RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

MODULE-1

(INTRODUCTION, SOLAR RADIATION & ITS MEASURENT, SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY COLLECTOR &
SOLAR PHOTO-VOLTAIC SYSTEM)

INTRODUCTION

Why Fossil Fuel Base?

 Applications need concentrated energy i.e. high energy densities.

 Extraction, storage, distribution and service infrastructure is well established and stable.
 Large scale production results in affordable running cost.
 Petrol/diesel fuel stations infrastructure is available
 LPG gas is distributed at your doorstep.
 LPG and CNG service infrastructure is also well established.
 Customer need not bother about storage and service infrastructure costs. Payment is only
for running cost of fuel.

Then why move away from fossil fuel base?

 Depletion of fossil fuels

 Environmental hazards
 Health hazards
 Life Cycle costs versus running costs

A case for environment…

 Green house effects

 Climate change
 Depletion of stratospheric ozone layer

Greenhouse effect

 Greenhouse gases – carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, chloro fluorocarbons.

 Greenhouse gases are the temperature stabilizers of the earth’s atmosphere.
 Temperature stabilization is by trapping radiated heat from the earth’s surface by these
greenhouse gases.

Global warming

 Due to emissions from the fossil fuel based systems, the green house gases in the
atmosphere increases.
 As a result, the average temperature of the earth is becoming higher.

Effects of Global warming

 changes in rainfall patterns

 rise in sea level
 impacts on flora and fauna
 impacts on human health
Health is an issue!

 CO poisoning
 Asthma
 Skin diseases and cancer due to
 depletion of stratospheric ozone

ENERGY SCENARIO

Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of the
developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever-increasing
energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them.

Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:

 Primary and Secondary energy

 Commercial and Noncommercial energy
 Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
 Conventional and Non-conventional energy

Primary and Secondary Energy:-

 Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. Common
primary energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood).
 Other primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive substances,
thermal energy stored in earth's interior, and potential energy due to earth's gravity.
 Primary energy sources are converted in industrial utilities into secondary energy sources
 For example coal, oil or gas converted into steam and electricity.

Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy:-

Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as
commercial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity,
coal and refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial,
agricultural, transport and commercial development in the modern world. In the
industrialized countries, commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for economic
production, but also for many household tasks of general population.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified
as non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood,
cattle dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a
price used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-
commercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.

Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting
water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity
generation.
Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy:-

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples of
renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and
hydroelectric power (See Figure 1.2). The most important feature of renewable energy is that it can
be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants.

Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are likely to
deplete with time.

Conventional and Non-conventional energy resources:-

Conventional Energy

Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and were in
common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy resources, e.g., fossil fuel,
nuclear and hydro resources.

Non-conventional energy

Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large – scale use after oil crisis of 1973,
are called non-conventional energy sources, e.g., solar, wind, biomass, etc.

Q: What is fossil fuel based system and what are its environmental effects.
 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

MODULE-1

Lecture No-2

Hybrid energy systems:-

 Hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES) are becoming popular as stand-alone power
systems for providing electricity in remote areas due to advances in renewable energy
technologies and subsequent rise in prices of petroleum products.
 A hybrid energy system, or hybrid power, usually consists of two or more renewable energy
sources used together to provide increased system efficiency as well as greater balance in
energy supply.
 Examples:
Hybrid energy system is a photovoltaic array coupled with a wind turbine. This would create
more output from the wind turbine during the winter, whereas during the summer, the solar
panels would produce their peak output. Hybrid energy systems often yield greater
economic and environmental returns than wind, solar, geothermal or trigeneration stand-
alone systems by themselves.
DISTRIBUTED GENERATION:-
What is Distributed Generation?
Distributed generation (or DG) generally refers to small-scale (typically 1 kW – 50 MW)
electric power generators that produce electricity at a site close to customers or that are
tied to an electric distribution system. Distributed generators include, but are not limited to
synchronous generators, induction generators, reciprocating engines, micro-turbines
(combustion turbines that run on high-energy fossil fuels such as oil, propane, natural gas,
gasoline or diesel), combustion gas turbines, fuel cells, solar photo-voltaic, and wind
turbines.

Applications of Distributed Generating Systems

There are many reasons a customer may choose to install a distributed generator. DG can be
used to generate a customer’s entire electricity supply; for peak shaving (generating a
portion of a customer’s electricity onsite to reduce the amount of electricity purchased
during peak price periods); for standby or emergency generation (as a backup to Wires
Owner's power supply); as a green power source (using renewable technology); or for
increased reliability. In some remote locations, DG can be less costly as it eliminates the
need for expensive construction of distribution and/or transmission lines.

Dispersed generation:-
Dispersed generation is a decentralized power plant, feeding into the distribution level
power-grid and typically sized between 10 and 150 MW.

Features of Dispersed Generation

Dispersed generation reduces both power transfers between regions of the power system
and power imbalance in each region. Dispersed generation also allows for a uniform
distribution of the overall system by responding fast to demand variation. Dispersed
generation offers more flexibility and can be dispatched in incremental blocks of power as
needed. It provides reliability and stability to the system. Total failure can be avoided when
the load centers are supported by dispersed generation. A major outage such as the one
experienced in August 2003 could have been avoided with the help of dispersed generation
powered by reciprocating engines, by bringing power back online within 10 minutes.
 SOLAR RADIATION & ITS MEASURENT
Available Solar Radiation:-
Beam radiation:
The radiation that comes directly from the solar disk is defined as beam radiation.

TILT FACTOR (rb): The ratio of beam radiation flux falling on the tilted surface to that of
horizontal surface is called the TILT FACTOR for beam radiation.
Diffuse radiation
The scattered and reflected radiation that is sent to the earth surface from all directions
(reflected from other bodies, molecules, particles, droplets, etc.) is defined as diffuse
radiation.

TILT FACTOR (rd): The ratio of diffuse radiation flux falling on the tilted surface to that of
horizontal surface is called the TILT FACTOR for diffuse radiation.
Total (or global) radiation
The sum of the beam and diffuse components is defined as total (or global) radiation.
SOLAR RADIATION
Sun as Source of Energy

EARTH
SCATTERING
SOLAR TIME
SOLAR RADIATION GEOMETRY
MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR
RADIATION
M-1
 MEASUREMENT OF SOLAR RADIATION

• Solar radiation data are measured mainly by

following instruments:

-Pyranometer:

-Pyrheliometer:

-sunshine recorder
PYRANOMETER
 CONTINUE…

• A pyranometer is designed to measure global

radiation, usually on a horizontal surface but can also
be used on an inclined surface.

• When shaded from beam radiation by using a

shading ring, it measures diffuse radiation only.
CONTINUE…
 MAJOR COMPONENTS

• Black surface : This receives the beam as well as

diffuse radiation and on receipt of the radiation , its
temperature rises.

• Glass dome : It prevent the loss of radiation received

by the black surface by providing cover.

• Supporting stand : It is meant for keeping the black

surface in a leveled position.
 WORKING
• The pyranometer designed by the Eppley Lab USA.
• It operates on the principle of thermopile(a set of thermocouples
arranged for measuring small quantities of radiant heat).
• It consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar
radiation.
• Its temperature rises until the rate of heat gain from solar radiation equals
the heat loss by conduction, convection and radiation.
• On the black surface the hot junctions of a thermopile are attached, while
the cold junctions are placed in a position such that they do not receive
the radiation.
• An electrical output voltage (0 to 10mV range) generated by the
temperature difference between the black and the white surfaces
indicates the intensity of solar radiation.
• The output can be obtained on a strip chart or on a digital printout over a
period of time.
• This is a measure of global radiation.
 PYRHELIOMETER
• An instrument that measures beam radiation by using a long and narrow
tube to collect only beam radiation from the sun at normal incidence.
CONTINUE…
 SUNSHINE RECORDER

• A sunshine recorder measures the sunshine hours in

a day.
CONTINUE…
Thank You
Solar Collector

M-1
 Contents

• Defination
• Types
• Difference
• Performance Indices
• Advantages & Disadvantages
 Defination
• Solar collectors are used to collect the solar
energy and convert the incident radiations into
thermal energy by absorbing them.
• This heat is extracted by flowing fluid (air or
water or mixture with antifreeze) in the tube of
the collector for further utilization in different
applications.
Types
 Non Concentrating Collectors
• In these collectors the area of collector to
intercept the solar radiation is equal to the
absorber plate and has concentration ratio of 1.
• Flat Plate Collectors (Glaze Type) Flat plate
collector is most important part of any solar
thermal energy system.
• It is simplest in design and both direct and diffuse
radiations are absorbed by collector and
converted into useful heat.
• These collectors are suitable for heating to
temperature below 100 degree C.
Schematic of a flat plate solar
collector with liquid transport
medium
 Main advantages of flat plate
collectors
• It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse
radiation for heating.

