stored and supplied
reality of what they were doing by information about Jewish people
taking pride in the technical efficiency ■ police forces in Germany and the occupied territories: many victims
of their actions and, at moments when of the Nazis were actually seized by the police rather than the Gestapo
their conscience threatened to break or SS
in, telling themselves that they were ■ the SS: Adolf Eichmann devised a system of transporting Jewish people
doing their duty … Others took refuge to collection points and then on to the death camps. He was also in
in the enormity of the operation, which charge of looting the possessions of Jewish people. The SS Death’s Head
lent it a convenient depersonalisation. battalions and Einsatzgruppen also carried out many of the killings
When they ordered a hundred Jews to ■ the Wehrmacht (the German armed forces): army leaders were fully
get on a train in Paris or Amsterdam, aware of what was going on
they considered their job accomplished ■ industry: companies such as Volkswagen and Mercedes had their own
and carefully closed their minds to slave labour camps. The chemical giant IG Farben competed with other
the thought that eventually those companies for the contract to make the Cyclon B gas that was used in
the gas chambers
passengers would arrive in front of the
■ the German people: antisemitism was widespread. They may not have
ovens of Treblinka.
wanted mass murder but they turned a blind eye to it. Many German
US historian Gordon Craig, civilians went further and took part in some aspect of the HOLOCAUST, but
writing in 1978.
ignored the full reality (see Source 29).

Think!
The war clearly increased persecution of Jewish people and other minorities:
1 War massively increased the numbers of Jewish people and other groups
who came under Nazi control.
2 War allowed leading Nazis to pursue their racial policies even more fiercely
than they previously had.
3 War made it difficult to resist Nazi racial policies and brought opportunities
for individuals and groups who took part in persecution.
Work through pages 277–79 and find examples to use as evidence of each
development above.

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

Did the war increase opposition to the

Nazi regime?
You have already read some examples of opposition to Nazi control during
the war, such as the Edelweiss Pirates (page 276) and Gad Beck leading
Jewish resistance in Berlin (page 278). The war increased opposition in
other ways.

Organised resistance groups emerged

One of the best-known resistance groups was the White Rose, run by Hans
and Sophie Scholl and friends. The White Rose published and distributed
anti-Nazi leaflets. This was a small movement, although its members were
certainly brave. The Scholls were executed in February 1943.

Church leaders challenged Nazi policies

The Catholic Bishop Clemens Galen had criticised the Nazis throughout the
1930s. In 1941, he led a popular protest against the Nazi policy of killing
people with mental or physical disorders, which forced the Nazis to stop
this programme temporarily. Galen had such strong support that the Nazis
decided it was too risky to try to silence him – they did not want social
unrest while Germany was at war.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer had also preached against the Nazis until the Gestapo
stopped him in 1937. He then became involved with members of the army’s
intelligence services who were secretly opposed to Hitler. He helped Jewish
people to escape from Germany. In 1942, he asked Allied commanders what
peace terms they would offer Germany if Hitler was overthrown. He was arrested
in October 1942 and hanged shortly before the end of the war, in April 1945.

FOCUS TASK 8.22 Army leaders plotted against Hitler

The only group that really had much chance of overthrowing the Nazis was
How did war affect opposition to
the Nazi regime?
the army. Some leaders had challenged Hitler in the 1930s. For example,
General von Fritsch and Field-Marshall von Blomberg argued against Hitler’s
Using these two pages or your own plan to invade Germany’s neighbours, fearing a disastrous war. Hitler
additional research, list examples had them removed – Fritsch because the Nazis ‘found out’ his wife was a
of opposition to Nazi rule during
prostitute and von Blomberg was accused of being gay.
the war years. For each example:
a) Decide whether you think it As the war progressed the army became increasingly indivisible from
was a new type of opposition the Nazi regime. Even so, there were attempts by senior army officers
caused by war or whether it to assassinate Hitler. We know of five attempts between June 1940 and
already existed and was made December 1943, but they all failed.
worse by war. You will need to
refer back to your work on
page 262.
The July Bomb Plot, 1944
b) On a scale of 0–10, decide how The closest to success came in July 1944. By this stage, many army officers were
serious each type of opposition sure that the war was lost and that Hitler was leading Germany to ruin. One of
was. A mark of 10 would mean these was a colonel in the army, Count von Stauffenberg. On 20 July he planted
a genuine threat to overthrow a bomb in Hitler’s conference room. The plan was to kill Hitler, close down the
Hitler. radio stations, round up the other leading Nazis and take over Germany. It
c) Now decide which of the failed on all counts because the revolt was poorly planned and organised. Hitler
factors on page 281 (terror, the survived and the Nazis took a terrible revenge, killing 5000 people.
‘Hitler myth’, etc.) would have
been most effective in stopping Low-level resistance increased
each type of resistance from
succeeding.
The many types of lower-level resistance which we noted on page 262
increased as well. SS and Gestapo reports were increasingly concerned
about the discontent and disillusionment caused by bombing raids,

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shortages and heavy casualties. This was leading to increasing loss of

8 Germany, 1918–45
control, for example civilians hiding food from the authorities.

However…
We must be careful not to exaggerate opposition to the regime or the war
effort. In fact, support for the war remained remarkably strong almost to
the end. When Protestant church minister Wilhelm Kenath criticised the
war at the funeral of a young soldier in May 1943 he was reported to the
Nazis by several mourners. Among ordinary Germans there was a misplaced
faith in Hitler that he would find a way to lead them to victory.

Why was there not more opposition to

the Nazis?
When you know the way the story of Nazi Germany developed and the
disaster that Hitler proved to be for Germany and its people it is hard to
understand why there was not more opposition. Here is a review of the
main explanations:

r my t h ’ on
Terror The ‘Hitle d oppositi
ny list o
f atic leader. Div ide a s t he
b e top of a olice le r w as a charism uilt him s such ial
This ha
s t o
h e N a zi p H it
p a g a n d a ha d b w in g g r o up e S oc
p la na tions. T
t o s c are Na z i p ro
e r in to a godlike L ef t-
n i s t s an d t h na t u r a l
e x ned h u
as desig mission, and it up st ill furt ermany ’s Comm t s were the hey were
s t at e w u b h o co ntrolled G o cra .T
s in t o s
ng in t o fig u re w
ns w h o D e m Naz ism ver, these
German u e d lo e n G e rm a i e s o f
It contin l days dest iny. Ev st ill respe
c ted enem nned. Howe ach
worked. ven in the f ina N a z is a te
E seemed
,
lost disliked th e
and did no
t b o t h b id n o t t r u s r e p ar e d
the war. e n a ll e rs o n a ll y u p s d n p
o t
ar, wh unded Hitler p any of the gr o d wer e . T he y wer e
of the w estapo still ro s who h im fo r m
ot h e r a n er
lG eur blame unfair thin
gs y
t o g e t h i v id e d . T h e t e d
the loca ng some sabot k to p le a sa n t o r
h is t o w o r k
d d ina
h u t r a c u n d id . T a n r d
up and p a r ailway N a z i o ff ic ials n g a d e r less a n y co - o
wn u whic h ro l e d
had blo enemy. remained st the o un t e
t h e b e li e f in Hitler to w a rd s n e v e r m c e.
help ly shake n n
an d w a s o n World War. resista
e S e co n d
end of th

Approval Propaga
nda
Many people ce ns or s a n d
were please
d with C e n s o r sh
hip
the Nazis. Th
ey had been ip and p
to power in swept m e an t t ropagan
193 ha t da
failings of W 3 because of the and radio the newspaper
eimar demo only spre s
Hitler had d cracy. Na z i ac h ad new s
elivered on ievemen of
his promise many of not let u t s. This
s. He had re p in war did
German prid stored increase t ime; in
e internatio d. f ac t it
He had got nally. 1938, w Af ter Kr ist allna
the econom h e n t he y c cht in
y mov ing man y G e o
again. Even
those who rmans w uld see that
support all did not w ith it, ere
Nazi policie the Naz is unhappy
prepared to s wer measure kept all
tolerate them e sa f ut
the sake of for secret a gainst Jew ish p ure
the stabilit nd did n eople
prosper ity th y and them in ot publi
e Nazis had t he c ise
This contin brought. ant i-Jew is way they had th
ued well into h polic ie eir
early years the 1930s. s in the
of the war. early

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SECTION 2 DEPTH STUDIES

FOCUS TASK 8.23

Was Nazi Germany a totalitarian state?
A totalitarian state is one where:
■ no opposition is allowed
■ people are expected to show total loyalty and obedience to the state
■ every aspect of life is controlled by the state for its own benefit.

You are going to prepare for a debate on the question: Was Nazi Germany a
totalitarian state? Clearly Hitler wanted Germany to be like this, but did the
Nazis achieve it?
Stage A: Research
Read through this chapter gathering as much evidence as you can about where
Nazi Germany fits on this continuum.

Total control No control

Use the text and the sources and your own research. Here are a few references
to get you started.

Page 247 Page 276 Page 257 Page 260

Factfile Source 24 Source 7 Source 14
Summarises the An Edelweiss Pirates The diary of Victor H. Schmidt, Labour
step-by-step Nazi youth group in an Klemperer for 8 August Corps leader, in an
consolidation of undated photograph. 1937 describes his interview in 1938,
power. experience of going to describes his attitude
the cinema. to Nazi policy towards
Jewish people.

Page 254 Page 269 Page 279 Page 258

Source 6 Source 14 Source 29 Source 10
Photos of the Albert Speer, who was American historian British historian and
annual Nazi rally the Nazis’ minister of Gordon Craig writes journalist Charles
at Nuremberg – a armaments and war, in 1978 about the Wheeler, writing
celebration of Nazi writes in 1970 about attitudes of Nazi in 1996, describes
power and discipline. how he tried to affect officials to their role how Church leaders
Nazi policy on women in the Final Solution. responded to the
workers. Nazis.

Be sure to note where you found each extra piece of evidence. If possible, share
your evidence with others. Discuss it.
Stage B: Reach your judgement
1 Taking all the evidence, do you think that the Nazis managed to turn
Germany into a totalitarian state? Where on the continuum would you put
Nazi rule?
2 Would your answer change if you chose particular years: 1936, 1939, 1941,
1945.
Stage C: Write your speech
Aim for just one minute (200–250 words). State your view. Use evidence to
support your arguments.

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8 Germany, 1918–45
Keywords Key Question Summary
Make sure you know these terms, What was it like to live in Nazi Germany?
people or events and are able 1 Young people were expected to join the Hitler Youth. There were separate
to use them or describe them organisations for boys and girls.
confidently. 2 The boys focused on activities that taught them to be soldiers. The girls
• Antisemitism focused on healthy living and preparing for motherhood.
• Autobahn 3 The school curriculum was also used to indoctrinate young people.
• Bauhaus Teachers were among the keenest supporters of the Nazis.
• Beauty of Labour 4 Not all young people liked the Nazis and once the war started opposition
• Chancellor to the Hitler Youth among young people increased and groups like the
• Coalition Communist Edelweiss Pirates actively resisted.
(Bolshevik) 5 The Nazis rewarded German women for having children – the more the
• Concentration camp better. They discouraged women from working and encouraged them to
• Concordat stay at home and look after children.
• Conscription 6 However, later on they also needed women to become workers so they
• Consolidation had to change their policies to encourage women to do both.
• Constitution 7 The Nazis promised to end unemployment, which they did, but only by
• Dawes Plan drafting hundreds of thousands of people into the army or putting political
• Democracy opponents to forced labour.
• Diktat 8 The economy recovered in the 1930s but business was geared towards
• Edelweiss Pirates getting ready for war, making weapons or becoming self-sufficient in raw
• Enabling Act materials.
• Federal 9 For those who did not fit Nazi ideas life was terrible. The Jewish people
• Final Solution suffered in particular, facing restrictions, then persecution or exile, and in
• Freikorps the end forced labour and genocide.
• Führer 10 The war went well for Germany to start with. However, after Germany
• Gestapo invaded Russia in 1941 the tide turned. German resources were directed
• Gleichschaltung (co-ordination) into fighting an unwinnable war against the USSR. The German economy
• Hitler Youth and the Nazi regime collapsed.
• Holocaust
• Hyperinflation
• Kaiser
• Kristallnacht PRACTICE QUESTIONS
• League of German Maidens Structured questions
• Mein Kampf 1 (a) What was the Munich Putsch? [4]
• Munich Putsch (b) Why did the Nazis launch the Munich Putsch in 1923? [6]
• National Community (c) ‘The Munich Putsch was a total failure for Adolf Hitler.’ How far do you
(Volksgemeinschaft) agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
• Nazism
• Negative cohesion Alternative to Coursework questions
• Night of the Long Knives 1 a) Write an account of the development of the Nazi Party between 1924
• Nuremberg Laws and 1930. [15]
• Nuremberg rally b) Discuss the impact the Depression had on Nazi electoral success
• Propaganda between 1930 and 1932. [25]
• Rearmament See pages 338–55 for advice on the different types of questions.
• Reichstag
• Reparations
• Republic
• Ruhr
• SA
• Spartacists
• SS
• Strength Through Joy
• Totalitarian
• Treaty of Versailles
• Universal suffrage
• Volk
• Weimar

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9 The United States 1919–41

Keywords Key Question Summary
Make sure you know these terms, How successful was the New Deal?
people or events and are able 1 Roosevelt’s New Deal promised action to get industry and agriculture
to use them or describe them working, get Americans back to work and provide relief for those
confidently. suffering from the Depression.
• Boom 2 The first Hundred Days was a whirlwind of activity, putting into place a
• Capitalism number of New Deal agencies to achieve Roosevelt’s aims. These involved
• Communism huge public works programmes, schemes to boost employment and
• Competition measures to put agriculture and industry on a more sustainable basis.
• Credit Millions of dollars were set aside for relief.
• Democrat 3 Roosevelt restored confidence in the banks and put financial bodies in
• Depression America on a more stable footing.
• Flapper 4 He explained his actions to Americans and gave hope and optimism
• Gangster through his radio talks, ‘fireside chats’, to the nation.
• Hire purchase 5 The Tennessee Valley Authority was a special example of government
• Hollywood planning across several states.
• Hooverville 6 In 1935 Roosevelt introduced a Second New Deal, which was focused
• Hundred Days more on reform and creating a better life for ordinary Americans.
• Immigration 7 There was a lot of opposition to his policies from those who thought he
• Isolationism was not doing enough to help and those who thought he was doing too
• Jazz much. Many thought that the New Deal was a huge waste of money and
• Ku Klux Klan resources and was wrong in principle – it involved too much government
• Laissez-faire interference and undermined American individualism and self-reliance.
• Lynch 8 The Supreme Court ruled some parts of the New Deal to be unconstitutional.
• Mail order 9 The American people re-elected Roosevelt in 1936 in a landslide victory.
• Mass consumption 10 The New Deal did not solve the underlying problems of the American
• Mass production economy or conquer unemployment. It was the Second World War that got
• Monkey Trial it going again. Some groups in society did not do as well out of it as they
• NAACP might have hoped.
• New Deal 11 It did save the banking system, create millions of jobs and relieve the
• Normalcy suffering of millions of Americans. It left much of lasting value, for
• Over-production example in roads, public buildings and schools. It set the tone for future
• Production line government action in the USA.
• Prohibition
• Radical
• Red Scare
• Republican PRACTICE QUESTIONS
• Reservation (Native American)
Structured questions
• Roaring Twenties
1 (a) What was the Tennessee Valley Authority? [4]
• Second New Deal
(b) Why did Roosevelt introduce the Emergency Banking Act in 1933? [6]
• Shares
(c) 'The New Deal was a failure.' How far do you agree with this
• Speculation
statement? Explain your answer. [10]
• Stock market
Alternative to Coursework questions
• Supreme Court
1 a) Write an account of the US government’s economic policies in the
• Tariff
1920s. [15]
• Temperance
b) Discuss the impact of new methods of production used in US industry
• Tennessee Valley Authority
in the 1920s. [25]
• Traditional industries
• Trusts See pages 338–55 for advice on the different types of questions.
• Wall Street Crash

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Focus on: Structured Questions

FOCUS ON: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

The information in this section is based on the ■ Identify the topic and the sub-topic. Questions will
Cambridge International syllabus. You should always often focus on an event, individual or historical issue.
refer to the appropriate syllabus document for the ■ Look for dates. If dates are given they will be
year of examination to confirm the details and for important – this is History after all!
more information. The syllabus document is available
on the Cambridge International website at
3 Plan your answer
[Link]. If you think through your answer first, then writing it
is easy. If you skip the thinking and just start writing
the risks are:
The Depth Study you have studied in Chapters 7, 8 or 9 ■ Your writing will be muddled.
will be examined in the second part (Section B) of Paper 1 ■ You will write in an illogical order.
Structured Questions. ■ Your points won’t lead to your conclusion.
Note: If you are doing Cambridge IGCSE History and ■ Even more likely, you will keep thinking of
not doing Coursework then you will be doing Paper 4 something more to say and will run out of time.
Alternative to Coursework instead which will also be
based on your Depth Study. This Exam Focus deals with 4 Plan your time
Structured questions. Alternative to Coursework questions Managing your time while studying the History syllabus
are dealt with on pages 343–53. is really important. It is important that you practise
your timings in lessons, assessments and at home when
answering practice questions.
Structured essay questions ■ Make sure you know how long an assessment or a
set of practice questions should take. You can use
Depth Study and Core Content structured essay the Specimen Exam Papers from the Cambridge
questions rely upon the same skills, so make sure you International website to help you with this.
read all of the advice again on pages 148–54. ■ The marks for each sub-question guide you as to
how long to spend as well.

Think before you write 5 Avoid the most common mistakes

■ The structured essay questions contain a different
It is a common mistake to launch straight into number of marks for each part, so make sure you
writing as soon as your teacher gives you questions or don’t spend too much time on questions with lower
assessments begin, but our advice is that you spend marks. Poor time management could mean you don’t
some time thinking before you do so. end up answering all of the questions!
■ Make sure you are applying the correct skills for the
1 Choose your questions carefully relevant question. If it is asking you to describe,
■ When answering practice questions or using practice then don’t explain. If the question is asking you
papers, make sure you choose the correct Depth to make a judgement, make sure you use your own
Study, of course – the one you have actually studied! knowledge to support the judgement. Remember,
■ Whenever you have a choice of questions make the skill of making a judgement means you need
sure you have read all of them before you decide to compare and contrast different factors to reach
which to answer. You should have revised enough to your conclusion, so make sure you always examine a
mean you could do any of the questions but don’t variety of factors to give a more balanced response.
simply opt for your favourite topic. Possibly your ■ Questions that ask you to explain are not just asking
less favoured topic might have a question that suits you to make lists or give an account of an event. Use
you better. connectives and phrases like ‘because’, ‘this meant
that’ and ‘therefore’ to develop your answer fully.
2 Read the questions carefully Pages 339–42 give you example answers with comments
This might sound obvious but there is a skill to it. to show how to approach these kinds of questions.
■ Look for the command words such as ‘describe’ and Read them all through – not just your Depth Study
‘explain’, which let you know what type of skills you topic – so you can see the different types of question
have to use. and possible approaches in an answer.

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Worked example: Germany, 1918-45

Focus on: Structured Questions

There is nothing wrong with this
response but for some students
it might take too much time to (a) What methods did the Nazis use to control the population? [4]
write – remember to be aware
of your timings for description-
based questions. There is plenty of
The SS under Himmler were used to intimidate and terrorise people into
accurate knowledge in this answer
to give a full account of Nazi obedience. There was also the Gestapo who were the secret police. They
methods of control. tapped telephones and spied on people. Political opponents were taken to
concentration camps. Propaganda was also used to prevent opposition.
This was the job of Goebbels who controlled what people read and heard.
This part of the answer correctly
identifies a group who opposed Newspapers were taken over or their content strictly controlled. Cheap radio
the Nazis, but it is quite vague. To sets were sold so people could hear Hitler’s speeches.
develop the answer, remember to
add relevant examples.
(b) Why were some Germans opposed to Nazi rule? [6]
The second part of this answer is
only describing the youth opposition,
rather than saying why people The Communists opposed Nazi rule because of their political beliefs.
opposed the Nazis. To develop the
Some youth groups such as the Edelweiss Pirates were anti-Nazi. They liked
answer you would need to explain
how the popularity of youth groups to listen to music and many gangs went looking for the Hitler Youth to
fell as the war progressed because beat them up. They sang songs but changed the lyrics to mock Germany.
the activities were more focused on
military drill and the war effort.
(c) ‘The success of Nazi economic policy was more important than the
police state in controlling opposition to the Nazis.’ How far do you
This answer starts well by
agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [10]
addressing the question. It states
clearly why economic policy
helped to control opposition.
The Nazis’ economic policies did help. They promised employment and did
This is the clinching bit that makes this through the development of public works such as building autobahns.
all the above supporting detail into Schemes like ‘Strength Through Joy’ gave workers cheap theatre and
an excellent explanation. cinema tickets. So some workers were won over by economic improvements
and popular policies and this stopped opposition arising in the first place.
This paragraph goes further From 1935 conscription was applied and rearmament meant thousands
by offering more evidence of of jobs in armament factories. So some people were scared of losing their
economic policy stifling opposition.
jobs if they spoke out. Germany had been hit hard by the Depression and
many were terrified of being out of work again.
There are two factors mentioned in
However, the police state was also important. The Nazis were very successful at
the question. This paragraph shows
the student has developed a more getting rid of opposition. The SS went round terrorising people into obedience.
balanced answer by also examining It could arrest people without trial and put them into concentration camps
the second factor as well. where people were tortured or indoctrinated. The Gestapo spied on people. It had
informers and encouraged people to inform on their neighbours and children
on their families. It also tapped phones. The Germans thought the Gestapo was
much more powerful than it actually was, so lots of people informed on each
other purely because they thought the Gestapo would find out anyway.