• Requires less maintenance.

 Disadvantages
• Large heat losses by conduction and radiation
because of large area.
• No tracking of sun.
• Low water temperature is achieved.
 Concentrating Collectors
• Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with
high intensity of solar radiation on the energy absorbing
surface.
• Such collectors use optical system in the form of reflectors or
refractors.
• These collectors are used for medium (100-300 degree C) and
high-temperature (above 300 degree C) applications such as
steam production for the generation of electricity.
• The high temperature is achieved at absorber because of
reflecting arrangement provided for concentrating the
radiation at required location using mirrors and lenses.
Advantages of concentrating collector
over flat collector
• The size of the absorber can be reduced that gives high
concentration ratio.
• Thermal losses are less than FPC. However small losses
occur in the concentrating collector because of its optical
system as well as by reflection, absorption by mirrors and
lenses.
• The efficiency increases at high temperatures.
• In these collectors the area intercepting the solar radiation
is greater than the absorber area.
• These collectors are used for high-temperature
applications.
• Reflectors can cost less per unit area than flat plate
collectors.
 Difference between flat plate
collectors (non- concentrating type)
and concentrating type collectors
 Performance Indices
The important performance indices of a solar
collector are:
❖collector efficiency
❖concentration ratio
❖temperature range
Continue…
Continue..
 Liquid Flat Plate Collector
A flat plate collector is placed at a location in a position such that its length
aligns with line of longitude and suitably tilted towards south to have
maximum collection.
 Constructional details
• The basic elements in a majority of these collectors are:
(i) transparent cover (one or two sheets) of glass or plastic

(ii) blackened absorber plate usually of copper, aluminum or steel

(iii) tubes, channels or passages, in thermal contact with the absorber plate.
In some designs, the tubes form integral part of absorber plate.

(iv) weather tight, insulated container to enclose the above components

Continue…
 Working
• A liquid, most commonly, water is used as heat transport medium from
collector to next stage of the system.
• As solar radiation strikes on specially treated metallic absorber plate, it is
absorbed and raises its temperature.
• The absorber plate is usually made from a metal sheet ranging in thickness
from 0.2 to 1 mm.
• The heat is transferred to heat transfer liquid circulating in the tube (or
channels), beneath the absorber plate and in intimate contact with it.
• The metallic tubes range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm.
• In some designs, the tubes are bonded to the top of absorber plate or in line
with and integral to absorber plate.
• The metal most commonly used, both for absorber plate, tubes and the
header pipes is copper.
• The glass-cover permits the entry of solar radiation as it is transparent for
incoming short wavelengths
 Continue…
• As a result, heat remains trapped in the airspace between the absorber
plate and glass cover in a manner similar to green house.
• The glass cover may reflect some 15 per cent of incoming solar radiation,
which can be reduced by applying anti reflective coating on the outer
surface of the glass.
 Effect of Various Parameters on
Performance
• Selective Surface

• Number of Covers

• Spacing

• Collector Tilt

• Dust on the Top of the Cover

Material Selection for Various Parts of
Flat Plate Collector
• Absorber plate material should have high thermal conductivity, adequate
tensile and compressive strength and good corrosion resistance.
• Copper is generally the material of choice due to high conductivity and
resistance to corrosion.
• Other possible materials for absorber plate may be aluminum, steel, brass
and zinc,etc.
Properties of some of the materials
for absorber plate
 Solar water heater
• A tilted flat plate solar collector with water as heat transfer fluid is used.
• A thermally insulated hot water storage tank is mounted above the collector.
• The heated water of the collector rises up to the hot water tank and replaces an equal quantity of cold
water, which enters the collector.
• The cycle repeats, resulting in all the water of the hot water tank getting heated up.
• When hot water is taken out from hot water outlet, the same is replaced by cold water from cold-water
make up tank fixed above the hot water tank.
Continue…
 Solar cookers
• Solar energy for cooking purpose is an attractive and relevant
option.
• A variety of solar cookers have been developed, which can be
clubbed in four types of basic designs:
(a) box type solar cooker
(b) dish type solar cooker
(c) community solar cooker
(d) advance solar cooker
Box Type Solar Cooker
Paraboloidal Dish Type (Direct Type)
Solar Cooker
Thank You
 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Solar Photovoltaic systems:

• Solar Cell converts light energy into the electrical energy.
• A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode.
• It utilizes photovoltaic effect to convert light energy into electrical energy.
Construction of Solar Cell

Although this is basically a junction diode, but constructionally it is little bit different
form conventional p-n junction diode. A very thin layer of p-type semiconductor is
grown on a relatively thicker n-type semiconductor. We provide few finer electrodes
on the top of the p-type semiconductor layer. These electrodes do not obstruct light
to reach the thin p-type layer. Just below the p-type layer there is a p-n junction. We
also provide a current collecting electrode at the bottom of the n-type layer. We
encapsulate the entire assembly by thin glass to protect the solar cell from any
mechanical shock.
Working Principle of Solar Cell:
When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the
junction, through very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons,
supplies sufficient energy to the junction to create a number of electron-hole pairs.
The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the junction. The free
electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the
junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot
further cross the junction because of barrier potential of the junction.
Solar Cells, Modules, and Arrays:-
Photovoltaic cell:-
A photovoltaic cell is the most basic unit of a solar PV system - solar cells can be
either monocrystalline or polycrystalline, and their key characteristic is that they
produce a voltage output when exposed to light. It is important to note that
although they are normally called "solar cells", they can respond to any type of light.
Photovoltaic module:-
A photovoltaic module consists of multiple PV cells connected in series to provide a
higher voltage output. PV modules are manufactured in standard sizes such as 36-
cell, 60-cell and 72-cell modules. The term solar panel is sometimes used
interchangeably with solar module. The main difference is that some solar panels
models are composed of multiple modules mounted together.
Photovoltaic array:-
A photovoltaic array is a system composed of multiple PV modules. They can be
connected in one or more series circuits, which are connected to a combiner box to
provide a single direct-current output. This output can be used to charge batteries,
power DC loads, or fed to an inverter to provide an AC voltage for home appliances
or exporting to the electric grid.
Note:
A solar cell is the basic building block of a solar module. Each cell produces
approximately 1/2 a volt and a solar module can have any number of solar cells. A
solar module designed for charging a 12 volt battery will typically have 36 solar cells
while the typical residential grid connected system uses solar modules with 60 solar
cells. For large commercial and utility scale solar systems, solar modules will have
typically 72 solar cells. By increasing the number of solar cells the module voltage
and wattage increases.
Cells in Series:
When two identical cells are connected in series, the short circuit current of the
system would remain same but the open circuit voltage would be twice as much as
shown in the following figure:
We can see from the above figures that if the cells are identical, we can write the
following relationships:
I1 = I2 = I
VOC1 + VOC2 = 2VOC

Unfortunately, it is very difficult to get two identical cells in reality. Hence, we need
to analyse the situation little more closely. Let ISC1 be the short circuit current and
VOC1 be the open circuit voltage of first cell and ISC2 and VOC2 be the short circuit
current and open circuit voltage of the second cell. When we connect these in series,
we get the following V-I characteristics:

We can see from the V-I characteristics that when we connect two dissimilar cells in
series, their open circuit voltages add up but the net short circuit current takes a
value in between ISC1 and ISC2 shown by red color curve. To the left of the
operating point, the weaker cell will behave like a sink. Hence, if a diode is
connected in parallel, the weaker cell is bypassed, once the current exceeds the
short circuit current of the weaker cell. The whole system would look as if a single
cell is connected across the load. The diode is called a series protection diode.
Cells in parallel:
When two cells are connected in parallel as shown in the following figure, the open
circuit voltage of the system would remain same as a open circuit voltage of a single
cell, but the short circuit current of the system would be twice as much as of a single
cell.