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FOCUS ON: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

This is a very good example of In conclusion, I would say that economic successes were vital in controlling
reaching a judgement that links opposition amongst ordinary citizens but that the police state was also vital
the two factors together. The
answer distinguishes between for dealing with the opposition when it did arise; the two actually worked
two types of opposition and shows together. The Nazis’ main political opponents had been dealt with swiftly
how a different method was more with the help of the SS and Gestapo, which left smaller pockets of opposition.
successful for each. Ordinary people with weaker political motivation were more easily won over
by the Nazis’ successes and the fear of losing their jobs.

The questions, example answers Worked example: Russia, 1905-41

and comments that appear on
pages 339–42 were written by
the author. In an examination, the (a) Describe the problems facing the Provisional Government after
way marks would be allocated March 1917. [4]
to questions like these may be
different.

The war effort was failing and some soldiers were deserting. The
This is a very succinct response peasants were demanding land and some were starting to take it. The
which is accurate and to the point. It Bolsheviks had also started rioting after Lenin returned from exile.
contains a well-developed account of Workers in the cities were starving.
the problems facing the Provisional
Government.
(b) Why was Lenin able to secure Bolshevik control in Russia soon
after the November Revolution of 1917? [6]
These are all precise things that
Lenin did, but haven’t been explained
to show how they were helping the
Lenin banned non-Bolshevik papers and set up the ‘Cheka’ secret police.
Bolsheviks hold on to their power.
The banks were placed under Bolshevik control.
Lenin had promised free elections and these were held in late 1917. However,
This is better because it is a
much fuller explanation of how under the first democratic elections to the new Constituent Assembly, the
Lenin’s actions were leading to the Socialist Revolutionaries beat the Bolsheviks. This could have been the end
Bolsheviks’ retention of power. of the Bolsheviks’ power. However, Lenin simply sent the Red Guards to
close down the assembly and to put down the protests against him.
Another sound explanation, Finally, Lenin had to negotiate a peace treaty to end the war because he
showing how Lenin was attempting had promised the people ‘bread, peace and land’. He hoped that this would
to secure power through increase the popularity of the Bolsheviks and they would stay in power.
popularity with the people.

(c) ‘The main reason that the Reds won the Civil War was because the
Whites were not unified.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]

This is a full explanation of how the The success of the Reds was definitely helped by the lack of unity in their
disunity of the Whites led to Red opposition. The Whites were made up of lots of different elements such as
success. the Czech Legion, moderate socialists and ex-tsarists. This meant they
had different leaders and different objectives and therefore were not able to
work together effectively. This allowed Trotsky to defeat them one by one.

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Focus on: Structured Questions

This paragraph goes on to examine However, other things helped the Reds win the Civil War as well. For example,
an alternative factor which is Lenin introduced War Communism. This system allowed Reds total control
going to help develop a much more
balanced response. It explains how over people’s lives and possessions in order to win the war. Ruthless discipline
War Communism was also a factor was introduced into the factories. Food was taken from peasant farmers
in the Reds’ victory. by force in order to feed the Red Army and the workers in the cities. Strict
rationing was introduced and the Cheka was used to terrify opponents. This
The answer attempts a conclusion, policy ensured the Red Army was kept supplied and could continue to fight.
but this is more of a summary than a
I think that overall the Reds won because the Whites were not unified,
judgement. What you need to do here
is to actively compare the factors, or which helped the Reds pick them off, and also because of War
to draw them together to show how Communism, which allowed the Red Army to keep fighting.
they are linked. For example, you
might say that ‘although it was always
going to be difficult for the Whites to
win because they were such a broad
alliance, it was the ruthless and
harsh policy of War Communism,
which determined their defeat by
1920 and meant that the Bolsheviks
held onto their power so firmly.’
Worked example: USA, 1919-41
(a) What problems were faced by farmers in the USA in the 1920s? [4]

This is a really strong response

Many farmers did not share in the prosperity that other groups experienced
which shows a strong factual
knowledge of the problems faced in the boom. Farmers had been over-producing since the end of the First
by farmers. However, this answer World War and after the European markets had recovered from the war,
might be too long for some students they could not sell the extra produce. Due to this, prices for farming
to write, so be aware of time produce fell rapidly in the 1920s. This was made worse due to high tariffs
management for description-based
questions. imposed by overseas nations and the competition from other countries like
Canada who were able to sell their wheat at a cheaper price than the USA.

The first paragraph doesn’t answer (b) Why was Prohibition introduced in the USA? [6]
the question why Prohibition was
introduced but how it was introduced
– you must be very careful here and
read the question properly.
Prohibition was introduced in 1920 due to the passing of the Volstead Act
in 1919 which banned the sale and manufacture of alcohol in the USA.
This part of the answer is focused
on the question and is a very There was a strong temperance movement in the USA in the nineteenth
convincing explanation of how and early twentieth centuries such as the Anti-Saloon League and the
temperance movements helped Women’s Christian Temperance Movement. These devout Christians
the introduction of Prohibition. It is
wanted to stop the damage that alcohol did to family life such as causing
well-supported by valid evidence.
poverty and violence. This led to a lot of support for Prohibition, especially
in the Southern states of the USA.
The last part of the answer
describes some other valid Also, some industrialists and doctors supported the idea of Prohibition.
reasons for the introduction of Politicians also backed it as it helped them win votes from many
Prohibition, but it would be better Christians.
if it had been developed into
an explanation to give a fuller These are all reasons why Prohibition was introduced.
response.

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FOCUS ON: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS

(c) ‘The most successful aspect of the New Deal was the help it
gave to farmers.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]
The first paragraph is clearly
focused on the question here and The New Deal was a massive help to farmers in the 1930s. Farmers had
introduces one of the key alphabet
agencies that dealt with problems
been suffering since the 1920s and Roosevelt introduced the Agricultural
faced by the agricultural sector. Adjustment Administration (AAA) to help solve some of the problems
that they faced.
Here the point made in the first AAA set quotas on farm production. This would help push food prices up
paragraph is developed into an as in the 1920s prices had been dropping rapidly due to over-production
explanation and is supported by some and the impact of tariffs. The AAA also helped farmers modernise their
strong evidence about its success. production methods which successfully increased efficiency on farms
and protected the quality of the soil. This was a successful aspect of the
The answer has now been New Deal.
developed to give it balance by
examining another aspect of the However, other aspects of the New Deal were also successful such as dealing
New Deal – in this case, dealing with the problem of the unemployed during the Depression of the 1930s.
with the unemployed.

There is a wide variety of good The Civilian Conservation Corps targeted young, unemployed men for
examples of how the New Deal six months at a time, often providing low-paid work in national parks
dealt with the unemployed – the
and forests. The Public Works Administration created jobs by using
CCC, PWA and WPA. A strong
explanation of the New Deal’s government money to build schools, bridges and roads. Later, the Works
success is provided here by using Progress Administration united all of the job creation agencies of the New
statistical data on unemployment Deal to provide work for office workers, actors and artists. Due to these
to support the argument. agencies, unemployment was reduced from 25 per cent in 1933 to 14 per
cent in 1937 proving it was successful.
Another valid aspect of the
New Deal is explained here, Also, the New Deal dealt with the banking crisis with the Emergency
banking. It lacks the depth of Banking Act. This closed down all banks and only allowed trustworthy
the last paragraph, but is a valid ones to reopen – 5000 in total. This successfully helped people regain
explanation. confidence in the banking system after the Crash in 1929.
Overall, I think that the most successful aspect of the New Deal was how it
The conclusion is only a simple
helped the unemployed.
statement containing an
unsupported judgement. This
could have been improved by
comparing this aspect of the New
Deal against the success of the
others discussed in this answer.

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Focus on: Alternative to Coursework

Focus on: Alternative to Coursework

Your teacher will decide whether you are going to do Coursework Component 3 or Paper 4 Alternative to Coursework. The
approach towards answering the questions in the Coursework and Alternative to Coursework is very different and the
advice that follows is NOT applicable to the Coursework.
Cambridge O Level History students do not take Coursework or Alternative to Coursework.

The information in this section Structure

is based on the Cambridge
International syllabus. You should The Alternative to Coursework paper is a one-hour examination focusing on
always refer to the appropriate your chosen Depth Study. Make sure you use the Specimen Papers on the
syllabus document for the year Cambridge International website to familiarise yourself with the format of
of examination to confirm the the exam paper so you can practise in lessons and at home. It takes the
details and for more information. form of a single structured question which is split into two parts, a) and
The syllabus document is b). The a) part of the question requires you to use your own knowledge
available on the Cambridge to write a logical account on an event or topic linked to your chosen
International website at Depth Study. The b) part of the question typically requires you to write
[Link]. an extended answer to assess the importance or impact of an individual,
group, event or idea.
Part a) is worth 15 marks and part b) is worth 25 marks, so the total marks
available in the paper is 40.