We can see from the above figures that if the cells are identical, we can write the
following relationships:
ISC1 + ISC2 = 2ISC
VOC1 = VOC2 = VOC
However, we rarely find two identical cells. Hence, let us see what happens if two
dissimilar cells are connected in parallel. The V-I characteristics would look as shown
in the following figure:
From the above figure we can infer that, when two dissimilar cells are connected in
parallel, the short circuit currents add up but the open circuit voltage lies between
VOC1 and VOC2, represented by VOC. This voltage actually refers to a negative
current of the weaker cell. This results in the reduction of net current out of the
system. This situation can be avoided by adding a diode in series of each cell as
shown earlier. Once the cell is operating to the right of the operating point, the
weaker cell’s diode gets reverse biased, cutting it off from the system and hence
follows the characteristic curve of the stronger cell. Here also the characteristics of
the PV cell along with the protection diode should also be shown.

PV Cell Symbol

Model of a PV Cell
V-I Characteristics

Short circuit current

Open circuit voltage

Open circuit voltage

 Quality of cell
• As time progresses, the quality of cell deteriorates.
• quality of the cell is in terms of Fill Factor (FF)
Fill Factor

• Ideally, the fill factor should be 1 or 100%

• The actual value of FF is about 0.8 or 80%
Efficiency of the cell:-

Where A is the area of the cell and I is the Insolation

Applications of pv system:

a. Battery charging
b. Solar water Pumping(irrigation)
c. Solar Lighting
d. Solar cooling system
Wind e n e r g y
system
Contents
• What is wind

• Wind Turbine

• Construction

• working

• Types of Wind Turbine

• Advantages & Disadvantages

What is wind

 Wind is caused by the uneven heating of the earth’s

surface and rotation of the Earth.

 Wind Turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind to

mechanical power.

 A generator can convert the mechanical power into

electricity.
Wind Turbines
• A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy in wind into
mechanical energy.

 If the mechanical energy is used directly by machinery, such as a pump or grinding

stones, the machine is usually called a windmill.

If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity, the machine is called a wind
generator.
CONSTRUCTION

Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.

Typical WECS components
 Different parts
•Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.

•Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to
"lift" and rotate.

•Brake: A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in
emergencies.

•Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and
shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph
because they might be damaged by the high winds.

•Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational speeds
from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational speed required by
most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and
engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear
boxes.

•Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity. High-speed
shaft: Drives the generator. Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations
per minute.

•Nacelle: The nacelle sits top the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator,
controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on.

•Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the rotor from
turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
 Continue…

 Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.

 Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice.
Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture
more energy and generate more electricity.

 Wind direction: This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates facing

into the wind. Other turbines are designed to run "downwind," facing away from
the wind.

 Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to
orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind.

 Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the
rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't
require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind.

 Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.

 Working Principle
Wind turbines operate on a simple principle:
• The energy in the wind turns the propeller-like blades around a
rotor. The pitch of the blades makes optimum use of the wind
direction.
• The rotor is connected to the main drive shaft, which spins a
generator to create electricity.
• Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy.
At 30 metres or more above ground, they can take advantage of
faster and less turbulent wind.
• Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity for a single home
or building, or they can be connected to an electricity grid for more
widespread electricity distribution.
 Types of Wind Turbine
 Turbines can be categorized into two classes based on the
orientation of the rotor.
[Link] Axis [Link] Axis
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

 In this type of wind turbine the axis of rotation is

perpendicular the ground.
Types:
Savonious type
Darrieus type
Cup type
Musgrove type
Evan’s type
Savonious type wind turbine

 The Savonius turbine is S-shaped if viewed from above.

 High starting torque.
 Low speed & less efficiency.
 Power output is less.
 Not used large scale power application.
 No need of pitch & yaw control.
 It is useful for grinding grain, pumping water, and many other tasks.
 Self starting type VAWT.
Darrieus type

 Both ends of the blades are connected to the vertical shaft.

 Low starting torque.
 Output power more.
 Used for large scale power application.
 It is not self starting, so the initial movement of turbine blades can be
initiated by using an electrical generator as a motor.
 High speed & high efficiency.
Cup type

 Measure the wind speed as well as by connecting a

generator to the vertical rotor power can be produced.
Musgrove type(H-rotor type)
 It is having H shaped rotor where the turbine blades with
a fixed pitch are attached vertically to a horizontal axis.
 It is self starting.
 Because of the blade construction. Turbine blades rotate
slowly, so the power output is very less.
Evan’s rotor type
 Same construction as that of Musgrove type.
 More power output as compare to Musgrove type.
 Self starting.
 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

A horizontal Axis Wind Turbine is the most common wind turbine design. In
addition to being parallel to the ground, the axis of blade rotation is parallel to
the wind flow.
Types of HAWT

 Propeller type

 Multi blade type

 Dutch type

 Sail type
Propeller type

 Single blade

 Two blade

 Three blade
Dutch type
 Blades are made from wooden slabs
 Oldest type wind turbine
 Used for water pumping & grinding
Sail type
• Blades are made up of nylon & plastic
• Power output is very less
• Not used
 Advantages Of Wind Turbine

Environmental friendly
No air pollution
Wind energy is renewable
No greenhouse gasses
Expanding Wind Power development brings jobs
to rural communities
 Disadvantages

May create a lot of noise.

Wind can never be predicted.

Wind energy depends upon the wind in an area

and therefore is a variable source of energy.

It covers a large area.

Thank you
Aerodynamics of wind turbine
characteristics of a wind turbine

Dept. of Electrical Engg.

 Power versus Wind Speed
Characteristics
• The power-speed characteristics of a wind turbine have four
separate regions as shown in Fig. below.
 (a) Low Speed Region (Zero to Cut-in
Speed)
• In this region, the turbine is kept in braked position
till minimum wind speed (about 5 m/s), known as
cut-in speed becomes available.
• Below this speed the operation of the turbine is not
efficient.
 (b) Maximum Power Coefficient
Region
• In this region, rotor speed is varied with wind speed
so as to operate it at constant tip-speed ratio,
corresponding to maximum power coefficient.
• In this range the nature of characteristics is close to
that of maximum power available in the wind.
• The turbine is operated at maximum power output
point using pitch control.
 (c) Constant Power Region (Constant
Turbine Speed Region)
• During high speed winds (above 12 m/s), the rotor speed is
limited to upper permissible value based on the design limits
of system components.
• In this region the power coefficient is lower than Cpmax.
• Large machines use pitch control to maintain turbine speed as
constant.
• Such a machine is known as pitch regulated.
 (d) Furling Speed Region (Cut-out
Speed and Above)
• Beyond certain maximum value of wind speed
(around 25 m/s) rotor is shut down and power
generation is stopped to protect the blades,
generator and other components of the
system.
Thank You
Torque developed by wind turbine
WIND ENERGY CONVERSION
SYSTEMS (WECS)
DEPT:Electrical Engg.
General block diagram of a WECS
 Explanation
• A wind energy conversion system converts wind energy into some form of
electrical energy.
• In particular, medium and large scale WECS are designed to operate in
parallel with a public or local ac grid. This is known as grid-connected
system.
• A small system, isolated from grid, feeding only to local load is known as
autonomous, remote, decentralized, stand alone or isolated power
system.
• The turbine shaft speed is stepped up with the help of gears, with fixed
gear ratio, to suit the electrical generator and fine-tuning of speed is
incorporated by pitch control. This block acts as drive for the generator.
• synchronous or induction generators are
• used for mechanical to electrical power conversion depending on the
design of the system.
 Continue…
• The interface conditions the generated power to grid quality power. It may
consist of power electronic converter, transformer and filter, etc.
• The control unit monitors and controls the interaction among various
blocks.
• It derives the reference voltage and frequency signals from the grid and
receives wind speed, wind direction, wind turbine speed, etc., processes
them and accordingly controls various blocks for optimal energy balance.
 Types of Generator used in WECS
[Link] Generator:
 Conventional dc generators are no more favored due to their high cost,
weight and maintenance problems due to commutator.
 However, permanent magnet (brush less and commutator less) dc
machines are considered in small rating (below hundred kW) isolated
systems.
2. Synchronous Generator:
 Synchronous generators produce high quality output and are universally
used for power generation in conventional plants.
 However, they have very rigid requirement of maintaining constant shaft
speed and any deviation from synchronous value immediately reflects in
the generated frequency.
 Continue…
 Due to this reason a synchronous machine is not well suited to wind
power generation.
 Requirement of dc current to excite rotor field, which needs sliding carbon
brushes on the slip rings also poses limitations on its use.
 The need of dc field current and brushes can be eliminated by using
reluctance rotor.
 The reliability is greatly improved while reducing the cost.
 The machine rating, however, is limited to tens of kW.
 Synchronization of a wind driven generator with the power grid also poses
problems especially during gusty winds.
 Main advantage is that it generates both active as well as reactive powers.
 Continue..
[Link] Generator:-
 Primary advantages of induction machine are the rugged, brush less
construction, no need of separate dc field power and tolerance of slight
variation of shaft speed (±10 per cent) as these variations are absorbed in
the slip.
 Compared to dc and synchronous machines they have low capital cost, low
maintenance and better transient performance.
 For these reasons induction generators are extensively used in wind and
micro-hydroelectric plants.
 The machine is available from very low to several megawatt ratings.
 The induction machine requires ac excitation current, which is mainly
reactive.
 Continue…
 In case of grid-connected system, the excitation current is drawn from the
grid and therefore, the network must be capable of supplying this reactive
power.
 The voltage and frequency are determined by the grid.
 In a stand-alone system the induction generator is self-excited by shunt
capacitors.
Thank You
Wind Turbine Generators
 Wind Turbine Generators