Example questions
The questions usually draw from some aspect of the Key Questions and
Focus Points for each of the Depth Studies. For example:
Germany, 1918–45 has the following Key Questions:
1 Was the Weimar Republic doomed from the start?
2 Why was Hitler able to dominate Germany by 1934?
3 How effectively did the Nazis control Germany, 1933–45?
4 What was it like to live in Nazi Germany?
An example of a structured question that draws from Key Question 1
might be:

a) Write an account of the Spartacist Uprising in 1919. [15]

b) Discuss the impact of political violence in the early Weimar
Republic, 1919–23. [25]

Russia, 1905–41 has the following Key Questions:

1 Why did the tsarist regime collapse in 1917?
2 How did the Bolsheviks gain power, and how did they consolidate their
rule?
3 How did Stalin gain and hold on to power?
4 What was the impact of Stalin’s economic policies?

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An example of a structured question that draws from Key Question

QUESTIONS
TO COURSEWORK

3 might be:

a) Write an account of the First Five-Year Plan. [15]

b) Discuss the importance of industrial modernisation in the
USSR after 1928. [25]
1 DEPTH STUDY
ALTERNATIVE

USA, 1919–41 has the following Key Questions:

1 How far did the US economy boom in the 1920s?
2 How far did US society change in the 1920s?
3 What were the causes and consequences of the Wall Street Crash?
4 How successful was the New Deal?
PAPER
FOCUS:ON:

An example of a structured question that draws from Key Question

4 might be:
EXAM FOCUS

a) Write an account of Roosevelt’s first ‘Hundred Days’. [15]

b) Discuss the importance of the alphabet agencies as part of
the first New Deal. [25]

When writing an account, it is vital to use in-depth knowledge and order

your information logically in paragraphs. For the extended answer, make
sure you assess (weigh up) the importance or impact in different ways and
explain your arguments using good examples.

Mark scheme
The Alternative to Coursework paper has a generic mark scheme which
can be used to mark any question from any of the Depth Studies that you
choose to answer. Your teacher can help you understand this mark scheme.
You can find the mark scheme on the Cambridge Assessment International
Education website in the Cambridge IGCSE History Syllabus along with
Specimen Papers and mark schemes.

Think before you write

The Alternative to Coursework paper contains two structured questions on each
of the five Depth Studies. You will answer two questions on one Depth Study.
■ The questions all follow the same style.
■ They are all worth 40 marks in total, split into a part a) worth 15 marks
and part b) worth 25 marks.
■ They all require a descriptive and sequenced account for part a) and an
extended answer for part b).

1 Read questions carefully

When answering exam-style questions or using practice papers, make sure
you choose the correct Depth Study, of course – the one you have actually
studied!
Whenever you have a choice of questions make sure you have read all of
them before you decide which to answer. You should have revised enough
so that you could do any of the questions, but don’t simply opt for your
favourite topic.
Read the question to identify precisely the focus of the account for part a)
and the focus for the discussion in part b).

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Focus on: Alternative to Coursework

b) Discuss the impact of political violence in the early Weimar
Republic, 1919–23. [25]
The impact of political violence is
the focus.
1919–23 is the date range.

2 Choose your question carefully

Remember you have two questions to answer! Choose the questions where:
■ you know the content best and
■ where you already have a clear view on the different features of the
question focus for part b).

3 Plan your answer

This is always an important aspect for developing your skills, especially if
you are writing an extended answer. Assessments and exam papers have
time limits, so make sure you don’t spend too long doing this. This may
seem like a waste of time or a luxury, but you will be surprised how much it
will help you.
If you think through your answer first, then writing it is easy. If you skip
the thinking and just start writing the risks are:
■ Your writing will be muddled – it won’t be an argument, it will just be a
collection of paragraphs.
■ You will write in an illogical order – and you never have time to rewrite
things in an exam.
■ Your points won’t lead to your conclusion – and the conclusion is very
important in the part b) question.
■ Even more likely, you will keep thinking of something more to say and
you will run out of time to even write your conclusion.

4 Organise your thinking

We have given advice on how to plan an extended answer on page XXX.
That was to allow you to practise before an assessment or the exams. In
an actual assessment or test, you will have to use something much more
streamlined.
For example, for a part b) question:

b) Discuss the impact of political violence in the early

Weimar Republic, 1919–23. [25]

Focus of question Main points to include

Impact on stability Political extremist groups from left and right;
Spartacist Uprising; Kapp Putsch, etc.
Impact on the Example
economy
Impact on Ebert’s Example
ability to govern
Conclusion

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5 Decide on a structure
FOCUS ON: ALTERNATIVE TO COURSEWORK

There are many ways to structure an extended answer for part b). Here is a
common structure taught by many teachers:
■ Start with a short introduction which sets out your argument by
examining the different aspects of the question focus you could discuss.
■ Then explain how each aspect was important or had impact in
separate paragraphs which include supporting examples from your own
knowledge.
■ Finish by writing a conclusion to show the relative importance/impact
of the different factors by comparing them and using some good
evidence to support your judgement.
The next three pages offer you worked examples from each topic. These are
not perfect answers. They could all be developed to produce even stronger
responses.

Planning answers for part a) questions

The Alternative to Coursework paper is only a one-hour exam, so time
management is crucial. This can often tempt many learners to start writing
the answer straight away without any planning or preparation. However, it is
always worth at least noting down the main points you are going to describe
for part a) questions. Below is a simple but effective approach based on a
flow diagram.

Using a flow diagram

A flow diagram is used to put ideas or factors into a logical order or
sequence. This is exactly what you want to achieve when writing an
account. You can order the flow diagram horizontally or vertically –
whatever works best for you.
■ Put the title at the top just to help you keep focused on the question.
This can just be the main focus of the question, for example ‘the
Spartacist Uprising in 1919’.
■ Then, in each box, write the events or factors you are going to describe
in a logical sequence or chronological order. You can use the spaces or
arrows in between the boxes to show the connections or links.

Title

Link Link Link

Event 1 Event 2 Event 3 Event 4

On the next page, you can see how the flow diagram might look in planning
an answer to this question:

a) Write an account of the Spartacist Uprising in 1919. [15]

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Focus on: Alternative to Coursework

Spartacist Uprising, 1919

Overthrow Government
Consequences
Republic reactions
Communists Strike action by Brutal fighting;
led by Luxemburg workers and some Ebert’s use of 170 killed; leaders
and Liebknecht – soldiers; seizing the army and murdered; led
wanted a Soviet control of the Freikorps to further left-wing
style system newspapers uprisings

Planning answers for part b) questions

Part b) questions will require you to write an extended answer and need a
bit more planning before you start writing but as always, keep an eye on
your time management in an actual exam or assessment.
Below are two different approaches to planning an extended answer.
■ The first uses a table comparing the different feature or aspects of
the focus of the question. This should help you assess and explain
importance or impact.
■ The second uses a factor map. This approach is useful where you need to
show links between features or aspects of the focus in the question.
We are not suggesting you use anything as complex as this in an
assessment or when answering an exam-style question – there won’t be
time. But it is precisely because it is so hard to give time to planning in an
actual exam that it is so important to practise it before, without the time
pressures, so that it becomes almost instinctive.

Approach 1: Using a table

In the table like the one below:
■ make notes about the content in Column 1, then
■ explain how that factor caused the thing in the question in Column 2.
Column 2 is where you do the thinking and analysis. In your essay you
won’t just be listing the factors, you will be evaluating their importance.
Focus of the question for discussion Importance/impact, etc.
Aspect 1: This was an important aspect
because…
Aspect 2:
Aspect 3:
Aspect 4:

You can see below how the table might look in planning an answer to this
question:

b) Discuss the importance of industrial modernisation in the USSR

after 1928. [25]

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Industrial modernisation in the USSR Importance/impact, etc.

after 1928
Aspect 1: Defence of the USSR This was an important because the
USSR had been invaded from the
West in the First World War and Stalin
believed that Hitler wanted to expand
eastwards in the near future.
Aspect 2: Create a communist system This was an important because Stalin
wanted to apply Marxist ideas and
rapidly turn the USSR into a model
communist state by increasing the
number of industrial workers.
Aspect 3: Replace the NEP This was an important because many
Communist Party leaders, including
Stalin, viewed Lenin’s NEP as a return
to capitalism which went against
communist ideology.
Aspect 4: Compete with the West/ This was an important because
capitalism Stalin wanted to increase production
so it did not have to rely on imports
and could become an industrial
superpower like the USA.

Approach 2: Using a factor map

In a diagram like the one below you:
■ write the different aspects and any details/facts about them in the
boxes, then
■ explain the links between them on arrows between the boxes.
The arrow links are where you do your thinking and analysis. These links
will help you decide on relative importance – if everything links back to a
single aspect, that suggests it is the most important factor. They will also
give you an angle to your paragraphs. Showing links between factors is one
way of improving your essays.
To keep your diagram neat you could number or letter the links and write
about them on a separate sheet (see below left).
Below right is how the factor map might look in planning an answer to this
question:

b) Discuss the importance of the alphabet agencies as part of

the first New Deal. [25]

Focus in the question Importance of alphabet

agencies in First New Deal

Aspect 1 1 Aspect 3 Dealing with

Business
unemployment
The NRA helped encourage businesses
2 to improve conditions in industry and
increase prices. This led to greater profits
and expansion which created more jobs.

Aspect 2 Aspect 4
Farmers Poor relief

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Worked example: Germany 1918–45

Focus on: Alternative to Coursework

The questions, example answers and comments that appear on pages 343–53 were written
by the author. In an examination, the way marks would be awarded to questions like these
may be different.

The focus of the account.

a) Write an account of the Spartacist Uprising in 1919. [15]
The date range.
The Spartacists were a revolutionary communist organisation that
wanted to create a soviet-style system in Germany by overthrowing the
German Republic. They had support from some of the workers, soldiers
The first two paragraphs contain
and sailors at the end of the First World War and were led by Liebknecht
a lot of background narrative and
though there is some relevant and Luxemburg.
knowledge on the Spartacists in In January 1919, the German Republic had many issues such as political
the first paragraph that does add
to the quality of the answer, much
instability and economic problems caused by the shortages created by the
of it does not focus on the Uprising British blockade of Germany’s ports and the huge amount of debt built
in 1919. up by the Kaiser’s government. Germany had signed an Armistice in
November 1918 which the Allies agreed to only if the Kaiser abdicated and
This paragraph is more focused on Germany became a Republic with a democratic system. The government
the Uprising and examines how the agreed to avoid invasion by the Allies.
Spartacists tried to seize control
of the cities and towns. The detail The Spartacists began their uprising by seizing control of the newspapers,
is accurate and relevant. building barricades and setting up soviets in the towns and cities across
Germany. They also called for the workers to go on strike – many were
Some good examples and in-depth
armed. The government, under Ebert, made a deal with the army as well
knowledge add necessary detail to as ex-soldiers who formed themselves into anti-communist Freikorps
the description. units. This resulted in near civil war and over 150 Spartacists were killed.
The Freikorps and the army crushed the uprising and the leaders were
The final paragraph logically murdered when the fighting ended. The communists never forgave the
continues where the last ruling Socialist Party under Ebert for using the military and Freikorps
paragraph left off. A good level
brigades against them. It led to further uprisings in 1919 in Bavaria and
of detail is included on the
consequences of the uprising. in the Ruhr in 1920.