Outline
⚫ Wind Turbine Characteristics

⚫ Types of Wind Turbine Generator Technologies

⚫ Reactive Power Compensation and Voltage Control Requirements

⚫ Applications of wind energy

 Typical WTG “Power Curve”
⚫ Fig below shows typical output versus wind speed characteristics of wind turbines:

⚫ The cut-in, rated and cut-out speeds shown are typical for utility-scale WTGs.
⚫ Generally, WTGs are designed to work at maximum aerodynamic efficiency
between cut-in and rated wind speed.
⚫ For wind speeds higher than rated and lower than cut-out:
-blade pitching or blade stalling is used to maintain loading within the
equipment’s rating.
-WTGs shut down for wind speeds higher than cut-out speed to avoid excessive
mechanical stress.
 Types of Wind Turbine Generator
Technologies
⚫ Presently four major types of WTG Technologies used:
1. Squirrel Cage Induction Generators driven by fixed-speed,
stall-regulated wind turbines.
2. Induction Generators with variable external rotor resistance driven by a
variable-speed, pitch regulated wind turbines.
3. Doubly-Fed Induction Generators driven by variable-speed, pitch
regulated wind turbines.
4. Synchronous or Induction Generators with full converter interface
(back-to-back frequency converter), driven by variable-speed, pitch
regulated wind turbines.
 Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG)

⚫ Wound rotor induction generator with slip rings.

⚫ Rotor is fed from a three-phase variable frequency source, thus allowing

variable speed operation reduction of mechanical stress; higher overall
efficiency, reduced acoustical noise.
⚫ The variable frequency supply to rotor is attained through the use of two
voltage-source converters linked via a capacitor.
Doubly Fed Induction Generator Used in
Large Wind Farms
 Control of Rotor-Side Converter

⚫ The converters handle ac quantities:

rotor-side converter carries slip frequency current.

stator-side converter carries grid frequency current.

⚫ Hence, they are controlled using vector-control techniques.
 Protection System
⚫ Rotor current protection:
-Limits current in the rotor side converter:-
❖ If current rises above set value, a crowbar is activated,
short-circuits the rotor winding at the slip rings with a
static switch & the generator operates as a squirrel cage
induction motor.
❖ Typically, the case when the voltage at the terminals of the
generator decreases rapidly, for example during a fault in
the grid.
❖ In order to avoid over speeding of turbine, the speed
reference for the pitch control is reduced simultaneously
increases pitch angle and reduces mechanical power.
 Protection System cont'd

⚫ Rotor speed protection:

❖ disconnects WTG from the grid if speed of rotor is higher or lower than
set levels for a predefined time.

⚫ Over/under voltage protection:

❖ disconnects WTG from the grid if voltage is above or below set values
for a predefined time.
 Performance of DFIG

⚫ DFIGs have the ability to hold electrical torque constant.

⚫ Rapid fluctuations in mechanical power can be temporarily stored as

kinetic energy.
⚫ Improves power quality.

⚫ Performance for large disturbances requires thorough analysis.

Synchronous generator
 Wound rotor generator

⚫ The stator windings of WRSGs are connected directly to the grid and hence the
rotational speed is strictly fixed by the frequency of the supply grid.
⚫ The rotor winding is excited with direct current using slip rings and brushes or
with a brushless exciter with a rotating rectifier.
⚫ does not need any further reactive power compensation system.
⚫ The rotor winding, through which direct current flows, generates the exciter
field, which rotates with synchronous speed.
⚫ The speed of the synchronous generator is determined by the frequency of the
rotating field and by the number of pole pairs of the rotor.
⚫ It has the advantage that it does not need a gearbox.
⚫ But the price that has to be paid for such gearless design is a large and heavy
generator and a full-scale power converter that has to handle the full power of
the system.
 Permanent magnet generator

⚫ In the permanent magnet machine, the efficiency is higher than in the

induction machine, as the excitation is provided without any energy supply.
⚫ However, the materials used for producing permanent magnets are expensive,
and they are difficult to work during manufacturing.
⚫ Additionally, the use of PM excitation requires the use of a full scale power
converter in order to adjust the voltage and frequency of generation to the
voltage and the frequency of transmission.

⚫ disadvantage of PMSGs is that the magnetic materials are sensitive to

temperature. Therefore, the rotor temperature of a PMSG must be supervised
and a cooling system is required.
Asynchronous (induction) generator
 Squirrel cage induction generator
cont..
⚫ The SCIG speed changes by only a few percent because of the generator slip
caused by changes in wind speed.
⚫ The generator and the wind turbine rotor are coupled through a gearbox.

⚫ Wind turbines based on a SCIG are typically equipped with a soft-starter

mechanism and an installation for reactive power compensation, as SCIGs
consume reactive power.
⚫ SCIGs have a steep torque speed characteristic and therefore
fluctuations in wind power are transmitted directly to the grid.
 Grid connected self-excited generator
schemes
⚫ Constant speed constant frequency (cscf)scheme

⚫ Variable speed constant frequency(vscf) scheme

⚫ Variable speed variable frequency(vsvf) scheme

Constant speed constant frequency (cscf)scheme
(a)using synchronous generator
Constant speed constant frequency (cscf)scheme
(a)using synchronous generator
⚫ It has been used for large generators connected directly to the grid
where constant frequency operation is essential.
⚫ For such machines the requirement of constant speed is very rigid and
only minor fluctuations about 1% for short durations could be allowed.
 (b)Induction Generator

⚫ If the stator of an induction machine is connected to the power grid

and if the rotor is driven above synchronous speed Ns the machine
becomes a generator and delivers constant line frequency power to the
grid. (f=line frequency & p=No of poles for which the stator winding is
made).
 [Link] SPEED CONSTANT FREQUENCY SCHEME

⚫ It is typical for most small wind generators used in autonomous

applications, generally producing variable frequency and variable
voltage output.
⚫ The variable speed operation of wind electric system yield higher
outputs for both low and high wind speeds. This results in higher
annual energy yields per rated installed KW capacity.
 2.a. AC-DC-AC Link

⚫ With the advent of high powered thyristors and high voltage d.c transmission
systems, a.c output of the 3 phases alternator is rectified using a bridge rectifier
and then converted back to a.c using line commutated inverters.
⚫ They utilize an a.c source which periodically reverses polarity and causes the
commutation to occur naturally.
2.b. Double Output induction generator

⚫ In this system a slip ring induction motor is used. Rotor power at slip frequency
is
converted to line frequency power by rectification and inversion output power
is obtained both from stator and rotor and hence this device is called double
output induction generator.
[Link] Speed variable frequency (VSVF)

Since resistive heating loads are essentially frequency insensitive, the a.c
generator can be effected at a variable frequency corresponding to the
changing derive speed. For this purpose capacitor excited squirrel case
induction machines can be conveniently used.
[Link] speed variable frequency cont…
⚫ These systems are gaining importance for stand alone wind
power applications. The magnitude and frequency of the EMF
depends on the value of the load impedance, prime mover
speed and excitation capacitance.
⚫ The varying output voltage can be converted to constant d.c
using choppers or controlled rectifiers on constant a.c using
force commutated inverters.
 Reactive Power Compensation

CONTENTS
⚫ Introduction

⚫ Real, reactive and apparent power

⚫ FACTS device.