The focus of the discussion is the

b) Discuss the impact of political violence in the early Weimar
impact of political violence in the
Weimar Republic.
Republic, 1919–23. [25]

1919–23 is the date range.

The early Weimar Republic faced many problems and some say it was
doomed from the beginning because of the social, political and economic
The introduction is nicely focused issues it faced between 1919 and 1923. Political violence from both the
and begins by considering a
left and the right impacted how the Weimar Republic was viewed by the
number of different aspects of
how political violence impacted German people; it also resulted in a massive amount of instability for
the Weimar Republic. It lacks any Ebert’s new government. Finally, political violence impacted the way in
kind of judgement at this point, which the authorities would react to threats from extremists.
however.

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The first aspect is considered One impact of political violence that was important was how it affected
here and the explanation given is ordinary Germans and their opinion of the new Weimar government.
focused on impact. There is some In January 1919, the Spartacist Uprising showed many Germans that
good use of contextual knowledge
though it lacks specific examples
extreme left-wing groups were a threat to the new democracy and would
to support. even try to overthrow the regime by revolution. This especially worried
the middle-classes and the elites in Germany who did not want a
communist system like in Russia where private property had been taken
over by the state and capitalism crushed by the Bolsheviks under Lenin.
The explanation is developed
further which adds depth and Furthermore, the Kapp Putsch by the right-wing nationalist Freikorps in
breadth to the paragraph. 1920 demonstrated to many Germans that the new Weimar Republic did
not have the support of the army or ex-soldiers and that some Germans
opposed the military restrictions imposed by the Treaty of Versailles. This
added to the nationalist concept of the stab in the back myth propagated
by some right-wing groups. However, Ebert’s government also clearly had
The next paragraph examines
a different aspect linked to some support and the Kapp Putsch impacted the workers in Berlin who
the question focus and gives went on a general strike to end the putsch.
convincing explanations of how it
Another impact of political violence was the instability it caused for the
impacted early Weimar Germany
using more precise examples Weimar Republic. Communist uprisings occurred throughout Germany
to support compared to the first such as in 1919 in Bavaria and 1920 in the Ruhr region. Ebert was forced
aspect. to use emergency powers (Article 48) to order the army and the Freikorps
units to crush these rebellions using force which resulted in thousands of
deaths. This led to instability as it demonstrated how close to revolution
early Weimar Germany was. This was further demonstrated in the
Kapp Putsch where the army refused to stop the Freikorps uprising. The
government looked weak and did not have the loyalty of the army and
so was powerless to stop the uprising until the Berlin workers reacted.
Right-wing extremists even assassinated key politicians such as Walther
Rathenau- he, like others, was blamed for stabbing Germany in the back
by signing the Armistice and the Treaty of Versailles. The Munich Putsch
led by Hitler and the Nazis in 1923 also demonstrated that there was a lot
This response shows a clear of resentment about the terms of the Treaty of Versailles and particularly
structure and logic to the the economic impact the reparations had. The Nazis wanted to overthrow
arguments. A third and final the Weimar government and abolish the Treaty.
aspect of how political violence
impacted the early Weimar A final impact political violence had on early Weimar Germany was the
Republic is stated. It lacks some effect it had on Ebert and his government. Ebert was prepared to defend
of the depth of the other two the new Weimar democracy using all means necessary- especially
paragraphs but is very focused in
when the threat of communist revolution was present in the Spartacist
terms of the discussion.
Uprising. Ebert used Article 48 over 130 times in the early years of
the Republic which effectively side-lined democracy and empowered the
President to use the army and the Freikorps to crush their opposition.
It seemed that the only was the early government survived the political
A short but focused conclusion extremism in its early years was to make deals with opposing extremist
attempts to prioritise the most groups like the Freikorps.
important impact. The explanation
could have been developed further In conclusion, political violence had the biggest impact on stability of
by comparing or more explicitly early Weimar Germany more than anything else. It meant the democracy
developing the links between this
was constantly under threat and even led some citizens to support radical
aspect and the others discussed in
the essay. groups during the elections where they won a number of seats in the
Reichstag.

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Worked example: Russia, 1905–41

Focus on: Alternative to Coursework

The First Five-Year Plan is the focus
of the account. There is no date
range given in the question, but
you are expected to know that this a) Write an account of the First Five-Year Plan. [15]
started in 1928 and ended in 1932.

A very focused start to the Stalin was desperate to modernise the Soviet Union rapidly, particularly
account. It logically begins by industry. He, like other Bolsheviks in the Party, opposed the New
describing the reasons behind the Economic Policy introduced by Lenin in 1921. He viewed the NEP as a
First Five-Year Plan.
betrayal of communist principles as it allowed limited capitalism back
into the USSR after it had been initially swept away by the revolution
The next paragraph in the account and during the Civil War.
follows logically on from the first.
Some detailed description is given Stalin wanted to focus on heavy industry first. When he introduced the
on how the plan was implemented plan in 1928, he used GOSPLAN to set targets for each industry such as
and what it tried to achieve. coal, iron, steel and oil. Stalin needed to increase production in these areas
as quickly as possible to lay the foundation for further development in
This next section is shorter but the second and third Five-Year Plans. Targets were then set for each region,
factually rich in terms of the detail each city and each factory manager.
given in the description. It makes
sense as it now examines the The First Five-Year Plan did have some success. Huge steel mills were
achievements of the plan. built, such as the one at Magnitogorsk and 1500 new industrial plants
were constructed across Russia. This resulted in a doubling of coal and
The final paragraph loses focus iron output. Electrification also brought power to many areas of Russia
and starts to describe the aims that previously had none.
of the later plans which is not the
aim of the account. Be careful to The Second and Third Five-Year Plans focused on further increasing
keep within the parameters set out output from these primary industries but also expanding secondary
in the question so as to not waste industries such as chemicals, metals, railways and later farm machinery
time. For example, the student
could have given a short account
and even some consumer goods.
of the failures associated with the
First Five-Year Plan instead.

The importance of industrial b) Discuss the importance of industrial modernisation in the USSR
modernisation in the USSR is the after 1928. [25]
focus for the discussion.

After 1928 is the date range.

The introduction here is a great

The modernisation and expansion of industry in the USSR was vitally
start. Different aspects are listed important for Stalin for many different reasons. Firstly, it would allow
for the discussion and a judgement Stalin to increase his personal control over the workforce by setting
about the most important aspect targets for industry. Secondly, it was important because it would allow
is stated.
Stalin to compete with its main rival in the West, the USA. Finally, and
most importantly, modernisation was crucial in allowing the USSR to
defend itself from invasion in the future by increasing the power of its
military.

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The first aspect is discussed Stalin wanted to leave his mark on the Soviet Union when he became
here and shows a good level of leader and create a cult of personality around himself as a worthy
understanding. Explanations are
successor to Lenin who had led the revolution in 1917. His Five-Year Plans
focused on the question and on
addressing importance. It does represented a major undertaking which would transform the USSR
lack specific examples to support into an industrial superpower and increase the size of the workforce. In
the explanations, however. Marxism, the industrial workers were considered the main revolutionary
class who the Communist Party drew the most support from. Stalin
wanted to be viewed as the leader who helped create a communist system
and modernised the USSR away from its mainly agrarian past. This
would help him increase his personal control over the Communist Party
because he would be seen as building on Lenin’s legacy and continuing
the revolution but also because it would allow him to use the state to set the
targets and rules, thus controlling the workforce across the USSR.
Perhaps more importantly than this was the fact that Stalin and many
There is less depth in this other communists wanted the Soviet Union to become a model communist
explanation but it does add state which would inspire other countries to have revolutions of their own.
another valid aspect to the overall
discussion. This could only be achieved if the Soviet Union was seen to be modern and
advanced like the capitalist countries in the West, such as the UK and the
USA. Stalin wanted the industrial system in the USSR to match and
even exceed that of its main competitors in the capitalist West.
Finally, and most importantly, industrial modernisation would allow the
The final aspect of the discussion USSR to defend itself against invasion from the West. The First World
is well explained and focused on War and the Civil War in Russia had seen foreign nations successfully
addressing importance. There invade the country. This had led to a huge number of casualties and
is better detail included in the
damage to Russia’s economy leading to food and fuel shortages and even
explanations which adds depth
to the judgement given in the famine. Stalin wanted to ensure that the Five-Year Plans focused first on
introduction. building up primary industries such as coal, iron and steel so that they
could help develop secondary industries needed for war and defence, such
as chemicals and munitions. Only with mass production methods could
Stalin hope to survive an invasion from the West. This was especially
vital after Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933 and began rearming
Germany and then reintroducing conscription in 1936.
Defence was the most important reason for the modernisation of Soviet
The conclusion is succinct but to industry. Stalin had to ensure the survival of communism in the face of
the point. The judgement is fleshed capitalism and the threat of fascism and Nazism in Germany. Whilst
out and a comparison is made with
the other aspects discussed to
control and competition with the West were important, Stalin knew that
reinforce the argument. if the USSR could not resist invasion, then his legacy would be destroyed
and the USSR crushed in a war as it had been in the First World War.