⚫ Need for compensation

⚫ Static VAR Compensation (SVC)

⚫ STATCOM

⚫ Synchronous Condenser
 Introduction
Reactive power is an essential tool to transmit the active power through the AC Network. It required
to maintain voltage of transmission network for the smooth transmission of Active power.
⚫ In an ac transmission, when the voltage and current go up and down at the same time, only real
power is transmitted.
⚫ When there is a time shift between voltage and current both active and reactive power are
transmitted.
⚫ The portion of power averaged over a complete AC waveform, is the real power.
⚫ The portion of power flow that is temporarily stored in the form of magnetic or electric fields, due
to inductive and capacitive network elements, and then returned to source is known as Reactive
Power.
It can also be defined as the agent of energy required for establishment of the magnetic field inside
the system. It is very essential in electromechanical energy conversion process.
Q = V * I sin Ø
-If Q > Qmax: The excess reactive power will set up flux to be more with core thereby eddy current
increases which causes excessive heating of core by which thermal breakdown of insulation is
possible.
-If Q < Qmax: The insufficient magnetic path is created inside the machine which may cause
improper work done thereby output is not proportional to the input which leads to problem of
instability.
 Reactive Power Compensation

Reactive power generated by the ac power source is stored in a capacitor

or a reactor during a quarter of a cycle and in the next quarter of the cycle
it is sent back to the power source. So to avoid the circulation between the
load and source it needs to be compensated.
⚫ To regulate the power factor of the system and to maintain the voltage stability
we need to compensate reactive power.
⚫ Voltage regulation
⚫ Stability
⚫ Proper Utilization of machines connected to the system.
⚫ Overcome the losses associated with the system.
⚫ Preventing the system from the voltage sag and voltage collapse.
NEW VAR COMPENSATOR’S TECHNOLOGY

⚫ Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM),

⚫ Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC),

⚫ Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR),

⚫ Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC),

⚫ Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC) and

⚫ Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES)

SINGLE LINE DIAGRAM OF REACTIVE POWER COMP.
USING STATCOM

Components mainly
used are :
-Coupling Transformer
-Voltage source converter
-Capacitor bank
-STATCOM controller
 Applications of wind energy
⚫ Wind Electric Water Pumping
⚫ Stand-Alone Systems for Home and Business
⚫ Hybrid System
⚫ Industrial Applications
The number of dedicated industrial applications for wind power continues to
grow. Small wind power systems are ideal for applications where storing and
shipping fuel is uneconomical or impossible.
Wind power is currently being used for the following applications:
• telecommunications
• radar
• pipeline control
• navigational aids
• weather stations
• air-traffic control
Thank you
 Anaerobic digestion
• Anaerobic digestions is
❖ Digestion of Organic Material in absence of Oxygen.
❖ Forming end products of Methane and Carbon dioxide.
Stages in Anaerobic Digestion
Advantages of Anaerobic Digesters
• It produces methane and carbon dioxide which can be
collected and used as fuel.
• Reduces the volatile content of sludge
• Liquid is more easily dewatered as liquid and solids form
separate layers.
 Disadvantages
• Needs constant supervision
• Formation of explosive gases
• Not easily controllable
• Maintenance and cleaning is difficult
• It is a slow process
 PYROLYSIS

Prepared by :
Afizah Abd Aziz
Izza Nadhira Zaidin
Ahmad Asyraf Abd Majid
Mohd Khairul Firdaus
Mohd Naqiuddin Aziz Affendi

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

 DEFINITION
thermal decomposition
of organic material at Involves chemical
elevated temperatures change of chemical
in the absence of composition and
oxygen physical phase

Endothermic Irreversible

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WHAT IS PYROLYSIS?
 Pyrolysis does not involve reactions with
oxygen, water, or any other reagents.

 In practice, it is not possible to achieve a

completely oxygen-free atmosphere.

 Because some oxygen is present in any

pyrolysis system, a small amount of
oxidation occurs.
AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology
 WHAT IS PYROLYSIS?
Pyrolysis is :

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

WHATWHAT
IS PYROLYSIS?
IS PYROLYSIS?
Pyrolysis is :

How?

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

 WHAT
WHATIS PYROLYSIS?
IS PYROLYSIS?
Pyrolysis is :

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

 WHAT
WHATIS PYROLYSIS?
IS PYROLYSIS?
Pyrolysis is :

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

 WHAT
WHATIS PYROLYSIS?
IS PYROLYSIS?
Pyrolysis is :

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

 WHAT
WHATIS PYROLYSIS?
IS PYROLYSIS?
Pyrolysis is :

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

 WHAT IS PYROLYSIS?
PRODUCT of PYROLYSIS

Char

Bio Oil
SynGas

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PROCESS
 operating temperatures above 430 °C
(806 °F).
 For agricultural waste, for example, typical
temperatures are 450 to 550 °C (840 to
1,000 °F).

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PRO’S N CON’S
 Cheap and  Requires drying of soil
economical system  Ineffective in
 Environment- destroying or
friendly, physically separating
 Energy-efficient inorganics from the
contaminated
medium.
 Requiring proper
treatment, storage,
and disposal for
hazardous wastes.

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

TYPES OF PYROLYSIS

• Dry pyrolysis
 Low Temperature Analysis
 Medium Temperature Analysis
 High Temperature Analysis

• Oxidizing pyrolysis

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Dry Pyrolysis
 Process of thermal decomposition without
access of oxygen (O₂)
 Product of dry pyrolysis are gas with high heat
of combustion, liquid and solid carbon residue.
 Type of dry pyrolysis depend on the
temperature of the process.

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology
Oxidizing Pyrolysis
 It’s impossible to achieve a completely
oxygen-free atmosphere.

 Thus, a small amount of oxidation occurs.

If volatile or semi-volatile materials are
present in the waste, thermal
desorption will also occur.

AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology

 Oxidizing Pyrolysis

 Thermal decomposition of industrial waste by

its partial burning or direct contact with end
product of fuel combustion

 This method is used for neutralization of most

wastes including “inconvenient” ones for
burning

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AS223 - [Link] (Hons) Polymer Technology
 BIOGAS PLANT
✓Biogas plant is an airtight container that facilitates fermentation of
material under anaerobic condition.
✓Other names given to this device are ‘Biogas Digester’, ‘Biogas
Reactor’, ‘Methane Generator’ and ‘Methane Reactor.
✓Recycling and treatment of organic wastes (biodegradable material)
through anaerobic digestion (fermentation) technology not only
provides biogas as a clean and convenient fuel but also an excellent and
enriched bio-manure.
✓The BGP also acts as mini bio-fertilizer factory; hence some people
refer it as ‘Biogas fertilizer plant’ or ‘Bio-manure plant’
✓Anaerobic digestion of organic matter produces a mixture of methane
(CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) gas that can be used as a fuel for
cooking, lighting, mechanical power and the generation of electricity, or
a replacement for other fuels.
 CLASSIFICATION

Classification of biogas plants depends upon the plants design and mode of
working. One common way to classify them is
BIOGAS PLANT

Batch type plant Continuous type plant

Floating Drum type Fixed Dome Biogas

Biogas Plant: Plant
 BATCH TYPE BIOGAS PLANT

a) Batch type biogas plants are appropriate where daily supplies of raw
waste materials are difficult to be obtained.
b) Batch type plant is charged at 50-60 day intervals
c) Once charged, it starts supplying the gas after 8-10 days and
continuous to do so for about 40-50 days till the process of digestion
is completed. Afterwards it is emptied and recharged.
d) Gas production in batch type is uneven.
e) Several digesters occupy more space.
f) This type of plants require large volume of digester, therefore, initial
cost becomes high.
g) Such plants are installed in european countries.
h) Donot suit the conditions in indian rural areas
 CONTINOUS TYPE BIOGASS PLANT
➢ In continuous type biogas plant, the supply of the gas is continuous
and the digester is fed with biomass regularly.
➢Plant operates continuously and is stopped only for maintenance or
for sludge removal.
➢The gas produced is stored in the plant or in a separate gas holder.
➢The period during which the biomass remains in the digester is known
as The retention period
➢The thin dry layer often formed at the top of the slurry is known as
scum.
➢This type of plant are very popular in India and China.