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Worked example: USA, 1919–41

Focus on: Alternative to Coursework

Roosevelt’s first ‘Hundred Days’ is
the focus of the account.

a) Write an account of Roosevelt’s first ‘Hundred Days’. [15]

Again, there is no specific date
stated in the question, but you are
expected to know that the first
Roosevelt campaigned in 1932 against President Hoover. He promised the
Hundred Days of his Presidency
was in 1933. American people a New Deal to help the huge numbers of unemployed and
impoverished during the economic Depression. This was something that the
public could get behind after Hoover had failed to try to solve the problems.
The account begins with the
background to the Hundred Roosevelt’s first Hundred Days in office was him use his ‘Brains Trust’ to
Days and focuses on Roosevelt’s introduce a wide range of reforms often called the first New Deal. Roosevelt
election campaign against
Hoover. This is not the focus of the
communicated his ideas and aims to the public via radio broadcast every
question and should be avoided. Sunday to millions of Americans in what were called his ‘fireside chats’ –
this was very popular.
The account then examines the Roosevelt dealt with the banks first by passing a law. This was a pressing
beginnings of the Hundred Days. issue as thousands of banks had collapsed since the Wall Street Crash
This is more focused and contains
leaving businesses without loans and losing billions of dollars in people’s
some good, detailed description.
savings. He then dealt with other areas.
The account then logically He tried to help the poor and the unemployed by setting up the FERA
examines some of the different which spent over $500 million on relief and job creation schemes. The CCC
areas focused on in the Hundred helped provide 2.5 million jobs to young Americans on environmental
Days legislation such as the
banking crisis and the creation
projects and the PWA employed millions on public works projects like road
of alphabet agencies. These building and constructing new hospitals across the USA.
paragraphs are well-sequenced Roosevelt also helped farmers by encouraging them to destroy crops and
but some lack specific examples
such as the name of the banking slaughter livestock so prices would increase – in fact, their income doubled
act passed or the agency set up to over the 1930s. He helped businesses with the NRA and tried to improve
help farmers. wages for the workers.

The importance of the alphabet

agencies as part of the first New b) Discuss the importance of the alphabet agencies as part of the
Deal is the focus of the discussion. first New Deal. [25]

There is no explicit date stated in The alphabet agencies created in the first New Deal were important in
the question, but you are expected
to know that the first New Deal
many different ways. Firstly, they provided relief from the Depression
took place between 1933 and 1935. by creating jobs, helping farmers and industry. This was probably the
most important aspect of the alphabet agencies. However, they were also
important because they restored confidence in the government and its
The introduction effectively policies after the Crash of 1929. Finally, they were important because they
lists the different aspects of demonstrated a radical change in many Americans’ view of the role of
the discussion and provides a government.
partial judgement about the most
important aspect. A wide variety
of different angles are explored
here.

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The first paragraph demonstrates The Depression had caused many social and economic problems in the
excellent contextual knowledge USA in the early 1930s. Most significantly, unemployment was close
and is full of meaningful and well-
to 14 million by 1933 and this had led to homelessness as people were
selected examples. There is some
explanation provided, but much of unable to pay their mortgages. It had also resulted in a sharp drop in
it is description. production – almost a third since 1928 – and this caused a constant cycle
of depression in the economy. The alphabet agencies were created as part
of the first New Deal with the aim of using government money to create
A common error is made here to jobs for the unemployed, provide help for the poor and homeless and support
include the Emergency Banking farmers and industry to increase their prices and with it their profit.
Act as an alphabet agency. It was The first agency was the Emergency Banking Act which closed down the
a law passed by the government, unstable banks and only allowed strong ones to reopen. This was crucial
but it did not see the creation of a
government agency.
for the economy to rebuild and for businesses to borrow money to invest.
Roosevelt then set up the CWA and PWA to provide jobs for millions of
unemployed Americans in public works projects across the country. The
PWA alone spent nearly $7 billion of taxpayers’ money on building
hospitals, schools and roads. Farmers were helped with the AAA which set
quotas on food production. It helped about 99 per cent of farmers increase
their income. The NRA focused on industry and improved working
conditions for workers, and the poor were given relief by the FERA. These
agencies were important as they tackled the problems caused by the
Depression.
An interesting second aspect is However, the restoring of consumer confidence and confidence in the
discussed here in some depth.
Good examples are used to explain stock market was also important as it would encourage spending and
the importance of the agencies in investment. The NRA allowed members to fly the Blue Eagle symbol
restoring confidence in the USA which encouraged consumers to buy their products and this helped boost
after the Crash. production by over 20 per cent in 1933 alone. The more people with jobs
would also increase spending and the CWA, PWA and FERA all helped
provide short-term work for many – in fact, the FERA gave temporary jobs
to over 20 million Americans by 1935. Roosevelt knew this was important
to boost morale in the USA and encourage consumer spending again after
the Crash. The SEC was set up to restore faith in the stock market after the
Crash. Many investors had lost confidence after the reckless speculation
of the 1920s and the SEC was designed to stop this from happening again
by introducing rules and codes about buying and selling shares.

This is also an interesting Lastly, the alphabet agencies were important because they represented
and valid angle to discuss for a change in American values due to the effects of the Depression. Most
this question. The paragraph Americans would have believed in the Republican principle of laissez-faire
elaborates this aspect in the 1920s while the economy was booming for many. They did not
convincingly through the use
of well chosen examples and a
want to see the government interfere with people’s livelihoods or businesses.
very balanced assessment of the However, the Crash had shifted the opinion of many as they now viewed
importance of the agencies on Hoover’s perceived lack of help as shameful while many suffered on the
people’s opinions about the role of streets living in Hoovervilles without food or jobs and reliant on charities.
government.
Roosevelt had won a landslide victory in 1933 with his promises of ‘action
and action now’ and the alphabet agencies saw the government for the
first time using massive amounts of public money to directly intervene
in people’s lives and businesses. However, it is also important to not

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Focus on: Alternative to Coursework

overstate this point as many business leaders and Republicans opposed
these un-American actions and saw the agencies as threatening the
American way of life. The Supreme Court even shut down the NRA and
AAA after they were declared unconstitutional.

The concluding argument is quite Overall, the most important aspect of the agencies was their impact on the
convincing and is supported by effects of the Depression. This is why most Americans had voted against
explanation, but a comparison the Republicans and for the Democratic Party in 1932. Although the
with the other aspects discussed agencies never solved the Depression in the first New Deal, they did relieve
in the answer would have added
extra weight.
the symptoms for millions of Americans and even saw the economy recover
slightly and unemployment drop.

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Glossary
Agent Orange Poisonous chemical Beauty of Labour Nazi movement to Capitalism/Capitalist Political, social
used by US forces in Vietnam to improve conditions for industrial and economic system centred on
defoliate (remove leaves) from workers and try to win their support. democracy and individual freedoms
forest areas to deprive enemy of Berlin airlift Operation in 1948–49 such as free speech, political
cover. using aircraft to transport supplies beliefs and freedom to do business.
Alliance Arrangement between two to West Berlin which had been cut Censorship System of controlling
countries to help or defend each off by USSR. information to the public, usually
other, usually in trade or war. Berlin Blockade Action by USSR employed by governments. Can
Anschluss Joining of Austria and to cut road, rail and canal links refer to paper, radio, TV or online
Germany as one state – forbidden between West Berlin and the rest information.
by the Treaty of Versailles 1919 but of Germany. Aim was to force USA CENTO Central Treaty Organisation
carried out by Hitler in 1938. and allies to withdraw from West – alliance of countries including
Anti-Comintern Pact Alliance Berlin. Britain, Turkey and Pakistan designed
between Germany, Italy and Japan Berlin Wall Barrier constructed to resist the spread of communism.
in 1936 to combat spread of by communist East German Chancellor Head of the government.
communism. Government to block movement Checkpoint Charlie Most famous point
Antisemitism Prejudice against between East and West Berlin. As where travel between communist
Jewish people. well as a wall there were fences, East Berlin and US-controlled West
Appeasement Policy of Britain and dogs and armed guards. Berlin was possible.
France in the 1930s allowing Hitler Big Three 1) Three main leaders at Chemical weapons Usually refers to
to break the terms of the Treaty of Versailles Peace Conference 1919 weapons which employ poisonous
Versailles. – Lloyd George (Britain), Wilson gas to kill enemies.
Armistice End to fighting. (USA), Clemenceau (France); 2) CIA The Central Intelligence Agency
Arms race Competition to build Leaders at Yalta and Potsdam is a US government department,
stockpiles of weapons Conferences 1945 – Roosevelt/ formed in 1947, which gathers
Article 10 Article of League of Truman (USA), Churchill/Atlee information (intelligence) about
Nations Covenant which promised (Britain), Stalin (USSR). threats to the USA but which also
security to League members from Blitzkrieg An intense military funds direct action (such as the
attack by other states. campaign aimed at achieving a Bay of Pigs invasion) to support
Assembly Main forum of the League quick victory. American foreign policy.
of Nations for discussing important Blockade Tactic involving cutting Civil war War between two sides
issues. off supplies to a city or country. within the same nation or group.
Assembly line System of producing Usually by sea but can also be land Examples in Russia 1919–21 and
cars in which each worker had only or air blockade. Spain 1936–37.
one job. Bolshevik/Bolshevism Russian Coalition A government made up of
Atomic bomb/H bomb Nuclear political movement led by Lenin two or more political parties.
weapons, only used in Second World and following communist ideas Co-existence Living side by side
War by USA against Japan but a developed by Karl Marx and further without threatening the other
constant threat in the Cold War. developed by Lenin. side. Most famously put forward by
Autobahns High-speed motorways Boom Period of high economic Soviet leader Khrushchev when he
built by the Nazis in Germany in prosperity. proposed East and West could live
the 1930s to create jobs. Boycott Refusing to have anything to in peaceful co-existence.
Autocracy Rule by one individual do with a person or group. co-operation Working together – could
with total power. Brezhnev Doctrine Policy of USSR be political, economic or legal.
Bauhaus German design movement from 1968 which effectively Cold War Conflict that ran from
incorporating sleek lines and meant no Eastern European states c.1946 to 1989 between the USA
modern materials. would be allowed to have a non- and the USSR and their various
Bay of Pigs Bay in Cuba, scene of communist government. allies. They never fought each
disastrous attempt by Cuban exiles Budget The spending plans of other but used propaganda, spying
to overthrow Fidel Castro. Caused a government. Can refer to a and similar methods against other.
humiliation for USA, which backed particular policy or the whole Also sponsored other countries in
the attack. government spending plan. regional wars.

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Collective security Key principle Containment US policy in Cold War to Disarmament Process of scrapping
of the League of Nations that all stop the spread of communism. land, sea or air weapons.
members could expect to be secure Conventional weapons Non-nuclear Domino theory Policy in which
because the other members of the weapons. Can refer to ground, air the USA believed it had to stop
League would defend them from or sea including missiles. countries becoming communist
attack. Cossacks Elite troops of the Russian otherwise they would fall to
Collectivisation Policy to modernise tsars. communism like dominoes.
agriculture in the USSR 1928–40. Council Influential body within the Draft US term for compulsory military
Succeeded in modernising farming League of Nations which contained service.
to some extent but with terrible the most powerful members of the Duma Russian Parliament established
human cost. League. after 1905 revolution in Russia and
Comecon Organisation to control Coup Revolution. a source of opposition to the tsar
economic planning in communist Covenant Agreement or set of rules. 1905–17.
countries of eastern Europe. Crash Collapse in value of US Ebert President of Germany 1919–25.
Cominform Organisation to spread economy in 1929 which led to He was the first democratically
communist ideas and also make economic depression in the 1930s. elected president.
sure communist states followed Credit Borrowing money, usually from Economic depression Period of
ideas of communism practised in a bank. economic downturn where trade
USSR. Dawes Plan Financial aid package between countries and inside
Commissions Organisations set provided by the USA to Germany in countries declines, often leading
up by the League of Nations to 1924. to unemployment.
tackle economic, social and health De-Stalinisation Policy of Soviet Edelweiss Pirates Youth groups in
problems. leader Khrushchev in the 1950s Germany who opposed the Nazis,
Communism/Communist Political, to move away from the policies of especially in the war years.
economic and social system Stalin. Enabling Act Law passed in 1933
involving state control of economy Demilitarised zone Area of land which gave the government powers
and less emphasis on individual where troops cannot be stationed, to arrest opponents.
rights than capitalism. e.g. Rhineland area of Germany Federal A system where power is
Communist bloc Eastern after the First World War. shared between central and state
European states controlled by Democracy Political system in governments.
communist governments from the which the population votes for its Final Solution Nazi plan to
end of the Second World War to government in elections held on a exterminate Jewish people and
1989. regular basis. other races in Europe. Generally
Competition Pressure from rivals, Democrat Member of one of the main thought to have begun in 1942.
usually in business and often rivals US political parties. Five-Year Plan Programme of
in other countries. Depression Period of economic economic development in the
Concentration camps Camps used by hardship in which trade is poor and USSR from 1928 onwards. Achieved
Nazis to hold political opponents usually leading to problems such considerable progress in industry
in Germany. as unemployment and possibly but with heavy human cost.
Concordat A deal between the state political unrest. Flappers Young women in the 1920s,
and the Catholic Church. Dictator Leader of a state who has especially in the USA, who had
Conference of Ambassadors total control and does not have greater freedom than previously
Organisation involving Britain, to listen to opponents or face because of job opportunities and
France, Italy and Japan which met elections. changing attitudes.
to sort out international disputes. Dictatorship System in which one Freedom of speech Ability to publish
Worked alongside League of person runs a country. or speak any religious or political
Nations. Diktat Term used in Germany to view without being arrested.
Conscription Compulsory service in describe the Treaty of Versailles Freikorps Ex-soldiers in Germany
the armed forces. because Germany had no say in the after the First World War.
Consolidation Making a position terms of the Treaty. Führer Leader (German).
more secure, usually when a Diplomatic relations How countries Gangster A criminal.
political party has just taken discuss issues with each other. General strike Large-scale co-
power. Breaking off diplomatic relations ordinated strike by workers
Constitution A system of can sometimes be a first step designed to stop essential services
government. towards war. like power, transport etc.

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Gestapo Secret police in Nazi Immigration Entry into a country League of Nations Organisation
Germany. with the purpose of settling. set up to manage international
Glasnost Openness and transparency Indochina Former name for disputes and prevent wars after
– policy of Soviet leader Mikhail Vietnam. the First World War. Brainchild of
Gorbachev in the 1980s designed Industrialisation Building up US President Woodrow Wilson.
to allow people to have their factories, coal, electricity etc. Lebensraum Living Space – became
views heard and criticise the Inflation Rising prices. part of Hitler’s plans to conquer
government. Intelligence (as in CIA) Secret an empire for Germany in the
Gleichschaltung Process of making services of states, e.g. CIA in USA 1930s.
sure that all organisations were or KGB in USSR. Left-wing Groups or individuals
controlled by Nazis. Iron curtain Term used by Churchill whose political beliefs are rooted
Guerrilla warfare Type of warfare in 1946 to describe separation of in socialism or communism.
which avoids large-scale battles eastern and western Europe into Lenin Leader of the Bolshevik/
and relies on hit-and-run raids. communist and non-communist Communist Party in Russia and
Gulag Prison camp in remote area blocs. a key figure in bringing them to
where prisoners were put to work. Isolationism Policy in the USA in power in 1917 and keeping power
Hindsight Looking back on historical the 1920s which argued that the until his death in 1924.
events with the ability to see what USA should not get involved in Lynch Murder, usually by a mob and
happened since. international disputes. carried out on African Americans.
Hire purchase System of paying for Jazz Type of music which became MAD Mutually Assured Destruction –
goods in instalments so they could extremely popular from the 1920s, the idea that no state would ever
be enjoyed straight away. generally associated with African use nuclear weapons because they
Hitler Youth Youth organisation in American musicians. would themselves be destroyed by
Nazi Germany designed to prepare Kaiser Ruler of Germany. retaliation.
young people for war and make Kapp Putsch Attempt to overthrow Mail order Popular type of shopping
them loyal Nazis. democratically elected government in the USA in the 1920s in
Ho Chi Minh Trail Route in Cambodia in Germany in 1920. which customers ordered from
used by North Vietnamese and Viet Kerensky Leader of the Provisional catalogues.
Cong forces to supply forces fighting Government which governed Manchurian crisis International
South Vietnamese and US forces. Russia after first revolution in crisis sparked off when Japan
Hollywood Suburb of Los Angeles, 1917. invaded the Chinese province
home of the US film industry. Kolkhoz Large farms created by of Manchuria in 1931. Despite
Holocaust The mass murder of Jewish merging smaller farms under policy investigating, the League of
people and other racial groups by of collectivisation. Nations failed to stop Japanese
the Nazis in the Second World War. Kristallnacht Night of Broken Glass – aggression.
Hooverville Shanty town made up attack on Jewish properties across Mandates System by which Britain
of temporary shacks, common in Germany in November 1938. and France took control of
the economic depression of the Ku Klux Klan Secret Society in territories ruled by Germany and
1930s in the USA and named after USA which aimed to keep white Turkey which had been on the
President Hoover. supremacy in USA and terrorised losing side in the First World War.
Hundred Days The initial period of African Americans and other Marshall Aid Programme of US
President F.D. Roosevelt in 1933 in groups. economic aid to western Europe
which he passed a huge range of Kulak Prosperous peasant farmer. 1947–51. Aim was to aid economic
measures to help bring economic Laissez-faire Philosophy based on recovery but also to prevent more
recovery. the idea that governments should states becoming communist.
Hyperinflation Process of money not get involved in economy, Marshall Plan The plan behind
becoming worthless, most notable business or people’s lives. Marshall Aid. Although it was an
instance was in Germany in 1923. Landlord/peasant Key figures in economic programme it was also
ICBM Inter Continental Ballistic farming, particularly in Russia political. Some commentators
Missile – nuclear missiles capable c.1900. Landlords owned land but argued it was an economic form of
of travelling through space and also maintained Tsar’s authority. imperialism designed to allow the
almost impossible to stop. Peasants worked for the landlords. USA to dominate western Europe.
idealist Person motivated by League of German Maidens Martial law Rule by the military
particular beliefs, e.g. commitment Organisation in Nazi Germany rather than a civil police force.
to right of peoples to rule for girls designed to get girls to Martyr Person who dies for a cause
themselves. embrace Nazi beliefs and values. they believe in.

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Marxist Person who follows the NAACP National Association for New Economic Policy Policy
ideas of Karl Marx, a political the Advancement of Colored introduced by Lenin in the USSR
commentator who believed that People – organisation whose after the Russian Civil War.
societies would eventually become aim was to promote and support Basically allowed limited amounts
communist as workers overthrew the cause of African Americans of private enterprise, which went
bosses and took control of wealth in the USA in the 1920s and against communist theory but was
and power. 1930s. an emergency measure to help the
Mass consumption Buying of Napalm Highly explosive chemical economy recover from war.
goods by large proportion of the weapon which spread a fireball Night of the Long Knives Attack
population. over a large area. Used extensively on Ernst Rohm and other leading
Mass production System of in the Vietnam War. figures in the SA in June 1934.
producing goods in factories using National Community Key idea of NKVD Secret police in USSR, later
production lines in which workers Nazis in Germany in the 1930s – becoming the KGB.
specialised in one task. Made they wanted people to become Nobel Peace Prize Prize awarded to
production quick, efficient and part of and promote a ‘National politicians who have made major
relatively cheap. Community’. contribution to bringing an end
Mein Kampf ‘My Struggle’: the Nationalism Strong sense of pride to a conflict.
autobiography of Adolf Hitler in in your own country, sometimes Normalcy Term used by US President
which he set out his theories about directed aggressively towards Warren Harding in the 1920s to
power and racial superiority. other countries or minority describe the return to normal life
Mensheviks Opposition party in groups. after the First World War.
Russia in early 1900s, part of the Nationalities Racial groups within November Criminals The German
Social Democratic Party before larger states, e.g. Poles in the politicians who signed the Treaty
it split into Bolsheviks and Russian Empire or Hungarians in of Versailles. This was a term
Mensheviks. the Austrian Empire. of abuse exploited by extreme
Military force Use of armed force NATO North Atlantic Treaty parties in Germany, especially
(e.g. troops, bombing by aircraft) Organisation: Alliance formed by the Nazis, to undermine
as opposed to political or USA and other Western states democracy.
economic methods. which promised to defend members Nuclear deterrent Term which
Missile gap Term to describe the against any attack, particularly referred to the nuclear weapons
alleged advantage of the USSR from the USSR. owned by each side in the Cold
over the USA in nuclear missiles. Nazism National Socialism, the War. The fact that each side had
Historians doubt whether the political belief of Adolf Hitler these weapons stopped the other
missile gap was as real as was and the Nazi Party based on side from using theirs.
claimed. aggressive expansion of German Nuremberg Laws Series of laws
Mobilised Armed forces told to lands and the superiority of the passed in Germany in 1935
prepare for war. Aryan race. discriminating against Jewish
Monkey Trial Trial of teacher Nazi–Soviet Pact Agreement in 1939 people and other racial groups
John Scopes for teaching about between Hitler and Stalin to not in Germany.
evolution in Tennessee in 1925. attack each other and to divide Nuremberg rally Huge political
Moral condemnation Criticism of a Poland between them. meeting held every June from
state for actions against another Negative cohesion Term coined 1923 to 1938.
state – prelude to stronger action by historian Gordon Craig to Okhrana Secret police force of the
such as economic sanctions or describe the way different groups Russian Tsars.
military force. in Germany supported the Nazis One-party state State where only
Munich Agreement Agreement because they feared the opponents one political party is permitted by
in October 1938 in which of the Nazis (particularly the law such as Nazi Germany or the
Britain and France agreed to Communists). USSR under communism.
Hitler’s demands to control NEPmen Traders and small Operation Rolling Thunder Huge-
the Sudetenland area of businessmen who took advantage scale bombing campaign by USA
Czechoslovakia. This is generally of the private trade established by against North Vietnam during the
seen as the final stage of the the NEP. Vietnam War.
policy of Appeasement. New Deal Policies introduced by Over-production Usually in
Munich Putsch Attempted revolt by US President Roosevelt from agriculture – growing too much
Hitler and Nazis in 1923, aiming to 1933 onwards to try to tackle US food so that demand is filled and
overthrow the government. economic problems. prices fall.