➢Other features:
I. Retention period is less
II. Less problems as compared to batch type.
III. Small digestion chambers are required
 OPERATIONAL PARAMETERS OF A
BIOGAS PLANT
Operation of a bio gas plant is affected by a no. of factors::-
[Link]
▪ Methane- forming bacteria works best in temp. ranges 20-55 C
▪ Digestion at higher temp. proceeds more rapidly than at lower temp.
▪ The gas production decreases sharply below 20 C and almost stops
at 10 C
B. Pressure
▪ A minimum pressure of 6-10cm of water column i.e, 1.2 bar is ideal
for proper functioning.
▪ It should never be alllowed to exceed 40-50 cm of water column.
▪ Excess pressure inhibits release of gas from slurry and leakage in
masonry.
[Link] to moisture ratio in the biomass
▪ If water content is too high, the mean slurry temp. and gas
production drops.
▪ If water content is too low, acids accumulate and hinder fermentation
process.

[Link] value
▪ In initial acid forming stage, pH value may be around 6 or less.
▪ During methane forming stage, pH value 6.5 to 7.5 is maintained.

E. Feeding rate
▪ Faster feeding rate will not help in increase gas production.
▪ At higher feeding rate the retention period will be less and
undigested Slurry may come out.
▪ So optimum feed rate should be maintained.
F. Carbon to nitrogen ratio
The optimum C/N ratio is 30:1 for maximum microbiological activity.

G. Seeding of biomass with bacteria

▪ To start and accelerate the fermentation process, a small amount of
digested slurry containing a methane forming bacteria is added to the
freshly charged plant. This process is known as seeding.
▪ Seeding helps to accelerate the starting of the digestion process.

H. Mixing or stirring
Mixing
▪ Maintains uniformity in substrate concentration,temp,other
environmentel factors
▪ Minimises formation of scum
▪ Prevents the deposition of solids at the bottom
I. Retention time
▪ Retention time should be optimum to obtain 70-80% complete
Digestion.
Fixed dome type of biogas plant
Fixed dome type of biogas plant
Raw materials required
Forms of biomass listed below may be used along with water.
•Animal dung
•Poultry wastes
•Plant wastes ( Husk, grass, weeds etc.)
•Human excreta
•Industrial wastes(Saw dust, wastes from food processing
industries)
•Domestic wastes (Vegetable peels, waste food materials)

Principle
Biogas is produced as a result of anaerobic decomposition of
biomass in the presence of water.
Construction
The biogas plant is a brick and cement structure having the following
five sections:
 Mixing tank present above the ground level.
 Inlet chamber: The mixing tank opens underground into a sloping
inlet chamber.
 Digester: The inlet chamber opens from below into the digester
which is a huge tank with a dome like ceiling. The ceiling of the
digester has an outlet with a valve for the supply of biogas.
 Outlet chamber: The digester opens from below into an outlet
chamber.
 Overflow tank: The outlet chamber opens from the top into a small
over flow tank
 Working
 The various forms of biomass are mixed with an equal quantity of
water in the mixing tank. This forms the slurry.
 The slurry is fed into the digester through the inlet chamber.
 When the digester is partially filled with the slurry, the introduction
of slurry is stopped and the plant is left un used for about two
months.
 During these two months, anaerobic bacteria present in the slurry
decomposes or ferments the biomass in the presence of water.
 As a result of anaerobic decomposition, biogas is formed, which
starts collecting in the dome of the digester.
 As more and more biogas starts collecting, the pressure exerted by
the biogas forces the spent slurry into the outlet chamber.
 From the outlet chamber, the spent slurry overflows into the
overflow tank.
 The spent slurry is manually removed from the overflow tank and
used as manure for plants.
 The gas valve connected to a system of pipelines is opened when a
supply of biogas is required.
Floating gas holder type of biogas plant
Floating gas holder type of biogas
plant
The raw materials used and the principle involved are common to
both the types of biogas plants.
Construction
 The floating gas holder type of biogas plant has the following
chambers/ sections:
 Mixing Tank - present above the ground level.
 Digester tank - Deep underground well-like structure. It is divided
into two chambers by a partition wall in between.
 It has two long cement pipes:
i) Inlet pipe opening into the inlet chamber for introduction of slurry.
ii) Outlet pipe opening into the overflow tank for removal of spent
slurry.
 Gas holder - an inverted steel drum resting above the digester. The
drum can move up and down i.e., float over the digester. The gas
holder has an outlet at the top which could be connected to gas
stoves.
 Over flow tank - Present above the ground level.
 Working
 Slurry (mixture of equal quantities of biomass and water) is
prepared in the mixing tank.
 The prepared slurry is fed into the inlet chamber of the digester
through the inlet pipe.
 The plant is left unused for about two months and introduction
of more slurry is stopped.
 During this period, anaerobic fermentation of biomass takes
place in the presence of water and produces biogas in the
digester.
 Biogas being lighter rises up and starts collecting in the gas
holder. The gas holder now starts moving up.
 The gas holder cannot rise up beyond a certain level. As more
and more gas starts collecting, more pressure begins to be
exerted on the slurry.
• The spent slurry is now forced into the outlet chamber from the top
of the inlet chamber.
• When the outlet chamber gets filled with the spent slurry, the excess is
forced out through the outlet pipe into the overflow tank. This is later
used as manure for plants.
• The gas valve of the gas outlet is opened to get a supply of biogas.
• Once the production of biogas begins, a continuous supply of gas can
be ensured by regular removal of spent slurry and introduction of fresh
slurry.
 COMPARISON
SN.
FEATURE FLOATING DRUM FIXED DOME
1. COST More(due to steel drum) Less
2. CORROSION Yes (likely in steel drum) No
3. MAINTENANCE More Less
• Drum requires painting • No steel part is used
• Flexible gas pipe • Gas pipe is fixed type
requires replacement
4. THERMAL Bad Good(due to underground
INSULATION construction)
5. SCUM Less likely More likely
TROUBLES
6. GAS High Low
PRODUCTION
PER UNIT
VOLUME OF
DIGESTER
7. SCUM BRAKING By rotation of drum External stirrer is
required

8. LEAKAGE Less likely More likely

9. DANGER OF MIXING No More likely

WITH OXYGEN DUE
TO LEAKAGE,CRACKS

10. GAS PRESSURE constant Variable

11. MASONRY Average skill Specialized, skilled

WORKMANSHIP masonry work
required
Biomass Energy

IIIT-BH
 Learning Objectives
In this chapter you will be able to:
 Know about the origin of biomass energy.
 Recognize the importance of biomass as a useful source
of renewable energy.
 Describe technologies for conversion of raw biomass into
useful forms of energy.
 Explore the use of energy farming as sustainable source
of energy.
 INTRODUCTION
 Biomass is a general term for living material – plants, animals, fungi,
bacteria.
 since biomass can be re-grown, it is potentially a renewable resource.
 The energy obtained from biomass is known as biomass energy.
 Animals feed on plants and plants grow through photosynthesis process
using solar energy.
 Thus, photosynthesis process is primarily responsible for generation of
biomass energy.
 A small portion of the solar radiation is captured and stored in the plants
during photosynthesis process.
 Therefore, it is an indirect form of solar energy.
 The average efficiency of photosynthetic conversion of solar energy into
biomass energy is estimated to be 0.5–1.0 percent.
 Main advantages of biomass energy
 It is a renewable source.
 The energy storage is its in-built feature.
 Use of biogas plants apart from supplying clean gas, also leads to
improved sanitation, better hygienic conditions in rural areas as the
harmful decaying biomass gets stabilized.
 the pollutant emissions from combustion of biomass are usually lower
than those from fossil fuels.
 commercial use of biomass may avoid or reduce the problems of waste
disposal in other industries, particularly municipal solid waste in urban
centers.
 no seasonality.
 Main disadvantages
 It is a dispersed and land intensive source.
 It is often of low energy density.
 Capacity is determined by availability of biomass and not suitable for
varying loads.
 Not feasible to set up at all locations.
 USABLE FORMS OF BIOMASS, THEIR COMPOSITION AND FUEL
PROPERTIES