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Paris Peace Conference Conference Purges Policy pursued by Stalin in Right-wing Political groups or
which ran 1919–23 to decide how the USSR in the 1930s to remove individuals with beliefs usually
to officially end the First World War. potential opponents. Involved in national pride, authoritarian
Resulted in Treaty of Versailles with arrests, torture, show trials, government and opposed to
Germany and three other treaties. deportations to labour camps and communism.
Peasants Poor farmers who worked executions. Roaring Twenties Refers to the 1920s
their own small plots of land and Putsch Revolt designed to overthrow in the USA, a period of major
usually had to work the lands of the existing government, most social and economic change for
landlords as well. commonly associated with the many Americans.
People power Term to describe the Kapp Putsch in 1920 and the Nazis’ Ruhr Main industrial area of
rise of popular action against attempted Munich Putsch in 1923. Germany.
communist regimes in 1989 Radical Term used to describe SA The Brownshirts – Stormtroopers
which contributed to the fall of extreme political views. of the Nazi Party.
communism. Realist Politician who accepts a Saar Region on the border between
Perestroika Restructuring – the idea particular course of action even France and Germany. Run by
of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev though it is not what they would League of Nations from 1920 to
in the later 1980s that the USSR prefer to do. 1935 when its people voted to
needed to reform. Rearmament Building up arms and become part of Germany.
Polish Corridor Strip of land which armed forces, used as a means Sanctions Actions taken against
under the Treaty of Versailles 1919 to fight unemployment by many states which break international
gave Poland access to the sea but states in the 1930s, including Nazi law, most commonly economic
separated East Prussia from the Germany and Britain. sanctions, e.g. refusing to
rest of Germany. Red Army Armed forces of the supply oil.
Politburo Main decision-making Communists in the Russian Civil Satellite state State that is
group of the Communist Party War 1918–21 and then the official controlled by a larger state, e.g.
in the USSR, similar to British forces of the Soviet Union. eastern European states controlled
Cabinet. Red Scare Wave of fear about by USSR after the Second World
Potsdam Conference Conference held communist infiltration of American War.
in August 1945 between President political and social life to Search and destroy Type of tactic
Truman (USA), Stalin (USSR) and undermine it. Seen in the 1920s used by US military in Vietnam
Churchill, then Atlee (Britain). and also the 1940s and 1950s. to locate Viet Cong fighters and
Discussed major issues including Reichstag German parliament. kill them.
the atomic bomb and Soviet take- Remilitarisation Reintroduction of SEATO South East Asia Treaty
over of eastern Europe. armed forces into the Rhineland Organisation – alliance formed in
Prague Spring Reform movement area of Germany in 1936 even 1954 designed mainly to block the
in Czechoslovakia to change though this was banned by the spread of communism.
communist rule in Czechoslovakia, Treaty of Versailles. Second New Deal Set of policies
eventually crushed by Soviet forces. Reparations Compensation to be paid introduced by US President
Prohibition Amendment to US by Germany to France, Belgium, Roosevelt in 1935–36.
Constitution passed in 1919 to ban Britain and other states as a result Secret police Police force specialising
production of alcohol. of the First World War. in dealing with threats to the
Propaganda Method of winning over Repeal The overturning of a law. state, e.g. political opponents
a population to a particular idea or Republic System of government rather than normal crimes.
set of beliefs. Also used in wartime which does not have a monarch. Secretariat The section of the League
to raise morale. Republican One of the two main of Nations which carried out
Provisional Government Government political parties in the USA. administrative tasks and also the
headed by Alexander Kerensky Reservation Area of land set aside agencies of the League.
which took control of Russia after for Native Americans. Shares System which allows large
the March 1917 revolution which Reunification The bringing back or small investors to own part of
overthrew the Tsar. together of Germany in 1990 after a company and get a share of its
Public opinion View of majority the division of 1945. profits.
or large section of population Rhineland Area of Germany that Show trials Trials of political
on an issue, most important in bordered France. Under Treaty of opponents which were given
democracies where politicians Versailles it was demilitarised – great publicity – most prominent
often have to win over public no German forces were allowed in the USSR under Stalin in the
opinion. there. 1930s.

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Social Democratic Party Main left- Strength Through Joy Leisure Treaty of Versailles Treaty that
wing (and generally most popular) programme run by the Nazis in officially ended war between Allies
political party in Germany in Germany to improve the lives of and Germany in 1919. Controversial
the 1920s and 1930s. Eventually ordinary people. because of the terms, which
banned by the Nazis when they Sudetenland Area of Czechoslovakia Germany claimed to be excessively
came to power in 1933. which bordered Germany and harsh.
Socialism Political system in which contained many German speakers. Trotsky Leading figure in the
government takes strong control of Taken over by Hitler in 1938 as Bolshevik Party, especially in the
economic and social life. In theory part of the Munich Agreement. Russian Civil War 1918–21.
socialist societies would eventually Summit meeting Meeting of leaders Truman Doctrine Policy of US
become communist societies. to discuss key issues, e.g. US President Truman from 1947
Socialist Revolutionaries Opposition President Reagan and Soviet leader to promise help to any state
group in tsarist Russia, the most Gorbachev’s meetings in the 1980s. threatened by communism.
well-supported as they had the Sunni One of the main branches of Trusts Groups of businesses working
support of the peasants. the Muslim faith. together illegally to reduce
Solidarity Polish trade union which Superpower A country in a dominant competition.
emerged in the 1980s and opposed international position that is able Tsar Ruler of Russia up until
the communist government there. to influence events. revolution in 1917.
Soviet republics The various smaller Supreme Court Highest court in Tsarina Wife of tsar.
states which made up the USSR. the USA, whose job was to rule if Unanimous Agreed by all.
Soviet sphere of influence Terms laws passed by the government United Nations Organisation that
agreed at Yalta Conference in were challenged as being succeeded the League of Nations
1945 – Western powers agreed that unconstitutional. in 1945 and whose aim was
Poland and other parts of eastern Surveillance Watching, usually by to solve international disputes
Europe would be under Soviet intelligence agencies or secret police. and promote humanitarian
influence. Tariffs Taxes on imported goods causes.
Soviet Union The former Russian which made them more expensive Universal suffrage Equal voting
empire after it became a – often designed to protect makers rights for all adults.
communist state in the 1920s. of home-produced goods. US sphere of influence Areas
Soviets Councils of workers. Temperance Movement that opposed seen as under the control or
Spanish Civil War Conflict in Spain alcohol. political or economic influence
which was seen as a rehearsal Tennessee Valley Authority of the USA.
for the Second World War when Organisation set up by President USSR The former Russian empire after
German and Italian forces Roosevelt to help provide economic it became a communist state in the
intervened to support General development in the Tennessee 1920s.
Franco. Valley. Most famous projects were Viet Cong/Viet Minh Underground
Spartacists Communists in Germany giant hydroelectric dams. army fighting against French rule
in 1919 who wanted a revolution Tet Offensive Attack launched by in the 1950s and then government
in Germany similar to the 1917 Viet Cong and North Vietnamese of South Vietnam and its US allies
revolution in Russia. forces in 1968. Seen by many as the in Vietnam War.
Speculation Buying shares in the turning point in the Vietnam War as Vietnamisation Policy of handing
hope that their price will rise when US public turned against the war. over Vietnam War to South Vietnam
they can be sold at a profit. Totalitarian Complete control. forces.
SS Organisation within the Nazi Party Trade sanctions Restricting sale of Volk People (German).
which began as Hitler’s bodyguard goods to a nation or sales from a Wall Street Crash Collapse in value
but expanded to become a state nation. of US companies in October 1929
within a state. Trade union Organisation that which led to widespread economic
Stakhanovite A very hard and represents workers. collapse.
committed Soviet worker. Traditional industries Well- War Communism Policy pursued by
Stalin Leader of the USSR from 1929 established industries such as communist leader Lenin 1918–21
to his death in 1953. textiles, coal, agriculture. to try to build communist
Stock market Trading arena where Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Treaty society in Russia and also fight
investors can buy and sell shares in between Germany and Russia in against his opponents. Caused
companies. 1918 which ended war between major hardships and had to be
Stolypin Minister of the Tsar in the two. Germany took massive temporarily replaced with New
imperial Russia. amounts of land and reparations. Economic Policy.

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War guilt Clause in Treaty of West/Western Powers Term generally Young Plan American economic plan
Versailles which forced Germany to used to refer to USA and its allies in 1929 to reorganise reparations
accept blame for the First World in the Cold War. payments to make it easier for
War. WMD (Weapons of Mass Destruction) Germany to pay.
Warsaw Pact Alliance of USSR and Missiles, bombs or shells which Zemstva Local councils in tsarist
eastern European states to defend were armed with chemical, Russia.
against attack and preserve biological or nuclear weapons.
communist control in eastern Yalta Conference Conference between
Europe. USA, USSR and Britain in 1945 to
Weimar Small town in Germany, home decide the shape of the world after
of the German government in the the Second World War ended.
1920s.

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