 Biomass is organic material that reacts with oxygen in combustion and

natural metabolic process to release heat.
 Sometimes, it is used as such in its original form but more often it is
transformed into modern energy forms such as liquid and gaseous fuels,
electricity, and process heat to provide energy services needed by rural
and urban populations and also by industry.
 Some of its forms available to users :-
 Fuel Wood (Virgin Wood)
 Charcoal
 Fuel Pellets and Briquettes
 Bio-diesel
 Bio-ethanol
 Biogas
 Producer Gas
 BIOMASS RESOURCES

Forests
Agricultural Residues
Energy Crops
Oil Producing Plants
Urban Waste
 BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

There are many different ways of extracting energy from biomass. These energy
conversion technologies may be grouped into four basic types:

Physical Method
Incineration (direct combustion)
Thermo-chemical method
Biochemical method
 Physical Method
 The simplest form of physical conversion of biomass is through compression of
combustible material.
 Its density is increased by reducing the volume using compression through the
processes called ‘briquetting’ and ‘pelletization’.
(a) Pelletizaton:-
 Pelletization is a process in which waste wood is pulverized, dried and forced
under pressure through an extrusion device.
 The extracted mass is in the form of pellets (rod; 5 to 10-mm dia and 12-mm long),
facilitating its use in steam power plants and gasification system.
 Pelletization reduces the moisture to about 7 to 10 percent and increases the heat
value of the biomass.
 Continue…
(b) Briquetting:-
 It is the process of densification(high compression)of loose biomass into
a high density solid fuel like a small piece of wood.
 Biomass of any form such as cotton sticks, wood chips and waste
products can be converted into briquettes which is further used in
combustion.
 Moisture contents in briquettes is around 3-4%.
 Incineration
 Incineration means direct combustion of biomass for immediate useful heat.
 The heat (usually in the form of steam) produced are either used to generate electricity or
provide the heat for industrial process, space heating, cooking or district heating.
 Furnaces and boilers have been developed for large scale burning of various types of biomass
such as wood, waste wood, black liquid from pulp industry, food industry waste.
 Thermo-Chemical
Pyrolysis
Gasification
liquefaction
 Pyrolysis

 The basic thermo-chemical process to convert biomass into more valuable

and/or convenient product is known as pyrolysis.
 Biomass is heated either in absence of oxygen or by partial combustion of
some of the biomass in restricted air or oxygen supply.
 Pyrolysis can process all forms of organic materials including rubber and
plastics, which cannot be handled by other methods.
 The products are three types of fuels, usually: a gas mixture (H2, CO, CO2,
CH4 and N2), oil like liquid (water soluble phase including acetic acid,
acetone, methanol and non-aqueous phase including oil and tar) and a
nearly pure carbon char.
 Gasification

 High temperature pyrolysis (~1000 °C) maximizes the gaseous [Link]

process is known as gasification.
Module-3
Outlines:
• Introduction to Micro grid

• Smart grid

• Hybrid electric vehicles

Introduction to Micro grid

• Traditional power network consists of large, high-voltage

transmission systems where electricity is carried over long distance
from the generators towards the electrical loads.
• This long-distance inter connected loads form complex networks.
• Maintenance, protection and control are the major difficulties in
conventional power transmission and distribution system .
• This results in failure of wide-systems with the failure of central
controller.
• In this context, distributed energy resources (DER) has emerged as
promising option to meet growing customer needs for electric
power with an emphasis on reliability and power quality.
• In focus to these issues, micro grid concept came up as a best way of
integrating distributed generators with loads, larger electricity grids
encompassing various other options.
Micro grid Today

• Currently a micro grid is defined as a collection of controllable and physically

proximate distributed generator and load resources with multiple sources of
power including at least one power storage system along with the systems
involving non-conventional energy technology such as fuel cells, biomass, small-
hydro, wind or solar energy.

• Now a days micro grid power system is generally equipped with a two-way
power inverter that can both deliver and absorb power.

• The generators or micro sources employed in a Micro grid for power

generation are usually renewable or non-conventional distributed energy
resources .
A Typical Microgrid Power Delivery System
Cont…
• Figure shows a typical microgrid consisting of various renewable distributed
energy resources along with grid connection for supplying power to an office load.

• A provision of exporting power to grid is also available in microgrid power

generating system.

• This is done by using a two-way point of common coupling (PCC), when power
generation is greater than the required load.

• The micro sources in a micro grid system are equipped with power electronic
interfaces (PEIs) to provide a better operational control system.

• This control system offers flexibility in meeting local energy needs to the
consumers for reliability and security.

• This allows microgrid in forming a single controlled unit to maintain the specified
power quality and energy output.
Operation of microgrid

Microgrids generally operate in two

modes :
islanded mode
grid-connected mode

*In both the cases the loads and distributed generators are located
within close geographical proximity of each other.
islanded mode

• When microgrid operates in islanded mode, the isolation from

grid is made at PCC, and then the loads are supplied from the
embedded distributed generation only.
• In these cases, microgrid usually employs a battery storage system.
Grid-connected mode

• In grid-connected mode, the Microgrid remains connected to

the main grid either totally or partially, and receive or deliver
power from or to the main grid.

• The control is done carefully where loads are allowed to draw

power, in order to balance supply with demand.
 Key Features of Microgrid Power Delivery
System
• Micro-energy resources are of much smaller capacity in comparison with the large generators in
conventional power plants.
• Electrical or heat loads can be efficiently supplied with negligible line losses by micro sources
which are normally installed close to the customers’ premises.
• Power generated at distribution voltage can be directly fed to the utility distribution network.
• Power supplied by microgrids has in general satisfactory voltage and frequency profile with
respect to conventional power delivery system.
• Microgrid is operated as a single controlled entity within the power system from grid point of
view.
• The uninterruptible power supply improves local reliability, reduces feeder losses and provides
local voltage support.
• Environmental benefits through utilization of low-carbon technology are achieved
by microgrid systems.
 An Introduction to Smart Grid

• In the “Smart grid” the meters, instruments and equipment connected to the grid
are all automated “computerized”.

• Each unit connected to the grid in the facility such as lighting system, TV, washing
machine or heating and ventilating system has a smart microchip in it.

• The function of that smart microchip is to optimize the electrical consumption of that
unit.

• In the same time the microchip is connected to a central management center.

• The central management center controls all the units connected to it making sure to
operate them at the highest efficiencies.

• The central management center does not only assist in better energy management
inside the facility but also it helps in reducing the electrical consumption during peak
times. This reduction is reflected as huge energy savings.
 Smart grid
• A smart grid is the integration of information and
communications technology into electric transmission and
distribution networks.

• A smart grid can be defined as an upgraded electricity grid

network enabling two-way information and power exchange
between suppliers and consumers .

• The smart grid, which is known as the next-generation power grid,

uses two-way flows of electricity and information to create a widely
distributed automated energy delivery network.
Model for smart grid
Components of smart grid
 Features of smart grid

• Improving power reliability and quality.

• Enhancement of capacity and efficiency of existing electrical power

networks.

• Facilitating extended deployment of renewable energy resources.

• Automating maintenance and operation.

• Reducing oil consumption by reducing the need for inefficient

generation during peak usage periods.

• Presenting opportunities to make better grid security.

• Increasing consumer options.

Introduction to Hybrid Electric
Vehicles
• A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has two types of energy storage units,
electricity and fuel.

• A hybrid-electric vehicle indicates that one source of power is

provided by an electric motor.

• The other source of motive power can come from a number of

different technologies, but is typically provided by an internal
combustion engine designed to run on either gasoline or diesel fuel.
Types of hybrid vehicle
• Gasoline ICE and battery
• Diesel ICE and battery
• Battery and capacitor
• Battery and flywheel

Most commonly, the propulsion force in HEV is provided by

a combination of electric motor and an ICE.
The electric motor is used to improve the energy efficiency
(improves fuel consumption) and vehicular emissions while
the ICE provides extended range capability.
Advantages of a hybrid over a conventional
vehicle

• Regenerative braking

• Smaller ICE

• Potential for higher weight

• Electrical losses
Different configurations of hybrid
drivetrain
• Series configuration
• Parallel configuration
• Series-parallel configuration
• Complex configuration
Block diagrams of the series HEV
configurations
Series hybrid is to couple the ICE with the generator to produce electricity for
pure electric propulsion.
Working of series HEV

• In case of series hybrid system the mechanical output is

first converted into electricity using a generator.
• The converted electricity either charges the battery
or can bypass the battery to propel the wheels via the
motor and mechanical transmission.
• Conceptually, it is an ICE assisted Electric Vehicle (EV).
Parallel hybrid
Parallel hybrid is to couple both the ICE and electric motor with the
transmission via the same drive shaft to propel the vehicle.
Series-Parallel hybrid
In the series-parallel hybrid ,the configuration incorporates the features
of both the series and parallel HEVs. However, this configuration needs
an additional electric machine and a planetary gear unit making the
control complex.
 Complex hybrid
• The complex hybrid is similar to the series-parallel hybrid since the
generator and electric motor is both electric machines.
• The key difference is due to the bi-directional power flow of the electric
motor in complex hybrid and the unidirectional power flow of the generator
in the series-parallel hybrid.
Thank you
Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Jayanta Ku Sahu
Overview
 What is an HEV?
 HEV objectives
 HEV advantages over conventional engines
 Motor components
 Vehicle propulsion
 Examples
 HEV Challenges
 Review
What is an HEV?
HEV – Hybrid Electric Vehicle

A vehicle that has two or more energy conversion

technologies combined with one or more energy
storage units
HEV Objectives
Objectives the HEV wants to obtain:
 Maximize fuel economy
 Minimize fuel emissions
 Minimize propulsion system cost to keep affordable
 Maintain acceptable performance with a reasonable
cost
 Reduce the conventional car weight
HEV Advantages Over
Conventional Engines
 Regenerative Braking
 Reduction in engine and vehicle weight
 Fuel efficiency is increased
 Emissions are decreased
 Cut emissions of global warming pollutants by 1/3 or
1/2
 Reduce the dependency on fossil fuels
 Some states offer incentives with owning an HEV
 ~2 times more efficient than conventional engines
Motor Components

Drive train
 Electric Motors/Controllers
 Electric Energy Storage systems
 Hybrid power units
 Transmission
Motor Components
Electric Motors/Controllers
 Basic Components
– An Armature or Rotor
– A Commutator
– Brushes
– An Axle
– Field Magnet
– DC Power Supply
Motor Components
Electric Motor/Controllers
Advanced electronics allows the motor to act as a generator
Draws energy to accelerate and regenerates the battery when
slowing down
Motor uses magnets and magnetism to create motion
Motor Components
Electric Energy Storage Systems
 Batteries: Lithium Ion and Nickel-metal hydride batteries
 Ultracapacitors
 Flywheels
Motor Components
Electric Energy Storage Systems
Desirable attributes:
High-peak and pulse specific power
High specific energy at pulse power
High charge to maximize regenerative braking
Long life
Challenges:
Accurate techniques to determine battery state of
charge
Develop abuse-tolerant batteries
Recycleability
Motor Components
Batteries Nickel-Metal Hydride Lithium Ion
Current Uses Computer and Medical equipment Laptops and Cell phones
Life Cycle Much larger than lead acid batteries Low
Current Used successfully in low production NA
contribution of HEVs
Challenges High Cost Life cycle
High self-discharge Cell and battery safety
Heat generation Abuse tolerant
Control losses of hydrogen Acceptable cost
Low cell efficiency
Miscellaneous Reasonable specific energy and High specific energy and power
power High energy efficiency
Components are recyclable Good high-temperature
Abuse-tolerant performance
Low elf-discharge
Recyclable parts
Motor Components
Energy Storage: Ultracapacitors
Store energy as an electric charge in a polarized liquid layer
between an ionically electrolyte and conducting electrode
Primarily used for acceleration, climbing hills and regenerative
braking
Motor Components
Energy Storage: Flywheel
Store kinetic energy within a rapidly
spinning wheel
Complex, heavy, and large
Contains no acid or hazardous material
Not affected by temperature
Delivers a smooth flow of power

Click for more information on the fly wheel

Motor Components
Charging/Discharging the Battery

The following are some links to visually display the characteristics of

the motor and engine during different scenarios
 Driving at low speeds
 City driving
 Highway driving
 Uphill driving
 Coasting/Slowing/Stopping
Motor Components
Regenerative Braking

When the driver brakes, the motor becomes

a generator and the kinetic energy
generates electricity stored into the battery

The Toyota Prius uses about 30% of the

heat lost kinetic energy from braking
Motor Components
Hybrid Power Units

4 Types:
 Compression Ignition Direct Injection Engines (CIDI)
 Spark Ignition Engines
 Gas Turbines
 Fuel Cells
Motor Components
Hybrid Power Units: CIDI
Most promising power unit
Achieves combustion through
compressions without the use of a
spark plug
High pressure injection of the fuel
into the combustion chamber
Throttle and heat losses travels into
the combustion chamber increasing
thermal efficiency
Motor Components
Hybrid Power Units: Spark Ignition
Runs on an Otto cycle
Uses a homogeneous air-fuel mixture
before entering the combustion
chamber
When the combustion chamber is
compressed, the spark plug is ignited
Controlled by limiting the amount of air
allowed into the engine
Motor Components
Hybrid Power Units: Gas Turbines
Runs on a Brayton cycle
A compressor raises the pressure and temperature of the inlet air
Air is moved to the burner and fuel is injected and combusted to
raise the air temperature
Power is produced when
the heated pressure
mixture is expanded and
cooled through the
turbine
Motor Components
Hybrid Power Units: Fuel Cells
Generate electricity through an
electrochemical reaction
combining hydrogen with ambient
air
Pure hydrogen or any fossil fuel
produced is used as hydrogen-
rich gas
Water vapor is emitted
Click to see an animation of the
steps to make electricity from a
fuel cell.
Motor Components
Transmission

4 Types:
– Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT)
– Automated shifted transmission
– Manual transmission
– Traditional automatic transmission with torque converter
Motor Components
Transmission: CVT

Infinite number of variable transmissions

Currently not able to compete with 4-speed
and 5-speed transmissions in size, cost,
and reliability
Provides seamless, stepless acceleration
and deceleration
The Toyota Prius uses this
Vehicle Propulsion
 Series “Power Assist”
 Parallel “Range Extender”
 Dual-Mode: Combination of a series and parallel
Vehicle Propulsion
Series Configuration
Small fuel-burning engine that directly drives an alternator to
generate electricity
Electricity is stored in the battery or sent the to electric motor
When the batteries are drained to a certain level, the engine turns
on and recharges the battery
Vehicle Propulsion
Parallel Configuration
Two power paths
Hybrid power unit or electric propulsion system or both can power
the wheels
For long trips the engine is used
For hills, acceleration, and high power scenarios the electric motor
is used
Vehicle Propulsion
Propulsion Series Configuration Parallel Configuration
Comparison
Benefits Engine never idles reducing Has more power from
emissions simultaneous power from motor
and engine
Engine drives a generator to run
at optimal performance Don’t need a separate
generator because the motor
Allows a variety of options in generates the battery
mounting the engine
Power is directly coupled to the
Some don’t need a transmission road so can be more efficient
Examples
Toyota Prius

Honda Insight
Examples
Toyota Prius Honda Insight

Electric Output 273.6V (228 cells @ 144V (120 cells @

Motor/Generator 1.2V) 1.2V)
/Power Storage
Battery Type Nickel-Metal Hydride Nickel Metal Hydride

Power Output 33kW @ 5600rpm 10kW @ 3000rpm

Transmission ECVT CVT

Mileage 52/45 61/68

City/Highway
Gasoline Engine Horsepower @ 70hp @ 4500rpm 67h @ 5700rpm
rpm
Emission SULEV ULEV
Rating
HEV Challenges
 Energy storage devices with high power-to-energy
ratios
 Frequent shut down and start up of the HEV
 Reduce the size, weight, and cost
 Higher efficiency in the conversion of fuel to useful
power
 Advanced configurations for the propulsion system
components
Review
 What is an HEV?
 HEV objectives
 HEV advantages over conventional engines
 Motor components
 Vehicle propulsion
 Examples
 HEV Challenges
Sources
[Link]
[Link]
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